The rise of the ancient Egyptian civilization. Stages of the existence of the Egyptian civilization. How did the Egyptian state come about?
The term "Egypt" (Aigyptos) comes from the Phoenician "Hikupta" - a corruption of the Egyptian "Hatkapt" ("Temple of Ptah"), the name of the ancient Egyptian capital of Memphis. The Egyptians themselves called their country “Kemet” (“Black Earth”), after the color of the black earth soil in the Nile Valley, as opposed to “Red Earth” (desert).
Geography and natural conditions.
Egypt is located in the northeast of the African continent and is connected with Western Asia by the Isthmus of Suez. In ancient times, Egypt was understood as a valley formed by the lower reaches of the Nile. From the north, Egypt was limited by the Mediterranean Sea, from the west - by the Libyan plateau, from the east - by the Arabian (Eastern) highlands, from the south - by the 1st Nile rapids. It split into Upper (actually the Nile Valley) and Lower Egypt (the region of the Delta, the wide mouth of the Nile from several branches, resembling a triangle in its shape).
The Nile valley was a long and narrow oasis (from 1 to 20 km wide), locked on both sides by two mountain ranges and inaccessible in the south (at the 1st threshold, the mountain ranges directly approached the river); it was open only in the northeast. This led to the relative isolation and independence of the ancient Egyptian civilization.
Nile ("Big River"), the most long river the world (6671 km), is formed from the confluence of the White Nile, flowing from the lakes of Tropical Africa, and the Blue Nile, originating in Lake Tana in the Ethiopian Highlands; in its course, it passes six rapids and flows into the Mediterranean Sea with a branched mouth. The annual floods, which begin in mid-July and peak in autumn, leave a layer of fertile silt on the banks of the Nile after a spring retreat, which creates extremely favorable conditions for agriculture. The Nile is the main transport artery connecting all parts of the valley with each other and with the Mediterranean Sea. In conditions of almost complete absence of rain (with the exception of the Delta), it is the only source of moisture. No wonder the Egyptians idolized their river and called Egypt "the gift of the Nile".
The effective use of the benefits of the Nile was impossible without the collective and organized work of all those living in its valley. The irregularity of spills (either insufficient rise of water, or flooding, equally threatening the crop) necessitated a unified system for regulating and distributing water (its diversion to remote and elevated places, the construction of dams, the construction of reserve reservoirs, and the drainage of marshes with the help of canals). The "Big River", which required the combined efforts of the entire population of the Nile Valley, turned out to be the main factor in the creation of a common Egyptian statehood.
Another important natural factor in the development of ancient Egyptian civilization was the desert. On the one hand, she contributed to her isolation, preventing contacts with neighboring peoples, and carried her a constant threat, sending hostile tribes and sandstorms; the Egyptians had to fight it all the time, creating barriers to the advancing sands and winning back the territories necessary for agriculture from it. On the other hand, a column of warm air forming over the desert provided for most of the year access to the valley from the north wind from the Mediterranean Sea, which enriched it with salts that nourish plants and maintained a humid and temperate climate; only in April and May did the withering southeast wind khamsin hit Egypt.
The flora and fauna of Egypt was quite diverse. Cultivated barley and emmer (a type of wheat), flax and sesame seeds, vegetables - cucumbers, leeks and garlic. Lotus and papyrus were collected in the backwaters. Date and coconut palms, pomegranates, figs, acacias, sycamore trees grew in the valley, vines and fruit trees grew in the Delta. However, there was practically no building timber; it was delivered from Phoenicia, rich in cedar and oak.
The waters of the Nile abounded with fish, its thickets - with game. Wild fauna was represented by lions, cheetahs, panthers, jackals, gazelles, foxes, giraffes, hippos, crocodiles, rhinos; some species have disappeared as a result of intensive hunting and climate change. Of domestic animals kept bulls, cows, sheep, goats, pigs, donkeys, dogs, later mules and horses; from poultry - ducks and geese, later chickens. Raised bees.
Egypt was not rich in minerals. The main asset of its bowels were various types of stone (granite, basalt, diarite, alabaster, limestone, sandstone). Many metals were absent, which led to the expansion of the Egyptians in the southern and northeastern directions: in the Sinai Peninsula they were attracted by copper mines, in Nubia and the Arabian Highlands - deposits of gold and silver. Egypt and neighboring regions did not have reserves of tin and iron, which delayed the onset of the Bronze and Iron Ages in the Nile Valley.
Ethnic composition.
The Egyptian ethnos arose as a result of a mixture of a number of Semitic and Hamitic tribes. This anthropological type was distinguished by a strong physique, medium height, swarthy skin, high cheekbones with bulging "Negro" lips, an oblong skull and black smooth hair.
HISTORY
The history of Ancient Egypt is divided into the following eras: First (beginning 4 thousand BC) and Second (mid 4 thousand BC) predynastic periods; Early Kingdom (32nd–29th centuries BC); Old Kingdom (28-23 centuries BC); First transitional period (23rd-21st centuries BC); Middle Kingdom (21st-18th centuries BC); Second transitional period (late 18th - mid 16th centuries BC); New Kingdom (16th-11th centuries BC); Third transitional period (11th-10th centuries BC); Late Kingdom (9th-7th centuries BC); the era of Persian domination (the end of the 6th–4th centuries BC).
The Nile Valley was developed by man in the Paleolithic era. Sites of primitive hunters and gatherers have been found in Upper Egypt and in the Fayum oasis. In the era of the Upper Paleolithic (20-10 thousand BC), they settled throughout the valley. At that time the climate was wetter and cooler than it is today; vast areas around the Nile, which had a number of tributaries, were covered with grass and shrubs. They were inhabited by a large number of wild animals, the hunting of which remained the main occupation of the local tribes who led a nomadic lifestyle. However, the cessation of the ice age and significant warming led to the desertification of this area, which ended by the beginning of the Neolithic (New Stone Age). The surrounding tribes, predominantly of Hamitic origin, were forced to gradually retreat to a narrowing strip of habitable land along the banks of the Nile. Population growth, coupled with declining animal and plant resources, forced hunters and gatherers to look for new ways to get food. The presence of fertile soil, wild crops and tameable animals contributed to the emergence, starting from the end of the 6th millennium BC, of agriculture and animal husbandry.
Neolithic tribes 5 thousand BC (the Merimd and El-Omar cultures in the Delta, the Fayum and Tasian cultures in Upper Egypt) do not yet know copper and continue to use stone tools. They raise small (sometimes even large) cattle and engage in primitive agriculture, making the first attempts to irrigate the soil; nevertheless, hunting and fishing continue to be their main source of livelihood.
At the end of the 5th - beginning of the 4th millennium BC. The Nile Valley enters the Eneolithic (Bronze Age). Objects made of copper (beads, piercers) are already found among the Badarians, who lived in Upper Egypt at the end of the 5th millennium BC. The Badarians achieve great success in cattle breeding, having switched to cattle breeding. The role of agriculture is growing, small irrigation canals appear. However, hunting and fishing remain important.
First predynastic period
The first pre-dynastic period (the first half of 4 thousand BC). At the beginning of 4 thousand BC. a settled agricultural way of life becomes dominant among the tribes of the Nile valley (Amrat and Negad cultures). There is a significant population growth - the number and size of settlements increase, they are surrounded by walls. The sphere of using copper is expanding (not only for jewelry, but also for tools); items made of gold appear. Social differentiation is still just beginning.
Second predynastic period
Second pre-dynastic (Gerzean) period (35th–33rd centuries BC). In the middle of 4 thousand BC. Egypt enters the advanced Copper Age. This era is also called Gerze (from the village of Gerze, near which an Eneolithic settlement was excavated). The Gerzeans are finally moving to a settled way of life; the leading role in their lives is played by cattle breeding and agriculture, the progress of which leads to the emergence of property inequality; Livestock is considered the main wealth. The agricultural community is transformed from a tribal community into a neighboring one; there is social differentiation. A layer of "nobles" is distinguished, which is formed from the military elite (the defenders of the tribe - the leader, the strongest warriors), the property elite (the most wealthy and enterprising community members), and clergymen. This stratum dominates the bulk of farmers and pastoralists. Captured as a result of constant military clashes, prisoners form as yet a small category of slaves.
The urgent need to maintain and expand local irrigation systems has contributed to the consolidation of communities into larger entities. Regardless of which way it took place (violent or peaceful), one of the communities inevitably occupied a dominant position in relation to the others; it was her settlement that turned into the administrative, military and religious center of the association, and her elite usurped the leading political, military and priestly functions. Gradually, the process of unification led to the appearance by the end of the 34th century. BC. large territorial formations - nomes, which turned out to be the first proto-states of Ancient Egypt. In the 33rd century BC. the increased need to create a common Egyptian irrigation system led to a trend towards political unification of the entire Nile valley. The result of the struggle of the nomes for political predominance was the emergence of two states - the Lower Egyptian with its capital in Buto and the Upper Egyptian with its capital in Nekhen (Hierakonpol). The leading cult in Lower Egypt was the cult of Set, and in Upper Egypt the cult of Horus.
Early kingdom
Early Kingdom (32-29 centuries BC): "Zero", I and II dynasties. The Lower Egyptian and Upper Egyptian kingdoms fought constant wars for control of the frontier territories. The military confrontation ended with the defeat of Lower Egypt by the Upper Egyptian king Narmer c. 3200 BC and the creation of a unified Egyptian state. Narmer united the red crown of Lower Egypt and the white crown of Upper Egypt. The Narmer ("Zero") dynasty became the first ruling Egyptian dynasty. It was replaced by the I dynasty, which originated from the Upper Egyptian city of Tin (near Abydos). Its ancestor Mina (Gor-Fighter), in order to unite the state, founded a new capital, Memphis, on the border of Lower and Upper Egypt. The reign of the 1st dynasty became a period of relative internal stability, which allowed one of its representatives, Dzher, to carry out a number of successful campaigns outside of Egypt. Gradually, control was established over the Sinai Peninsula. However, during the reign of the II dynasty, the separatist movement in Lower Egypt intensified. In an effort to suppress it, the kings resorted to both repression (the bloody suppression of the uprising in the Delta by King Khasekhemui) and the policy of reconciliation (some kings defiantly take the name of Set or both Set and Horus). Apparently, by the end of the reign of the II dynasty, Lower Egypt was finally conquered.
ancient kingdom
Old Kingdom (28-13 centuries BC): III-VI dynasties. Formed by the 28th century. BC. the social system was a clear pyramid, at the top of which stood the king, who had absolute power (legislative, executive, judicial) and was considered a god (the incarnation of the god Horus, the son of the god Ra). He was the autocratic ruler of Egypt, the supreme owner of the land and everything that lived and grew on it. The material basis of monarchical power was the vast royal household (“the king’s house”), which consisted of huge estates scattered throughout the Nile Valley. His very name was sacred and forbidden to be spoken; therefore he was called pharaoh - "per-o" ("great house").
Below the pharaoh was the aristocracy, whose duty it was to serve the pharaoh-god (court officials), help him govern Egypt and fulfill his will (officials), honor him and his celestial relatives (priests). As a rule, representatives of the nobility simultaneously performed all three functions. Belonging to the upper stratum was hereditary. The nobility consisted of two main groups - the capital's high-ranking aristocracy and the rulers of the nomes (nomarchs) - between which there was no clear line: often nomarchs held positions in the central apparatus, and senior officials ruled individual regions. The nobles had large land holdings, consisting of a "personal home" (land and property, inherited or acquired), and a conditional holding provided by the pharaoh for the duration of their certain positions. As priests, they gained control over vast temple farms. Estates belonging to nobles and temples were subject to taxes and duties; in rare cases, the pharaoh, for special merits, exempted a dignitary or a temple from them.
The lower layer consisted of communal peasants (nisutiu, hentiush) and estate workers (meret, hemuu). Nisutiu sat on the ground, possessed tools and personal property, paid taxes and carried duties in favor of the state. Hemuu performed various work in royal, temple or private households, using tools and raw materials from the master's court and receiving clothes and food for their work; lived in the "villages" at the estates. The Hemuu were organized into labor units, whose leaders were considered civil servants. Work detachments of temples and private households were also used to perform state duties (construction of pyramids, irrigation facilities, roads, transportation of goods, etc.). The position of the hemuu did not differ much from the position of the lowest social category of Egyptian society - slaves (bak), which consisted mainly of prisoners of war (the state had a negative attitude towards the enslavement of the native Egyptians). During this period, they did not yet form a significant social stratum, and their role in the economy and society was modest.
The main function of the ancient Egyptian state was to mobilize the forces of society to perform important economic, political or religious tasks (maintaining the irrigation system, organizing military campaigns, building places of worship), which led to the emergence of a system of careful accounting and distribution of all labor and material resources. It was under the jurisdiction of a numerous and ramified state apparatus, which carried out its activities at three levels - central, nome and local. The central administration was headed by a supreme dignitary (chati), who directed the activities of the executive and judicial institutions; at the same time, the army was withdrawn from its sphere of jurisdiction. Various departments were subordinate to him: for the supervision of the irrigation system, livestock, artisans, for organizing public works and collecting taxes, "six great courts" (courts). Each of them was divided into two divisions - for Upper and Lower Egypt. A special military department (“house of arms”) was responsible, if necessary, for convening a general Egyptian militia and for a system of fortresses scattered throughout the country; the army consisted of detachments of Egyptian foot soldiers armed with bows and arrows, and auxiliary mercenary detachments ("peaceful Nubians"). The new administration, headed by nomarchs, copied the structure of the central one. The councils (jadjat, kenbet) that ruled the settlements-communities were subordinate to it; they supervised the local irrigation systems and held court.
During the reign of the III dynasty (28th century BC), founded by Pharaoh Djoser, state centralization was strengthened and royal power was strengthened: a unified irrigation system was created, the bureaucracy expanded, an active foreign policy was pursued, a special cult of the pharaoh-god was established (giant tombs - pyramids). Pharaohs seek to rise above the aristocracy and make it completely dependent. First of all, they are trying to establish control over the nome administration by eliminating the hereditary power of the nomarchs. However, only the IV dynasty (28-27 centuries BC) manages to achieve this, in which pharaonic absolutism reaches its peak, especially during the reign of Sneferu, Khufu (Cheops), Djedefre, Khafre (Khaphren) and Menkaure (Mykerin): the practice of appointing nomarchs by the central government and their constant movement from nome to nome is approved, leading positions in the central apparatus are in the hands of representatives of the royal house. The cult of the pharaoh acquires an exceptional character; Huge labor and material resources are mobilized for the construction of giant pyramids. Aggression is growing in foreign policy; its three main directions are finally determined - southern (Nubia), northeastern (Sinai, Palestine) and western (Libya). As a rule, campaigns are predatory in nature (capture of prisoners and minerals); at the same time, Egypt seeks to establish systematic control over a number of territories for their economic development (Sinai, Nubia).
The construction of the pyramids and foreign policy expansion lead to an overstrain of the forces of Egyptian society and to a political crisis, as a result of which the IV dynasty is replaced by the V (26-15 centuries BC); its founder is Pharaoh Userkaf. Its representatives reduce the scale of pyramid construction and make concessions to the nobility of the capital (higher positions cease to be the monopoly of the reigning house). In order to unite society, the cult of the god Ra is given a national character (the concept of the origin of the pharaohs from Ra is approved). The stabilization of the domestic political situation allows the resumption of an active foreign policy: predatory campaigns in Asia and Libya continue, in the south the Egyptians reach the third threshold, expeditions are organized to the south of the Red Sea (Punt) and to Phoenicia.
Foreign policy aggression was also continued by the first pharaohs of the 6th dynasty (25th - mid-23rd century BC) - Teti, Piopi I, Merenra, Piopi II. However, under them the power of the nobility increases, primarily in Upper Egypt; the positions of nomarchs again become hereditary; representatives of a number of noble families occupy high positions in the central administration and enter into family relations from ruling house(nomarchs of Tina). Nomarchs are no longer buried near the royal tombs, but in nomes; their tombs become more and more luxurious. The central government is gradually weakening, its economic opportunities are being reduced: the practice of immunity awards is spreading, nomarchs are gradually establishing control over the royal households. Under the last pharaohs of the 6th dynasty, royal power fell into complete decline. Political crisis middle of the 23rd century BC. leads to its fall and the actual disintegration of the state into independent principalities.
First transitional period
First transitional period (mid-23rd - mid-21st centuries): VII-X dynasties. During the reign of the VII and VIII dynasties, the power of the Memphite pharaohs was only nominal; political anarchy reigned in Egypt. The loss of state unity caused the collapse of the general Egyptian irrigation system, which caused economic crisis and mass famine; the northern provinces were periodically raided by Asiatic nomads and Libyans. The inability of the nomes to cope with economic difficulties on their own strengthened the unifying trend. Herakleopolis, one of the largest cities in the north of Upper Egypt, became the first contender for the role of the "collector" of Egyptian lands. Its rulers succeeded in subjugating the Delta and the Upper Egyptian region of Tina, repulsing nomadic incursions and strengthening the northern borders; starting with Akhtoy (Kheti), they claimed the title of kings of all Egypt (IX-X dynasties). However, in its struggle for the unification of Egypt, the Heracleopolis kingdom met a rival in the person of the Theban kingdom formed in the south, which controlled the Nile valley from Abydos to the 1st threshold. Their confrontation ended at the end of the 21st century. BC. the victory of Thebes under Pharaoh Mentuhotep, who founded the XI dynasty. The integrity of the Egyptian state was restored.
middle kingdom
Middle Kingdom (2005–1715 BC): XI–XIII dynasties. The restoration of a strong centralized state made it possible to restore a unified irrigation system, ensure certain economic progress (a more advanced plow, a new breed of fine-fleeced sheep, the first bronze tools, paste glass), resume interrupted trade contacts and begin the development of wetlands in the Delta and in the Fayum basin, which has become to the Fayum oasis. The period of greatest prosperity of the Middle Kingdom was the reign of the XII dynasty (1963-1789 BC). Its founder Amenemhet I (1963–1943 BC) moved the capital from Thebes to the city of Ittaui (“Connecting the Two Countries”), which he built on the border of Lower and Upper Egypt, finally establishing state unity. However, in their policy of centralization, Amenemhat I and his immediate successors Senusret I, Amenemhat II, Senusret II and Senusret III faced opposition from the hereditary nobility, which increased significantly during the First Intermediate Period; it was closely connected with the provincial priesthood and controlled local military detachments and state property. The pharaohs restored the former administrative apparatus, but the economic base of their power was limited: in terms of size, the royal economy of the Middle Kingdom was significantly inferior to the royal economy of the era of the III-VI dynasties. In its struggle with the nomarchs, the XII dynasty found support in the middle strata (“small”), actively attracting their representatives to the public service (of them, for example, the royal guard was recruited - “accompanying the ruler”) and rewarding them with land, slaves and property. With the support of the “little ones”, Amenemhet III (1843–1798 BC) managed to break the power of the nome aristocracy, eliminating the hereditary power in the nomes; The symbol of the triumph over provincial separatism was the Labyrinth built at the entrance to the Fayum oasis - the royal mortuary temple, in which statues of nome gods were collected.
The pharaohs of the XII dynasty resumed the active foreign policy of the rulers of the Old Kingdom. Amenemhat I and Senusret I invaded Nubia several times; she was finally subjugated by Senusret III, who made the southern border of Egypt the fortresses of Semne and Kumme at the 2nd threshold of the Nile. Periodically, campaigns were made in Libya and Asia. The Sinai Peninsula again became an Egyptian province; southern Palestine and part of Phenicia became dependent on Egypt.
The social system of the Middle Kingdom differed from the previous period in greater mobility and the special role of the middle strata: the state facilitated the transition from one floor of the social ladder to another. The composition of the elite changed significantly: next to the hereditary metropolitan and nome aristocracy, an influential layer of the service nobility was established. The conditional holding of land for service became widespread. The middle estates began to play the leading role in the economy. The number of small landowners also increased. The working population (“royal people”) was the object of the policy of state accounting and regulation of the labor force: upon reaching a certain age, all the “royal people” were registered, distributed according to professions (farmers, artisans, soldiers, etc.) and sent to work as in royal and temple estates, as well as in the estates of large and medium-sized officials. The number of slaves increased, the main source of which remained wars. They were used mainly in medium-sized privately owned farms, whose owners usually benefited little from the centralized distribution of labor resources.
Despite the strengthening of royal power during the XII dynasty, social and political tensions persist in Egyptian society. Acute contradictions exist within the elite, between the center and the provinces, the discontent of the “royal people” is deepening; the aristocracy periodically organizes conspiracies against the pharaohs (Amenemhet I and Amenemhet II died at the hands of the conspirators), nomarchs raise uprisings (under Amenemhet I, Senusret I, Senusret II), political investigation is rampant. The first symptoms of the weakening of the central power are found already under the last rulers of the XII dynasty (Amenemhet IV and Queen Nephrusebek). This process intensifies under the XIII Dynasty, when the throne becomes a toy in the hands of rival factions of the nobility; nevertheless, the collapse of the state does not occur, the administrative apparatus continues to function, Egypt keeps Nubia under its control. Political instability and a sharply deteriorating economic situation, however, lead to approx. 1715 BC to a social explosion - an uprising from the bottom: the rebels captured and destroyed the capital, killed the pharaoh, expropriated state grain reserves, destroyed tax lists and inventories, and persecuted officials and judges. This movement, finally suppressed, dealt a death blow to the Middle Kingdom.
Second transitional period
Second Intermediate Period (1715 - c. 1554 BC): XIV-XVI dynasties. After the fall of the XIII Dynasty, Egypt breaks up into independent nomes. The XIV Dynasty, which claims to be the all-Egyptian dynasty, established itself in Xois, actually controls only part of the Delta. OK. 1675 BC Egypt is invaded by the Hyksos, who created in the middle of the XVIII century. BC. vast tribal union in the territory of Palestine and Northern Arabia, and subject it to a terrible defeat. They capture the Delta and make their capital the fortress of Avaris in its eastern part; their success was facilitated by the fact that they, unlike the Egyptians, used horses in military affairs. Hyksos leaders take the title of pharaoh (XV-XVI dynasties). However, they fail to achieve real subjugation of the entire Nile Valley; in fact, only Lower Egypt is under their rule. Although some of the Upper Egyptian nomarchs recognize the dominion of the Hyksos, this dependence remains rather formal, and it is limited to the payment of tribute. In the south of Upper Egypt, an independent Theban principality is formed. Only at the beginning of the XVII century. BC. The Hyksos pharaoh Khian manages to establish control over all of Upper Egypt. But after his death, Thebes regains independence, and the Theban rulers proclaim themselves pharaohs ( XVII Dynasty). Its last representative - Kames - subdues the rest of the Upper Egyptian nomes and, despite the opposition of the nobility, begins, with the support of ordinary soldiers, the struggle to expel the Hyksos. He makes a successful trip to the Delta and forces them to retreat to Avaris. A decisive turning point in the war with foreigners is achieved by the brother and heir of Kames Ahmose I: he wins several victories and captures Avaris after a three-year siege. The expulsion of the Hyksos culminates in the capture of the fortress of Sharukhen in southern Palestine c. 1554 BC
new kingdom
New Kingdom (c. 1554 - c. 1075 BC): XVIII-XX dynasties.
The transformation of Egypt into a world power.
Ahmose I, the founder of the 18th dynasty, strengthened his power by suppressing the rebellion in the southern nomes, and restored the Egyptian state within the Middle Kingdom, making a campaign in Nubia and pushing the southern border to the 2nd threshold.
Under the first pharaohs of the XVIII dynasty (c. 1554–1306 BC), a number of military reforms were carried out: under the influence of the Hyksos, the Egyptians created a new branch of the army - light war chariots (with two horses, a charioteer and an archer); a navy was built; more advanced types of weapons began to be used (massive straight and light sickle-shaped chopping swords, a powerful compound puff bow, copper-tipped arrows, and lamellar shell); a new army manning system was introduced (one warrior from ten men); increased the proportion of foreign mercenaries. These reforms became the basis for territorial expansion, carried out on a scale never seen before.
The beginning of an active policy of external aggression was laid by the third pharaoh of the 18th dynasty, Thutmose I (Jehutimes), who ruled in the second half of the 16th century. BC. Thutmose I expanded the territory of Egypt to the 3rd cataract. He also made a successful campaign in Syria, reaching the Euphrates, where he defeated the troops of Mitanni, a strong state in northern Mesopotamia. Nevertheless, Syria and Palestine did not become part of the Egyptian kingdom; with the support of the Mitannians, the Syrian and Palestinian rulers formed an anti-Egyptian coalition led by the prince of Kadesh. The son and heir of Thutmose I, Thutmose II, brutally suppressed the uprising in Nubia and waged a stubborn struggle against the Asian nomads. During the reign of his widow Hatshepsut (1490-1469 BC) there was a temporary abandonment of the policy of conquest. However, with the accession to the throne of Thutmose III (1469-1436 BC), Egypt's foreign policy aggression reached its climax. In 1468 BC Thutmose III invaded Syria and Palestine, defeated the united army of local princes at Megiddo, and after a seven-month siege captured the city. From 1467 to 1448 BC he made more than fifteen campaigns in these lands. In 1457 BC the pharaoh crossed the Euphrates and destroyed a number of Mitannian fortresses, in 1455 BC. inflicted a new defeat on the Mitannians. The campaign ended in 1448 BC. taking Kadesh; the Palestinian-Syrian coalition has ceased to exist. The Mitanni recognized Syria, Phenicia and Palestine as Egyptian spheres of influence. The northern border of the Egyptian state was Carchemish on the Euphrates. At the same time, as a result of a successful struggle with the Ethiopian tribes, Thutmose III pushed the southern border to the 4th threshold. The conquered lands were placed under the control of the "chief northern countries"and" the chief of the southern countries "; control over them was provided by the Egyptian garrisons. Babylon, Assyria, the Hittite state, fearing Egyptian power, sent rich gifts to Thutmose III, which he considered a tribute.
His son and successor Amenhotep II spent most of his reign suppressing rebellions by Syrian and Palestinian rulers; seven of them he put to cruel execution, more than a hundred thousand people were sold into slavery. His son Thutmose IV made several punitive expeditions to Palestine and Syria and severely punished the rebellious Nubians. To strengthen his position in the Eastern Mediterranean, he headed for rapprochement with Mitanni and married a Mitannian princess. Under his successor, Amenhotep III, the power of Egypt over Syria and Palestine was finally established; an attempt by the Hittites to provoke a rebellion by some of the Syrian princes ended in complete failure. A new Nubian uprising was easily put down. Egypt became the most powerful power in Asia Minor.
Third transitional period
Third Intermediate Period (1075–945 BC): Dynasty 21 The division of Egypt led to the disintegration of the unified royal economy, the foundation of state centralization. The royal estates in the nomes are in the hands of the local nobility and priesthood. Conditional holdings of officials become their property. Egypt is turning into an arena of rivalry between regional factions of the aristocracy. Everywhere, especially in the south, the power of temples is growing. There is no longer a force capable of consolidating society's resources for an active foreign policy. Egypt ceases to be a great power of the Eastern Mediterranean and loses the last remnants of its foreign possessions; control even over heavily Egyptianized Nubia is weakening. The massive penetration of Libyans into Lower Egypt continues: they settle there in whole tribes, form the backbone of the Egyptian army, their leaders increasingly occupy the posts of nomarchs and enter into family relations with the local secular and spiritual nobility.
Late kingdom
Late Kingdom (945–525 BC): XXII–XXVI dynasties. Libyan Egypt (945–712 BC): XXII–XXIV dynasties. Livization of Lower Egypt naturally ends with the ascension in 945 BC. to the throne of the representative of the Libyan aristocracy Sheshenq I, the ancestor of the XXII (Libyan) dynasty (945–722 BC). He legitimizes his power by marrying one son to the daughter of the last pharaoh of the XXI dynasty, and subjugates Upper Egypt, making the other son the high priest of Amun in Thebes. The capital is moved to Bubast in the southeastern part of the Delta. Shoshenq I returns to the aggressive foreign policy of the pharaohs of the New Kingdom: c. 930 BC he intervenes in the struggle between the kingdoms of Judah and Israel on the side of the latter, invades Palestine and captures Jerusalem. He also manages to regain control of Nubia. Significant resources at the disposal of the royal power allow Sheshenq I and his closest successors to develop palace and temple construction. XXII dynasty relies primarily on the Libyan army; in addition, its representatives strive to acquire the support of the priesthood, primarily in the north, generously giving the temples of land, movable and immovable property, slaves, various privileges and making rich sacrifices.
In the ninth century BC. the weakening of the power of the Libyan pharaohs began. The Libyan nobility had strengthened its position so much that it no longer needed patronage from the center. Lower Egypt actually broke up into many small semi-independent possessions headed by Libyan nomarchs and military leaders; this was facilitated by rivalry within the ruling dynasty, whose representatives created the most powerful principalities (Heracleopolis, Memphis, Tanis). Power over Upper Egypt remained purely formal. The narrowing of the material possibilities of the pharaohs of the XXII dynasty led to their inability to prevent the Assyrian aggression in Syria and to provide effective assistance to their main ally - the Damascus kingdom; in 840 BC it was destroyed. In 808 BC the ruler of Tanis refused to recognize the supremacy of the XXII dynasty and assumed the title of pharaoh, founding the XXIII dynasty (808–730 BC). In the 8th century BC. the kings of the XXII dynasty actually controlled only the Bubast region.
In the middle of the VIII century. BC. Egypt faced a new strong enemy - the Napata kingdom (Kush), which arose on the territory of Nubia and extended its power from the 6th to the 1st Nile threshold. Kushite influence in Upper Egypt increased significantly under King Kasht, who achieved the elevation of his daughter to the rank of high priestess ("wife of Amun") in Thebes. His son and successor Piankhi, with the support of the Theban priesthood, subjugated the southern regions of Egypt. The Kushite danger prompted the Libyan princes of the North to organize a coalition led by Tefnakht, the ruler of Sais and Ision in the western Delta. Tefnakht established control over the west of Lower Egypt and the north of Upper Egypt and prompted the border principality of Germopol in the central part of the country to fall away from the Kushites. But in 730 BC. Pianhi defeated the forces of the Libyans in the battles at Thebes and Heracleopolis, captured Hermopolis, won a decisive victory at Memphis and took this city. The Lower Egyptian rulers, including the Bubastian pharaoh Osorkon and Tefnakht himself, had to recognize the authority of the Napatian king.
Kushite rule in the northern regions of Egypt was, however, fragile: after his victory, Piankhi returned to Napata, leaving no Kushite garrisons in the Lower Egyptian cities. By 722 BC The Delta again fell into the hands of Tefnakht, who took the title of pharaoh (722-718 BC) and founded the XXIV dynasty; his son Bakenranf (Bokhoris) (718–712 BC), subjugated the central regions of the country. Tefnacht and Bakenranf relied on ordinary Libyan warriors, as well as the middle and lower strata of the Egyptian population. In an effort to strengthen the army and expand the tax base, they fought debt slavery and prevented the growth of large land ownership (laws against luxury, on the liability of debtors for their debt only with their property, on limiting interest on loans, on the prohibition of enslaving native Egyptians). This policy alienated the priesthood and aristocracy from the 24th Dynasty, who preferred to support the Kushites. In 712 BC the Napatian king Shabaka defeated Bakenranf and captured the Delta; Buckenranf was captured and burned. A single Kushite-Egyptian kingdom was formed.
Kushite Egypt and the Assyrian conquest
Kushite Egypt and the Assyrian Conquest (712–655 BC): XXV Dynasty. Shabaka (712–697 BC) became the founder of the XXV (Ethiopian) dynasty (712–664 BC). He headed for a close alliance with the priesthood. He moved his residence from Napata to Memphis, the center of the cult of Ptah, and introduced his children to the highest Theban priesthood. However, at the end of the 8th c. BC. the threat from Assyria intensified, which in 722 BC. destroyed the kingdom of Israel. In 701 BC the Assyrian king Sennacherib invaded Judea; Shabaka tried to help the Jewish king Hezekiah, but the Egyptian army was defeated at Altak; Pharaoh's sons were captured, and Hezekiah submitted to the conquerors. Under Shabaki's second successor, Taharqa (689–664 BC), Egypt became the direct target of Assyrian aggression. Taharqa encouraged the Palestinian and Phoenician kings to break away from Assyria. In response, the Assyrian king Esarhaddon in 674 BC, having previously ensured the loyalty of the Arabian tribes, made a trip to Egypt, but Taharqa managed to prevent him from penetrating deep into the country. In 671 BC Esarhaddon again invaded Egypt, broke the resistance of Taharqa, took and plundered Memphis. The Assyrians took possession of the country as far as Thebes and turned it into a province; they placed their garrisons in the cities, imposed a large tribute and introduced the cult of the god Ashur; at the same time, the northern Libyan dynasts, who recognized the authority of Assyria, retained their possessions. Esarhaddon assumed the title of king of Egypt and Kush.
Soon Taharqa, having gathered significant forces in the south, expelled the Assyrian troops from Egypt and liberated Memphis; however, the Libyan princes gave him no support. Esarhaddon moved his troops to Egypt and defeated the Kushite army on the Palestinian border. Pursued by the Assyrians, Taharqa fled first to Thebes and then to Nubia. Egypt was divided into twenty districts led by nomarchs from the local nobility under the control of the Assyrian military and civil administration.
The heavy Assyrian oppression caused discontent among the most diverse sections of Egyptian society. In 667 BC a group of northern princes under the leadership of Necho, the ruler of Sais and Memphis, formed an extensive conspiracy against the conquerors. Necho tried to make contact with Taharqa, but his messengers were intercepted by the Assyrians. Severe repression fell upon the rebellious cities, but the new Assyrian king Ashurbanapal pardoned the leaders of the conspiracy; he returned to Necho his possessions, and appointed his son Psammetikos ruler of Atrib in the southern Delta. This allowed the Assyrians to strengthen their positions among the Libyan nobility.
After the death of Taharqa in 664 BC. his successor Tanutamon decided to reconquer Egypt. In 663 BC with the support of the population and especially the priesthood, he easily captured Upper Egypt, and then took Memphis. But he failed to subdue the northern princes, who overwhelmingly remained loyal to Assyria. Ashurbanipal quickly marched to Egypt. Tanutamon was unable to organize resistance and fled to Nubia. The Assyrians subjected to a terrible defeat Thebes, the main ally of the Kushites. Some time later, Tanutamon regained control over the southern regions of Upper Egypt and restored Thebes, which, however, lost their former political, religious and cultural significance forever.
Sais Egypt
Sais Egypt (655–525 BC): XXVI Dynasty. In 664 BC the son of Necho Psammetich becomes the ruler of Sais, the largest economic center of the Delta. Having significant material resources, he formed a strong mercenary army from the Carians and Asia Minor Greeks and in the early 650s BC. united Lower Egypt under his rule, and in 656-655 BC. subjugated Upper Egypt and made his daughter high priestess of Amun in Thebes. Having restored state unity, Psammetikh I (664–610 BC) expelled the Assyrian garrisons from the country and proclaimed himself pharaoh, founding the XXVI (Sais) dynasty (655–525 BC). His support was the northern priesthood, which helped him to suppress the separatism of the Libyan dynasts. The patronage of the pharaoh to foreign mercenaries, to whom he provided land for settlement, aggravated his relations with the soldiers of Libyan-Egyptian origin. He deprived them of a number of privileges, which provoked a series of riots and even the departure of part of the army to Nubia.
Psammetichus I pursued a course towards the revival of ancient customs and ways of life. At the same time, he encouraged trade with other countries and provided support to foreign merchants, especially the Greeks, whom he allowed to establish the colony of Naucratis in the western Delta. In his foreign policy, the pharaoh in 650-630 BC. focused on an alliance with the Babylonian kingdom and Lydia, seeking to prevent the restoration of Assyrian domination. However, from 620 BC. he began to support the rapidly weakening Assyria, with difficulty holding back the onslaught of the Babylonian-Medes coalition. True, he failed to help her during the invasion of Western Asia by the nomadic Scythians, from whom he himself was forced to pay off. Psammetik I took great care to strengthen the borders of Egypt, especially the northeastern ones, where he built a number of strong fortresses.
After the death of Ahmose II in 526 BC. the throne was taken by his son Psammetich III (526–525 BC). A few months later, the Persian king Cambyses (529-522 BC) invaded Egypt and, thanks to the betrayal of the commander of the Greek mercenaries Phanes and some Egyptian commanders, won in the spring of 525 BC. decisive victory over Psammetichus III at Pelusium. The army retreated to Memphis, but the commander of the Egyptian fleet, Ujagorresnet, surrendered Sais to the Persians without a fight and allowed the enemy squadron to penetrate deep into the Delta, which led to the surrender of the Egyptian troops and the fall of Memphis; The pharaoh and his family were taken prisoner. The whole country up to the 1st threshold was under the rule of the Persians. The uprising that broke out in Egypt in 524 BC. after the failure of Cambyses' attempts to conquer Cyrene and Nubia, it was brutally suppressed: the Persian king executed Psammetikh III and destroyed the temples, the priests of which supported the rebels.
Egypt in the Achaemenid era
Egypt in the Achaemenid era (525–332 BC): XXVII–XXX dynasties. The period of the first Persian rule (525-404 BC): XXVII (Persian) dynasty. In the first decades of Persian rule (under Cambyses and Darius I), Egypt occupied a privileged position within the Achaemenid state. The power of the Persians over Egypt was in the nature of a personal union: in August 525 BC. Cambyses assumed the title of pharaoh; The Achaemenids became the XXVII dynasty of Egypt. The Persian kings were crowned with the Egyptian crown and used the traditional Egyptian dating of reigns. The Persians allowed the Egyptians to keep their religion and their customs. Although the administration of the country was concentrated in the hands of the Persian satrap with a residence in Memphis, and Persian garrisons were stationed in the main cities, a number of senior posts remained with the Egyptians. Cambyses compensated the temples for the damage caused by the Persians during the conquest. Darius I (522-486 BC) carried out intensive temple building; under him, the construction of a canal between the Mediterranean and Red Seas was completed. Such a policy was largely dictated by the strategic and economic value of Egypt for the Persians: he was one of the most profitable satrapies - the amount of taxes received annually from him was seven hundred talents of silver.
Until the mid-480s BC. Egypt remained loyal, except for the separatist uprising of the satrap Ariand during the period of dynastic civil strife in Persia in 522-521 BC. However, the increase in taxes at the end of the reign of Darius I and the deportation of Egyptian artisans to Persia to build royal palaces in Susa and Persepolis caused in October 486 BC. a massive uprising that the new Persian king Xerxes (486–465 BC) only managed to put down in January 484 BC Xerxes severely cracked down on the rebels and radically changed his policy towards Egypt: he did not accept the title of pharaoh, thereby annulling his personal union, carried out extensive confiscations of temple property, and abandoned the practice of appointing Egyptians to administrative positions. This provoked the growth of anti-Persian sentiment.
In 461 BC one of the Libyan princes of the western Delta, Inar, revolted against Persian rule; he was given military assistance by the Greeks, who fought with the Persians, led by the Athenians. The combined Greco-Egyptian army won in 459 BC. victory over the Persians at Papremis, took Memphis and captured most of the Nile Valley. But in 455 BC. 300,000 Persian troops under the command of Megabyzus invaded Egypt, supported by a strong fleet (three hundred ships), and defeated the Allied forces. Greek and Egyptian detachments took up defense on about. Prosopitida in the Delta, however, Megabyzus succeeded in June 454 BC. break into the island and defeat them; the Athenian squadron that arrived to help the defenders was destroyed in the Mendesian branch of the Nile. The remnants of the Athenians fled to Cyrene. Inar was captured and put to a painful execution.
Started in the second half of the 5th c. BC. the process of weakening the power of the Achaemenids was accompanied by the strengthening of the separatist movement in Egypt. In 405 BC Amyrtheus, ruler of Sais, rebelled. He won several victories over the Persians and took control of the Delta. Due to the internecine war that broke out in Persia between King Artharxerxes II and his brother Cyrus the Younger, the Persians were unable to send large forces to suppress the uprising, and Amirtaeus by the beginning of the 5th century. BC. liberated all of Egypt.
Period of Egyptian Independence
The period of Egyptian independence (405–342 BC): XXVIII–XXX dynasties. Amyrtheus (405-398 BC), although he founded the XXVIII (Sais) dynasty, turned out to be its only representative. It was succeeded by the XXIX Dynasty (398–380 BC), originating from Mendes in the eastern Delta. After a period of omnipotence of the temple and secular nobility (398-393 BC), full of palace coups, Akoris (393-380 BC) seized the throne, during which the internal and external position of Egypt was strengthened. Akoris created a defensive line on the northeastern border, entered into an anti-Persian alliance with Cyrene, Barca, Pisidia and Cyprus, and extended his influence to Palestine and Phoenicia. In 385–382 BC he successfully repulsed the Persian invasion.
In 380 BC the throne was usurped by Nekhtnebef (Nektaneb) from Sevennit in the eastern Delta, who founded the XXX dynasty (380–342 BC). Nekhtheneb I (380–363 BC) succeeded in 373 BC. thwart a new Persian attempt to regain control of Egypt; he was helped in this by the heroic defense of Pelusium, the mediocrity of the Persian commander and the flood of the Nile. Realizing the limitations of his military capabilities, he concluded an alliance treaty with the most powerful Greek states - Athens and Sparta. In domestic politics, Nekhtheneb I patronized the priesthood in every possible way: he generously endowed temples, provided them with tax benefits, attracted priests to solve state affairs, and did not spare money for temple construction. His son and heir, Tah (363–361 BC), abandoned his father's priestly course. Needing funds to pursue an active foreign policy, he forced the temples to provide him with a large loan, causing sharp discontent in religious circles. He also raised the old and introduced new emergency taxes and forced the entire population to surrender all gold and silver to the treasury in offset of future taxes. This allowed him to raise a huge army (eighty thousand Egyptians and eleven thousand Greek mercenaries). Taking advantage of the rebellion of the Asia Minor satraps against the Persian king Artaxerxes II, Tah invaded Phenicia and Syria, but an uprising broke out in Egypt, the success of which was facilitated by the hostility of various social strata to the pharaoh's policy and the support of the Spartans; his relative Nekhtgorheb (Nektaneb II) was proclaimed the new king; Tahu had to flee to the court of the Persian king.
Nekhtgorheb (361-342 BC) completely broke with the course of his predecessor: he withdrew the Egyptian army from Syria and began to patronize the priesthood in every possible way (building temples in all parts of the country, rich gifts and sacrifices). Under him there was a military weakening of Egypt, which facilitated the Persian aggression. Persian campaign in 350 BC failed not because of the resistance of the Egyptians, but because of the inept actions of the guides during the passage of the army through the desert and because of the flood of the Nile. In 345 BC Nekhtgorheb sent troops to help Sidon, who had fallen away from the Persians, but the mercenaries went over to the side of the enemy. In the winter of 343/342 BC Persian king Artaxerxes III invaded Egypt. The pharaoh concentrated significant forces near Pelusium (sixty thousand Egyptians and forty thousand Libyan and Greek mercenaries), but the Persian fleet managed to break into the Delta and ended up in the rear of Nekhtgorkheb; Pharaoh had to retreat to Memphis. In the army, strife between Egyptian soldiers and mercenaries escalated; the Greeks began to go over to the side of the Persians and surrender the most important fortresses to them. In this situation, Nekhtgorheb, without giving a single battle, fled to the south; towards the end of 342 BC Artaxerxes III took possession of Lower and part of Upper Egypt; the pharaoh held only a few southern regions.
Second period of Persian rule
Second period of Persian rule (342–332 BC). The restoration of Persian rule in Egypt was accompanied by cruel repressions against the local population: the Persians destroyed a number of cities, confiscated a significant part of temple treasures, and desecrated religious shrines. After the death of Nechtgorheb in 341 BC. they subjugated the southern part of Egypt, but their power was very fragile. Already ok. 337 BC a certain Khabbash revolted, captured Memphis, expelled the Persians and assumed the title of pharaoh. Although in 335 BC. the new Persian king Darius III restored power over Egypt, three years later Persian rule finally collapsed as soon as the new conqueror - Alexander the Great - approached the banks of the Nile. From the end of 332 BC. Egypt became part of the Macedonian world power. Has begun Hellenistic period his history.
Culture.
For thousands of years, the ancient Egyptian culture was distinguished by relative isolation and self-sufficiency, was little subject to external influences. She was characterized by deep conservatism and fidelity to anciently established principles; new trends invariably met with strong resistance. At its core, it embodied a person's fear of an uncontrollable natural element and admiration for the power of the pharaoh as the organizer and guardian of the world order. The leading image of Egyptian culture was the image of the Great River - the Nile - and its leading idea was the idea of eternity. The concept of frozen time and frozen space was expressed in its perfect form in the most famous monuments of the Egyptian genius - the pyramids.
Religion.
The Egyptian religion is difficult to present in a systematized form, because its essence lies not in theology, but in the cult. It is extremely diverse; theology could not exert a decisive unifying influence on it.
Folk beliefs and cult existed long before the emergence of the state, their traces are found as early as 6-4 thousand years ago. BC. The early form of the Egyptian religion is characterized by the deification of the surrounding world and all its elements (trees, animals, dwellings, forces of nature, etc.) and the special vitality of the animal cult. Initially, the Egyptians revered the animals themselves, endowing them with magical properties: the cult of the hawk and the cat was widespread, in some areas they worshiped the crocodile and the hippopotamus. Later, animals began to see the incarnation of certain gods: a black bull with white spots personified the god of fertility Apis (Memphis), a crocodile - the god of water and the flood of the Nile Sebek (Fayum), an ibis - the god of wisdom Thoth (Germopol), a lioness - the goddess of war and the scorching sun Sekhmet (Memphis), the cat - the goddess of joy and fun Bast (Bubast), the falcon - the god of hunting Horus (Behdet), etc. Gradually the pantheon was anthropomorphized, however, zoomorphic features, as a rule, remained and coexisted with anthropomorphic ones: He turned from an ibis into a man with the head of an ibis, Bast from a cat into a woman with a cat's head, Horus from a falcon into a man with a falcon's head, etc. Of particular importance were the bull and the snake. It was believed that in the beginning all the gods and goddesses were bulls and cows different color. In ancient times, the cult of the bull was associated with the veneration of the leader of the tribe, and after the emergence of the state, it was combined with the cult of the pharaoh: for example, at a festival in honor of the thirtieth anniversary of his reign, the pharaoh appeared in clothes with an ox tail tied to her back. The snake personified both evil (Apop, the enemy of the Sun) and good (the goddess of fertility Renenutet, the goddess of Lower Egypt Uto).
Over time, each community develops its own pantheon of local gods embodied in celestial bodies, stones, animals, plants, etc. Among them stands out the god-head of the local pantheon, the creator of this territory and the people living on it, their lord and patron - solar deities Atum (Heliopolis) and Horus (Edfu), the gods of agriculture and fertility Set (eastern Delta), Amon (Thebes), Min (Coptos), etc. Then there is a special cult of the god of burial, the lord of the "city of the dead" (necropolis), - Sokar in Memphis, Anubis in Siut, Khentiamenti in Abydos. Later, common Egyptian gods appear, not associated with certain locality, - Ra (Sun), Ah (Moon), Nut (Sky), Geb (Earth), Hapi (Nile).
At the same time, some local cults spread beyond their communities: thanks to migrations and conquests, the gods move after their worshipers to new territories, where they are identified or connected by kinship with local gods. As a result, divine triads are created: in Thebes, to the married couple of the god of earth and fertility Amon and the goddess of burials, Meritseger, the god of war Mentu from the neighboring city of Hermont is added as a son, and then Meritseger is replaced by the goddess of the eastern part of the Theban district Mut, and Mentu by the moon god Khonsu from another area adjacent to Thebes (Theban triad); in Memphis, the earth god Ptah merges with the funeral god Sokar, then acquires a spouse in the person of the goddess of war Sekhmet from neighboring Latopol, who turns into the goddess of the sky, and her son, the god of vegetation Nefertum, becomes their common son (Memphis triad). The most striking example of the absorption of some gods by others with the concomitant usurpation of functions is Osiris, the patron god of the city of Busiris, who assimilated with the Busiris god Dedu, with the god of the Nile from neighboring Mendes and with the Abydosian god of burials Khentiamenti; as a result, he became the deity of the Nile, the productive forces of nature and the afterlife; the center of his cult moved to Abydos.
At the next stage, the general Egyptian gods converge with the most influential local gods related to them: Ra is identified with the solar deities Atum and Horus, Ah with the lunar god Thoth, Nut with the celestial deity Hathor, and Hapi with Osiris. With the unification of the state, the cult of the supreme god is born, which becomes the main deity of the capital or hometown of the ruling dynasty. In parallel, the importance of the deities of the largest centers - the Memphis Ptah, the Abydos Osiris, the Heliopolis Atum - increases.
With the accession of the Fifth Dynasty, which originated from Heliopolis, Atum-Ra is proclaimed the main Egyptian deity, and the solar cult spreads throughout the Nile Valley, although it does not succeed in suppressing all local cults, especially in the central and southern provinces. The first theological concept is being created, the purpose of which is to turn as many gods as possible into solar ones and identify them with Ra. This fate befell the gods of the earth and fertility Ptah, Mina, the gods of the Nile Osiris and Khnum. A semi-monotheistic system arises in which different deities are different functions or different stages of being of one single god, mysterious and inaccessible: Ra-father is yesterday's sun, Ra-son is today's; the divine beetle Khepera - morning, Ra - noon, Atum - evening, Osiris - hidden in the west (deceased). A cycle of solar myths is being formed, linking the act of creation with the birth of the sun from a lotus flower or from a huge celestial cow; the sun is regarded as a demiurge: the first gods Shu (air) and Tefnut (moisture) appear as a result of the self-fertilization of the sun, which swallowed its own seed, and people from its tears. The first generations of gods form the Heleopolis ennead (nine), which is revered throughout Egypt. A cycle of myths about solar gods arises, which reflect ideas about the change of seasons and days (the myth of the departure and return to Egypt of the daughter of Ra Tefnut, marking the beginning and end of the drought, the myth of the daily birth and swallowing of the sun by the sky goddess, etc.) and about the struggle of the sun with darkness and evil (the myth of the victory of Ra over the serpent Apep). Shrines of Ra are erected everywhere, around which a large number of priests are concentrated.
In the era of the Middle Kingdom, the solar cult successfully conquers Upper Egypt: the Fayum Sebek turns into Sebek-Ra, the Theban Amon into Amon-Ra. The cult of Amun-Ra acquires special significance due to the increased political and economic role of Thebes. In the era of the New Kingdom, it reaches its peak, which even the religious reforms of Akhenaten cannot prevent. Amon-Ra is considered in this period as a demiurge and as the king of the gods; the ruling pharaoh is considered his son. In the southern regions, the Theban priesthood creates a real theocratic regime.
At the same time, from the period of the Middle Kingdom, solar cults began to compete with the cult of Osiris as the god of resurrecting and dying nature and as the ruler of the afterlife; a cycle of myths spreads about him, about his wife Isis and son Horus (the murder of Osiris by his brother Set, the evil god of the desert, the search for and mourning by Isis of the body of her husband, the victory of Horus over Set and the resurrection of his father by him). By the beginning of the II millennium BC. the cult of Osiris becomes the focus of all funeral beliefs. If in the era of the ancient kingdom only the deceased pharaoh was identified with Osiris, then in the Middle Kingdom - every dead Egyptian.
Ideas about the afterlife.
The Egyptians considered the afterlife to be a direct continuation of the earthly one. According to them, a person consisted of a body (khet), a soul (ba), a shadow (khaibet), a name (ren) and an invisible double (ka). The most ancient was the idea of a ka that was born along with a person, relentlessly followed him everywhere, was an integral part of his being and personality, but did not disappear with his death and could continue life in the grave, depending on the degree of preservation of the body. It was this last belief that formed the basis of all funeral rites: in order to protect the body from decay and preserve the ka, it was turned into a mummy with the help of embalming and hidden in the closed room of the tomb; statues of the deceased were installed nearby, into which the ka could move in the event of an unforeseen destruction of the mummy; terrible spells were supposed to protect her from snakes and scorpions. Believing that the ka could die of hunger and thirst or leave the grave and take revenge on the living, the relatives filled the tomb with provisions, carved images of food and clothing on its walls, brought gifts and sacrifices for the dead, and uttered magical spells-requests to give the deceased everything he needed. The bliss of the deceased also depended on the preservation of his name (ren) in the memory of descendants, so he was carved on the walls of the tomb; to erase the name was considered a great sacrilege. The soul (ba) was represented as a bird or a grasshopper; she was not connected with the grave existence and could freely leave the dead body, soar to heaven and live there among the gods. Later, a belief was born in the wanderings of the ba on earth and in the underworld; to protect her from all sorts of underground monsters, there were special prayers and spells. As for the shadow (hibet), there are very few references to it.
In Egypt, there was no single idea of the afterlife. According to the most common Abydos version, the realm of the dead is the realm of Osiris, where a person goes after death to be reborn to life. There, among the fertile fields, on which huge cereals grow, he serves Osiris, as he served the pharaoh on earth. To facilitate his work, starting from the time of the Middle Kingdom, many figurines of workers were placed in the tomb, which, thanks to the spells written on them, could replace the deceased. This kingdom was located in the "fields of Earu", which the Egyptians placed either in uncharted lands (unexplored areas of the Nile Valley, Phenicia) or in heaven (the northeastern heavenly country). To get into it, one had to either cross the river of the dead on the ferry of the gods, or fly up as a bird into the sky, or pass through a gap in the western mountains.
According to the Memphis version, the kingdom of the dead - the land of sleep and darkness, ruled by the god Sokar - was a huge grotto or quarry located in the depths of the Libyan desert. The solar Heliopolis tradition considered the best place for the dead, the boat of Ra, in which they can avoid dangers and enjoy complete bliss, even during her nightly journeys through the underworld (duat), separated from the Nile Valley by high mountains.
In the era of the New Kingdom, an attempt is made to systematize the doctrine of the kingdom of the dead, combining the Abydos and Heliopolis traditions on the basis of the theology of Amun-Ra. Its authors reject the idea of the soul being on earth and identify the afterlife with the underworld. It consists of twelve areas-rooms, the gates of which are guarded by gigantic snakes; each of them is controlled by one of the ancient funerary gods (Sokar, Osiris, etc.). The supreme ruler of the entire kingdom is Amon-Ra, who sails every night on his boat through the duat and thus brings great comfort to its inhabitants.
Since ancient times, the Egyptians believed that the deceased could achieve everything with the help of magic (get into the kingdom of the dead, get rid of hunger and thirst), i.e. his fate does not depend on his earthly existence. But later the idea of the afterlife judgment arises (chapter 125 Books of the dead ): in the face of Osiris, seated on the throne, Horus and his assistant Anubis weigh the heart of the deceased on the scales, balanced by the truth (the image of the goddess of justice Maat), and Thoth writes down the result on the boards; the righteous is rewarded with a happy life in the fields of Earu, and the sinner is devoured by the monster Amt (a lion with the head of a crocodile). Only one who was submissive and patient on earth, "who did not steal, did not encroach on temple property, did not rebel, did not speak evil against the king" was recognized as a righteous man.
funeral ceremony
started with mummification. The insides of the deceased were taken out and placed in special vessels (canopies), which were transferred under the protection of the gods. Instead of a heart, they put in a stone scarab beetle. The body was rubbed with soda and asphalt, swaddled in canvases and placed in a stone or wooden coffin (sometimes in two coffins), which was covered with magical images and inscriptions. Then, accompanied by relatives, friends, priests and mourners, he was transported to the western bank of the Nile, where the necropolis was usually located. The main ceremony took place in front of the tomb or at its entrance. The mystery of Osiris was played there, during which the priests performed the rite of purification of the mummy or statue of the deceased; they killed two bulls, the thighs and hearts of which they brought as a gift to the deceased. Then followed the rite of opening the mouth and eyes; in this way, the deceased was able to use the gifts brought to him. Then the coffin was taken to the interior of the tomb; the entrance to it was walled up. In the front part, a feast was arranged, in which, as they believed, the deceased himself participated.
Language and writing.
The language of the ancient Egyptians belonged to the Semitic-Hamitic language family. In its development, it went through several stages: the ancient Egyptian (the period of the Old Kingdom), the Middle Egyptian (classical), the new Egyptian (16–8 centuries BC), the demotic (8 BC - 5 century AD). ) and Coptic (3rd–7th centuries AD). It was spoken by the indigenous population of the Nile Valley, and it practically did not spread beyond its borders.
The hieroglyphs were read from right to left. They were applied to a stone surface (carved or, less often, painted with paints), on wooden boards and sometimes on leather scrolls, and also from the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. on papyrus. Papyrus was made from the fibrous plant of the Nile backwaters of the same name, the stems of which were cut lengthwise, laid edge to edge in rows, a second layer was laid across the first layer and pressed; the layers were glued together with the juice of the plant itself. Papyrus was very expensive; it was used sparingly, often the old inscription was erased and a new one was applied over it (palimpsest). It was written on with a stick from the stem of a calamus (marsh plant) with a split end; the ink was of organic origin; the main text was applied in black paint, and the beginning of the line and sometimes the phrase - in red. words are not separated from each other.
The Egyptians were passionate about writing. They covered with hieroglyphs the inner and outer walls of tombs and temples, obelisks, steles, statues, images of gods, sarcophagi, vessels, and even writing instruments and staves. The craft of scribes was highly regarded; there were special schools for their training.
Labor-intensive hieroglyphic writing could not satisfy the growing economic and cultural demands of society already in the era of the Old Kingdom. This contributed to the simplification of signs and the appearance of schematic hieroglyphs. A new type of writing arose - hieroglyphic cursive writing (first bookish, and then business), which was called hieratic ("priestly"), although not only sacred, but also most secular texts were written with it. During the Middle Kingdom period, classical hieroglyphic writing was used only for inscriptions on stone, while hieratic monopolized papyri. The process of further reduction and simplification of signs led in the 8th century. BC. to the birth, on the basis of business cursive writing, demotic (“folk”) writing, intended for everyday use: several characters merge into one; they finally lose their pictorial character; there are more than twenty simple signs denoting individual consonants - the embryo of the alphabet; nevertheless, hieroglyphs remain an important component of demotic writing. The pharaohs of the 16th dynasty made an attempt to revive the old hieroglyphic writing. However, with the decline of the ancient Egyptian religious cult and the disappearance of the priestly caste, it was forgotten by the beginning of our era. In the 2nd–3rd centuries AD In Egypt, an alphabetic type of writing was formed - Coptic. The Coptic alphabet consisted of twenty-four letters of the classical Greek alphabet and seven letters of Demotic.
Literature.
Most of the monuments of Egyptian literature have been lost, since papyrus, on which literary texts were usually applied, was a very short-lived material.
Egyptian literature was characterized by a strict succession of genres. It reflected the essential features of the Egyptian mentality - ideas about the absolute power of the gods and the pharaoh, the dependence and defenselessness of man in front of them, the connection of earthly life with the afterlife. She has always been strongly influenced by religion, but has never been limited to theology and has developed a wide variety of genres. The use of hieroglyphic writing and its connection with theatrical cult performances contributed to the enrichment of its symbolic and figurative system. It practically lacked the concept of authorship, with the exception of didactic literature, which was the most respected genre.
Written Egyptian literature originated in the 4th millennium BC. She carried a strong folklore basis (labor songs, parables, sayings, fairy tales). The earliest monuments that have come down to us date back to the period of the Old Kingdom. Among them stand out Pyramid Texts, the oldest collection of magic formulas and sayings in history, the roots of which go back to the pre-dynastic era; they are imbued with the passionate desire of mortals to gain immortality. A biographical genre arises: at first, these are tombstone inscriptions designed to perpetuate the name of the deceased and initially containing a simple enumeration of his titles, positions and sacrificial gifts, gradually (by the time of the V-VI dynasties) turn into real life stories. During the III-V dynasties, didactic literature was born, represented by the genre of teachings ( Ptahotep's teaching preserved in a manuscript from the period of the Middle Kingdom). A cycle of tales about pharaoh Khufu and sorcerers is associated with the era of the IV-V dynasties. The surviving routine of the Memphis temple performance speaks of the existence of a protodramatic genre. The most significant monument of religious poetry of this era is a hymn in honor of the sky goddess Nut.
The heyday of Egyptian literature falls on the period of the Middle Kingdom. The didactic genre is widely spread: Teaching of the Heracleopolis king to his son Merikara, dating back to the First Intermediate Period, and Teachings of Amenemhat I(XII dynasty) are real political treatises on the art of government. Instructions of a socio-professional nature are also written ( Akhtoy's teaching about the superiority of the profession of a scribe over all others). A genre of political prophecy emerges ( Prophecy of Neferti). Poetry belongs to political and journalistic literature. Sayings of Ipuser(accusatory appeal to the pharaoh about the disasters of Egypt). The autobiographical genre culminates in Sinuhet's story- a highly artistic biography of a nobleman of the beginning of the XII dynasty. In the field of fantastic literature, a new type of tales about overseas travels is being created ( The Tale of the Shipwrecked). A household story is born ( The Tale of the Eloquent Peasant). The genre of philosophical dialogue appears - Conversation of the disappointed with his Soul, where the theme of doubts about the benefits of the afterlife sounds: a person, according to the Soul, should enjoy every moment of his earthly existence. This motif is even more pronounced in Song of the harpist, the most outstanding poetic work of that time. Among the best examples of religious poetry are the hymns to the Nile god Happi and Osiris. The genre of magic spells is presented Texts of sarcophagi.
The literature of the New Kingdom continues the artistic traditions of the Middle Kingdom. Fairy tales appear in large numbers, especially during the XIX-XX dynasties ( Tale of two brothers,Tale of Truth and Krivda, Tale of the doomed prince, The Tale of the Theban King Seqenenre and the Hyksos King Apepi), life instructions ( Teaching Amenemope, Anya's teaching), vocabulary in honor of the kings, the new capital, etc. A high level is achieved by love lyrics and religious poetry with its masterpiece - a hymn to the Aton. Historiography (Annals of Thutmose III) and epic poetry ( Song of the Battle of Kadesh). All magic spells known from previous eras are collected in the famous book of the dead, a kind of guide to the afterlife.
From the Late Kingdom, fantastic tales have survived (a fairy tale cycle about the priest Hasmuas), instructions ( Teachings of Ankhsheshonk), an epic poem about Pharaoh Petubast; religious literature is presented The book of sighs(a list of conspiracies with which Isis revived Osiris), A book about the passage of eternity, A book about the overthrow of Apep And With lamentatory songs of Isis and Nephthys(for mysteries). During this period, different types of historical prose developed: political chronicle ( Piankha Stele, Chronicle of Osorkon, Demotic Chronicle), family chronicle ( The Tale of Peteis III), travel reports ( Journey of Unuamun to Byblos). The fable genre is born, where only animal characters act.
The science.
Astronomy.
The Egyptians have been making astronomical observations for a long time. They grouped the stars into twelve constellations of the zodiac, giving them the names of those animals whose contours resembled their outlines (cat, jackal, snake, scarab, donkey, lion, goat, cow, falcon, baboon, ibis, crocodile); divided the entire celestial equator into thirty-six parts, compiled tables of the position of the stars at each hour of the night for fifteen-day periods. The Egyptians were the first in history to create a solar calendar. The beginning of the year was considered the day of the first appearance of the star Sothis, or Sirius (the first day of the month of Thoth), which, as the Egyptians believed, was the cause of the flood of the Nile. The Egyptians counted the year in three hundred and sixty-five days and divided it into three seasons (flood, sowing, harvest) of four months each (that, faofi, atir, hoyak - tibi, mehir, famenot, farmuti - pakhon, payni, epifi, mesori ); the month consisted of three decades of ten days. To the last month was added a "small year" of five additional days. The day was divided into twenty-four hours, the duration of which was not constant - it depended on the season: short daytime and long night hours in winter and long daytime and short night hours in summer. The chronology was carried out according to the years of the reign of each pharaoh.
Maths.
The early birth of mathematics was due to the need to carefully measure the level of the rise of the Nile and take into account the available resources. Its development was largely determined by progress in monumental construction (pyramids, temples).
The counting system was basically decimal. The Egyptians knew fractions, but only those that had a unit in the numerator. Division was replaced by successive subtraction, and multiplied only by 2. They knew how to raise to a power and take a square root. In geometry, they were able to determine the area of a circle relatively accurately (as a square 8/9 of its diameter), but they measured any quadrilaterals and trigons as rectangles.
The medicine.
The Egyptian art of healing enjoyed special fame in the Eastern Mediterranean and had a great influence on Greek and Arabic medicine. Egyptian doctors explained diseases by somatic causes and only epidemic diseases were associated with the will of the gods. Symptoms, as a rule, were taken by them for diseases themselves, and therapy was aimed at combating individual symptoms; only in rare cases, the diagnosis was established on the basis of a combination of symptoms. The main means of determining the disease were inspection, palpation and listening. Egyptian medicine was distinguished by a significant degree of specialization. She achieved particular success in gynecology and ophthalmology. Dentistry was also well developed, as evidenced by the good condition of the teeth of the mummies and the presence of gold plates on damaged teeth. Surgical art was also at a high level, as the discovered surgical instruments and the surviving treatise on surgery show. Thanks to mummification, doctors had a fairly deep anatomical knowledge. They developed the doctrine of blood circulation and the heart as its main center. Cosmetics and pharmacology were an integral part of medicine; medicines were produced mainly in special laboratories at temples; most of them were emetics and laxatives. All these achievements, however, did not prevent doctors from resorting to magic and spells.
Geography and ethnography.
Living in the closed space of the Nile Valley, the Egyptians were poorly aware of the world around them, although they were able to make excellent topographic plans of the area they knew. They had the most fantastic ideas about countries outside the Orontes and the 4th Nile threshold. The universe seemed to them a flat earth with the sky resting on it on four props (world mountains); the underworld was located under the earth, the world ocean stretched around it, and in the center of it was Egypt. All land was divided into two great river systems: the Mediterranean with the Nile and the Eritrean with the Euphrates, and the water element was divided into three seas: Green (modern Red), Black (salt lakes of the Isthmus of Suez) and Okruzhnoe (Mediterranean). The Nile flowed out of two huge holes at Elephantine. The Egyptians believed that mankind consisted of four races: red (Egyptians, or "people"), yellow (Asians), white (Libyans) and black (Negroes); later they included the Hittites and Mycenaean Greeks in this system.
Art.
Art in ancient Egypt was closely associated with religious worship and therefore had a special sacred meaning. The work of the artist was considered a sacred act. All types of art were subject to strict canons that did not allow freedom of creativity. Any artistic form sought to express the harmonious unity of the cosmic and the earthly, the divine world and the human world.
Architecture.
Architecture was the leading area of Egyptian art. Time did not spare most of the monuments of Egyptian architecture; mainly religious buildings - tombs and temples - have come down to us.
The earliest form of the tomb - mastaba (stone bench) - was a massive rectangular structure with walls inclined towards the center; in the underground part (depth from fifteen to thirty meters) there was a burial chamber with a mummy; there were also statues of the deceased; the walls were covered with reliefs and murals, which had an informative (glorification of the deceased) or magical (ensuring his afterlife existence) meaning. During the I-II dynasties, mastabas served as the resting place of both the pharaohs and the nobility, during the III-VI dynasties - only the nobility.
The mastaba became the structural basis for a new form of royal burial that appeared during the 3rd dynasty - the pyramid. The pyramid expressed a new concept of the king as a god, towering over all other people. The task of creating a grandiose royal burial was solved by increasing it vertically. The pyramid was built from stone blocks tightly fitted to each other and was oriented to the cardinal points; the entrance to it is in the northern part; inside there were burial and unloading chambers (for uniform distribution of pressure). The first type of pyramid was a step pyramid - the pyramid of Djoser in Saqqara, 60 m high, erected by the architect Imhotep. It consisted of six mastabas, set on top of each other, decreasing upwards. During the 4th dynasty, builders began to fill in the voids between the steps, resulting in a classic type of pyramid - a sloping pyramid. The first pyramid of this type was the pyramid of Snefru in Dashur (over 100 m). Its successors are the highest stone structures in the history of mankind - the pyramids of Khufu (146.5 m) and Khafre (143 m) in Giza. The royal pyramid was the center of a vast burial architectural ensemble, surrounded by a wall: it included a mortuary temple, small pyramids of queens, mastabas of courtiers and nomarchs. Under V–VI, the size of the pyramids decreased significantly (no more than 70 m).
In the initial period of the Middle Kingdom (XI Dynasty), a new form of royal burial arose - a rock tomb located under a covered columned hall, in front of which there was a mortuary temple (the tomb of Mentuhotep). However, the pharaohs of the XII dynasties resumed the construction of the pyramids. They were of medium size (the pyramid of Senusret I reached 61 m) and did not differ in great strength due to the new masonry method: its basis was eight stone walls, diverging in radius from the center to the corners and the middle of each side of the pyramid; eight more walls extended from these walls at an angle of 45 degrees; the space between the walls was covered with sand and rubble.
In the New Kingdom, the tradition of burial of kings in secret rock tombs in the Valley of the Kings near Thebes again prevailed. For greater safety, they were carved, as a rule, in remote mountainous regions. From the time of the 18th dynasty, the tomb began to be separated from the mortuary temple (the idea of the architect Ineni).
The dominant form of temple architecture in the era of the Old Kingdom was the mortuary temple, which was an integral part of the funerary complex. It adjoined the pyramid from the east and was a rectangle with a flat roof made of massive limestone blocks. In its center was a hall with tetrahedral monolithic pillars and two narrow rooms for funeral royal statues; the hall passed into an open courtyard, behind which there were chapels (the temple at the pyramid of Khafre). During the V-VI dynasties, the importance of the temple in the funeral ensemble increases; its size increases; architectural decoration becomes more complicated; for the first time, palm-shaped columns and columns in the form of bundles of unblown papyri are used; the walls are covered with colored reliefs. Later, another type of column appears - in the form of a bunch of lotus buds. During the 5th dynasty, a new form of temple appears - the solar temple: its main element is a colossal stone obelisk, the top of which is covered with copper (the petrified ray of Ra); he stands on a dais; in front of them is a huge altar.
Under the XI dynasty, the mortuary temple becomes the central element of the funerary ensemble; it consists of two terraces, framed by porticos and crowned with a pyramid, the base of which is a natural rock (the tomb of Mentuhotep). Under the XII dynasty, despite the resumption of the construction of monumental pyramids, it nevertheless retains its importance within the framework (the funerary complex of Amenemhat III). The temple finally turns into the center of the nationwide cult of the pharaoh. It is distinguished by its impressive size, a large number of rooms, an abundance of sculptures and reliefs. In temple construction, a colonnade with a new form of a column (decorated with capitals with embossed heads of the goddess Hathor) and a pylon (a gate in the form of two towers with a narrow passage) began to be widely used. There is a custom to install colossal statues or obelisks with copper-lined tops in front of the temple.
During the 18th dynasty, the classical type of a land-based Egyptian temple was established (Karnak and Luxor temples in Thebes). In plan, it is an elongated rectangle oriented from east to west; its façade faces the Nile, from which a road lined with sphinxes (alley of sphinxes) leads to it. The entrance to the temple is made in the form of a pylon, in front of which there are two obelisks and colossal statues of the pharaoh. Behind the pylon there is an open courtyard surrounded by a colonnade (peristyle) along the perimeter, which rests on another smaller pylon leading to the second courtyard, completely lined with columns and statues of the pharaoh (hypostyle). The hypostyle is directly adjacent to the main building of the temple, which consists of one or more columned halls, a sanctuary with statues of gods and utility rooms (treasury, library, storerooms). The repeated transition from one architectural space to another (the Karnak ensemble is stretched for more than 1 km) carries the idea of a slow gradual approach of the believer to the deity. Since the Egyptian temple was not a complete whole and existed as a set separate parts, it could be “continued” without violating harmony, supplemented with new structures. In contrast to the varied interior decoration, in its external expression it showed a simplicity of lines that corresponded to a monotonous landscape; it was broken only by wall painting and light coloring.
Over time, the funeral royal temples turn into independent monumental structures with massive pylons and alleys of sphinxes (the temple of Amenhotep III with two huge statues of the pharaoh - the so-called colossi of Memnon). Standing apart is the mortuary temple of Queen Hatshepsut in Deir el-Bahri (architect Senmut), which continues the architectural traditions of the XI dynasty. It consists of three terraces with halls carved into the rocks, the facades of which are framed by colonnades; the terraces are interconnected by ramps.
Significant changes in temple construction occur during the reign of Akhenaten. Architects refuse monumentality and columned halls; colonnades are used only for pavilions in front of the pylons. However, the 19th Dynasty returns to pre-Akhnatonian architectural traditions; the desire for grandiosity reaches its climax - giant pylons, columns and statues of kings, excessive interior decoration (temple of Amun in Karnak, temples of Ramses II in Tanis). The type of rock temple is spreading; the most famous is the mortuary temple of Ramses II in Abu Simbel (Ramesseum), carved into the rock 55 m deep: the facade of the temple is designed in the form of a front wall of a huge pylon approx. 30 m and width approx. 40 m; in front of him are four sitting gigantic statues of the pharaoh over 20 m in height; the organization of the internal space reproduces the arrangement of the premises of a classical ground-based temple.
The last monuments of monumental temple construction in the era of the New Kingdom are the temple of the god Khonsu in Karnak, erected under Ramses III, and the grandiose mortuary temple of this pharaoh in Medinet Abu, combined with the royal palace into a single complex. In the subsequent period, such construction is abandoned. Its final surge occurs only in the Sais era (the temple of the goddess Neith in Sais with palm-shaped colonnades and colossal statues of pharaohs).
Very little is known about the secular architecture of ancient Egypt. The palace architecture can only be judged by the royal residence of Akhenaten in Akhetaten; palaces of previous periods have not been preserved. Akhenaten's palace was oriented from north to south and consisted of two parts, connected by a covered passage - official (for receptions and ceremonies) and private (living quarters). The main entrance was on the north side and led to a large courtyard, around the perimeter of which there were statues and which rested against the facade of the palace; in the center of the facade there was a pavilion with columns, and ramps on the sides. Leisure rooms, courtyards and gardens with ponds adjoined the front columned hall of the palace.
The house of a noble Egyptian, as a rule, was located in the middle of a plot surrounded by walls with two entrances - the main and service. In the era of the Middle Kingdom, it was notable for its significant size (60 × 40 m) and could have up to seventy rooms grouped around a central hall with four columns (fortification in Kahuna). In the period of the New Kingdom, judging by the excavations in Akhetaten, the house of a noble person was more modest in size (22 x 22 m). It was divided into the right front (hall and reception rooms) and the left residential part (bedroom with washroom, rooms for women, pantries). All rooms had windows right up to the ceiling, so the main hall was built higher than the rest of the rooms. The walls and floors were covered with paintings. Around the house were yards, a well, outbuildings, a garden with a pond and pavilions. The house of a commoner of the era of the Middle and New Kingdoms was a small building that included a common room, bedroom and kitchen; a small courtyard adjoined it. The building material was reed, wood, clay or mud brick.
Sculpture.
The plastic art of Ancient Egypt was inseparable from architecture; sculpture was an organic part of tombs, temples and palaces. The works of Egyptian sculptors testify to a high degree of technical skill; their work required great effort - they carved, carefully finished and polished statues from the hardest types of stone (granite, porphyry, etc.). At the same time, they quite reliably conveyed the forms of the human body; they were less successful in drawing muscles and tendons. The main object of the sculptors' creativity was the earthly lord or nobleman, less often a commoner. The image of the deity was not central; usually the gods were depicted rather schematically, often with the heads of birds or animals.
Already in the period of the Old Kingdom, the canonical types of statues of high-ranking persons were formed: 1) standing (the figure is tensely straightened, frontal, the head is raised high, the left leg takes a step forward, the arms are lowered and pressed to the body); 2) sitting on a throne (hands symmetrically placed on the knees or one arm bent at the elbow) or sitting on the ground with crossed legs. All of them give the impression of solemn monumentality and strict calmness; they are characterized by a stiff posture, an impassive facial expression, strong and strong muscles (the statue of the nobleman Ranofer); before us is a generalized social type embodying power and might. To a special extent, these features are inherent in the huge statues of pharaohs with an exaggeratedly powerful torso and majestic dispassionate postures (statues of Djoser, Khafre); in its maximum expression, the idea of divine royal power is represented in giant stone sphinxes - lions with the head of a pharaoh (the first royal statues outside the temples). At the same time, the connection of the sculptural image with the funeral cult required its similarity with the original, which led to early appearance a sculptural portrait that conveys the individual originality of the model and its character (statues of the architect Hemiun, the scribe Kai, prince Kaaper, the bust of prince Ankhaaf). Thus, in Egyptian sculpture, the cold arrogance of the appearance and the solemn pose were combined with a realistic rendering of the face and body; it carried the idea of the social purpose of man and at the same time the idea of his individual existence. Sculpture of small forms turned out to be less canonical, since its object could be representatives of the lower strata (figurines of servants and slaves in the process of work).
In the era of the Middle Kingdom, the Theban school occupied a leading position in plastic art. If at first it follows the principles of schematization and idealization (the statue of Senusret I from Lisht), then the realistic direction intensifies in it: the royal statue, glorifying the power of the pharaoh, must at the same time fix his specific image in the minds of the people. To this end, the sculptors use new techniques - the contrast between the immobility of the pose and the lively expressiveness of a carefully crafted face (deeply seated eyes, traced facial muscles and skin folds) and a sharp play of chiaroscuro (statues of Senusret III and Amenemhat III). Genre scenes are popular in wooden folk sculpture: a plowman with bulls, a boat with rowers, a detachment of warriors; they are distinguished by spontaneity and truthfulness.
In the early period of the New Kingdom, there is a departure from the plastic innovations of the previous era: with maximum idealization, only the most general portrait resemblance is preserved (statues of Queen Hatshepsut and Thutmose III; they abandon the canonical strictness of forms in favor of exquisite decorativeness: the previously smooth surface of the statue is now covered with thin flowing lines of clothes and curls of wigs and enlivened by the play of chiaroscuro. realism is characteristic mainly for statues of private individuals (statue married couple time of Amenhotep III, male head from the Birmingham Museum). This tendency reaches its culmination under Akhenaten, when there is a complete break with the canon; idealization is abandoned even when depicting the king and queen. Sculptors set themselves the task of conveying inner world character (portrait heads of Akhenaten and Nefertiti), as well as to achieve a realistic image of the human body (statues of four goddesses from the tomb of Tutankhamun).
During the period of anti-Khenatonic reaction, an attempt is made to return to the old anti-realistic methods. The trend towards idealization, which is characteristic primarily of the Memphis school (statues from Per-Ramesses), becomes the leader again. However, in the plastic art of the era of the XIX-XX dynasties, the realistic direction does not give up its positions, which is manifested primarily in the royal portrait: there is no longer hyperbolized muscles, an unnaturally upright posture, a frozen gaze directed into the distance; the pharaoh appears in the form of a strong, but ordinary warrior, not in ceremonial, but in everyday attire. The secular image of the king is affirmed - not a god, but a real earthly ruler (statue of Ramesses II).
In the initial period of the Late Kingdom, plastic art is in decline. In the XI-IX centuries. BC. monumental sculpture gives way to small forms (small bronze figurines). At the end of the 9th - beginning of the 8th centuries. BC. a realistic sculptural portrait is being revived (statues of Taharqa, Kushite princesses, a statue of the Theban mayor Montuemkhet). In the Sais and Persian eras, the realist trend competes with the revived traditionalist trend.
Relief art and painting.
The relief was an important component of ancient Egyptian art. By the time of the Old Kingdom, two basic types of Egyptian relief had developed - an ordinary bas-relief and an in-depth (embedded) relief (the surface of the stone, which served as a background, remained untouched, and the contours of the image were cut). At the same time, a strict system of arrangement of scenes and entire compositions on the walls of the tombs was established. The reliefs of the royal tombs performed three tasks: to glorify the pharaoh as an earthly ruler (scenes of war and hunting), emphasize his divine status (the pharaoh surrounded by gods) and ensure his blissful existence in the afterlife (various food, dishes, clothes, weapons, etc.) . The reliefs in the tombs of the nobility were divided into two categories: some sang the merits and deeds of the deceased in the service of the pharaoh, others depicted everything necessary for another life.
Back in the era of the Early Kingdom, the basic principles of the relief image (Narmer plate) were formed: 1) the belt arrangement of scenes (one above the other); 2) general planar character; 3) convention and schematicity, partly due to the belief in the magical nature of the image: the transfer of social status through the size of the figure (the figure of the pharaoh surpasses all others, the figures of nobles are slightly smaller, ordinary people are almost pygmies), a combination of different perspectives (the head and legs of a person are given in profile , and the eyes, shoulders and arms are turned to the front), showing the object with the help of a schematic fixation of its individual parts (a hoof instead of a horse, a ram's head instead of the ram itself), fixing certain poses for certain categories of people (enemies are invariably depicted as defeated, etc. ); 4) the maximum portrait similarity of the main character; 5) contrasting the main character with the rest of the scene, with whom he contrasts with his calmness and immobility; however, it always remains out of action. The reliefs were painted without gradations of shades, the figures were outlined with contours.
These pictorial principles were also used in wall painting, which in the era of the Old Kingdom was closely associated with relief art. It was during that period that two main types of wall painting techniques spread: tempera on a dry surface and the insertion of colored pastes into pre-made recesses. Only mineral paints were used.
During the period of the Middle Kingdom, two directions are defined - the metropolitan, which focuses on the strict reproduction of previous models (the tombs of the pharaohs and courtiers), and the provincial, which tries to overcome a number of canons and is looking for new artistic techniques (the tombs of the nomarchs in Beni Hassan); the latter is characterized by more natural poses of characters, the rejection of disproportion in the depiction of the main and secondary participants in the scenes, greater realism in the display of commoners and animals, richness of color, bold juxtaposition of light spots. However, with the decline of the independence of the nomes during the XII dynasty, this trend is gradually fading away.
In the era of the New Kingdom, relief and wall painting are separated from each other, becoming independent types of fine art. The importance of wall painting is increasing. The paintings are made on smooth white plaster that covered the limestone walls and are distinguished by their stylistic and plot diversity (Theban wall painting); reliefs are carved much less often and only in those rock tombs that are cut from high-quality limestone. There is a book painting close to graphics (illustrations for book of the dead).
During the XVIII dynasty, the art of relief and painting undergoes changes both in plot and in pictorial terms (Theban school). New themes appear (various military scenes, scenes of feasts); attempts are made to convey the movement and volume of the figures, to show them from the back, in full front or full profile; group compositions become three-dimensional; coloring becomes more natural. The culmination of this evolution is the era of Akhenaten and Tutankhamun, when the rejection of the old canons allows artists to interpret hitherto forbidden topics (the king in Everyday life- at dinner, with family), pay more attention to the environment (gardens, palaces, temples), convey figures in free and dynamic poses without a conventional frontal turn of the shoulders.
Under the last pharaohs of the 18th and 19th dynasties, plot and compositional diversity, interest in the landscape, the desire for portrait accuracy and careful modeling of the body were preserved. At the same time, there is a return to the traditional principles of composition, the idealization of images, the disproportion of figurative images, especially in temple reliefs of cult content. After Ramesses III, this trend wins a complete victory; in Theban art, the realistic trend is dying; religious themes suppress the secular.
Clothing and food.
Since ancient times, the main clothing of men was an apron, a loincloth or a short skirt. The fabric and size differed depending on the social status: for commoners and slaves it was a simple piece of leather or paper material that fitted the hips, for the nobles it was an oblong piece of fabric tightly wrapped around the waist and upper part of the leg and fastened with a belt. Gradually, the apron and skirt lengthened, it became fashionable to put on them another longer and wider apron or skirt, sometimes made of transparent fabric. Noble men also covered the upper body. At first, a narrow cloak was used for this, which was thrown over the shoulders, or a trimmed tiger (leopard) skin that protected the back; it was passed under the armpits and tied with straps on the shoulders. In the era of the New Kingdom, a dress made of expensive fabric such as a shirt or cape spread.
Unlike men, women had to cover their bodies. Their oldest clothing was a woven dress that fitted the body from the chest to the feet and was held on by straps, sometimes with short and narrow sleeves; over time, it began to be decorated with multi-colored patterns. Later, noble women began to throw thin transparent covers on them. The costume of a noble Egyptian in the era of the XVIII-XX dynasties consisted of a wide shirt, a short skirt and a large cloak with rounded edges.
The custom of covering the head and wearing shoes spread in Egypt only at the time of the New Kingdom. Both men and women wore shoes and sandals made of leather or narrow bands of papyrus; sandals were fastened to the foot with straps. Shoes were worn only when leaving the house. The traditional male headdress was a round, tight-fitting hat made of leather or paper fabric, sometimes made of leaves and stems. Pharaohs and dignitaries preferred a kind of cap with long “ears” and a “scythe” twisted into a bun at the back. Women threw a large scarf over their heads, gathered into folds and covering their hair like a cover.
In the early period, men wore short, and women long and lush hair. Later, it became a custom for men to shave their hair and beard, this fashion spread among noble women. At the same time, aristocrats began to use false beards and wigs, usually curled.
The main food was barley cakes, emmer porridge, fish (primarily dried) and vegetables, the main drink was barley beer. The diet of the noble also included meat, fruits and grape wine. There were no forks. During the meal, knives were not used: food was served on trays already cut into pieces, which were taken with the fingers of the right hand. Liquid food was eaten with spoons; drinking from glasses and goblets. The main part of the kitchen utensils was a variety of vessels, ladles and jugs. Tables were originally a round or square board on a low stand; real dining tables and chairs came later.
Foreign Egyptology.
Until the end of the XVIII century. The history of Ancient Egypt was practically not interested. The country was under Turkish rule and remained inaccessible to Europeans; in addition, knowledge of ancient Egyptian writing was lost. The situation changed due to the campaign of Napoleon I in Egypt in 1798-1801, in which a group of French scientists participated in order to collect and catalog Egyptian antiquities. The result of their work was a multi-volume Description of Egypt(1809–1828). The Rosetta Stone they brought to Europe with a text inscribed in hieroglyphic, demotic and Greek letters allowed J.-F. Champollion (1790–1832) to find in 1822 a method for deciphering hieroglyphic writing; he compiled the first grammar and the first dictionary of the ancient Egyptian language. The discovery of J.-F. Champollion marked the birth of Egyptology.
At the first stage of the development of Egyptology (until the early 1880s), excavations were mostly unorganized; due to the lack of qualifications of many archaeologists-adventurers, a number of valuable monuments were irreparably damaged. At the same time, systematic archaeological research began, primarily by scientists from Germany and France. An important role in this was played by the Frenchman O.F. Mariette (1821-1881), who excavated in Thebes, Abydos and Memphis; in 1858 he founded the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. The deciphering of the hieroglyphic writing was also completed (R. Lepsius and G. Brugsch), a lot of work was done to collect, systematize and publish the discovered inscriptions and material materials. The German school founded by R. Lepsius began to study ancient Egyptian history and chronology.
At the second stage (early 1880s - 1920s), archaeological research was carried out on a strict scientific basis and under the control of the Egyptian State Antiquities Service in Cairo. The English scientist W. M. Flinders Petrie (1853–1942) developed a method for determining the relative age of objects and fruitfully used it during excavations in Negad, Abydos, Memphis and El Amarna. The work of the French expeditions was coordinated by the Institute of Oriental Archaeology founded in 1881. Since the beginning of the twentieth century. European archaeologists were joined by their colleagues from the United States, whose activities were supervised by the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, the University of Chicago and the University of California.
During this period, great strides were made in the field of scientific publication of monuments of ancient Egyptian writing and archaeological materials ( General Catalog of Egyptian Antiquities of the Cairo Museum, Monuments of Ancient Egypt, Primary sources of Egyptian antiquities). The development of the most diverse aspects of ancient Egyptian history began. Particular interest was shown in the military-political past of Egypt, its religion and culture. The first generalizing works appeared - History of Egypt since ancient times W. M. Flinders Petrie, History of Egypt American J. J. Breasted (1865–1935), During the time of the pharaohs And Kings and Gods of Egypt A.Moray (1868-1938). The concept of the leading role of the Egyptian civilization in the ancient world was established; its main adherents were the Frenchman G. Maspero (1846–1916), author Ancient history of the peoples of the classical East(1895–1899), and German E. Meyer (1855–1930), author History of antiquity(1884–1910).
In the third stage (1920s - 1950s), archaeologists turned to a serious study of the pre-dynastic and early dynastic periods. The most sensational event was the discovery in 1922 by the Englishman H. Carter (1873–1939) of Tutankhamun's tomb. The problem of the origin of the Egyptian civilization and its relationship with neighboring cultures (Nubian, Libyan, Syrian and Palestinian) was posed. Philologists have made significant progress: the German scientists A. Erman and H. Grapov compiled a new dictionary of the ancient Egyptian language, the English Egyptologist A.H. Gardiner published a grammar of the classical Egyptian language. Active publication of texts continued: Wilbur papyri, Administrative documents of the Ramesside era, Egyptian onomastics and others. Most scholars have abandoned the idea of Egyptian dominance in the Ancient East ( cambridge ancient history). In the 1940s, the Egyptian school of Egyptologists arose (A.Kamal, S.Hasan, Z.Goneim, A.Bakir).
Since the 1960s (fourth stage) and especially in recent decades, the problems and methodological tools of Egyptology have expanded significantly. While maintaining the traditional interest in political history, culture and religion, they often began to be viewed from a new angle. The problem of the correlation of political ideology and political practice was posed (E. Hornung), the Egyptian concept of the monarchy was rethought (E. Spalinger). A semiotic approach began to be applied in the study of various aspects of the ancient Egyptian mentality: ideas about time (E. Otto), war and peace (I. Hafeman and I. Foos), the image of someone else (G. Kees). Significant attention began to be paid to the study of historical consciousness (E. Otto, M. Werner, I. von Beckerat). Increased interest in economic and social structures (V. Helk, B. Kemp), in Egypt's relations with the early Greek civilization (V. Helk), with African cultures (J. Leklan) and Judea (A. Malamat), to the previously little-studied period XI –8th century BC. (K.Kitchen).
Domestic Egyptology.
In the 19th century in Russia, interest in ancient Egypt was limited to collecting collections and describing rarities; Museums have become the focus of this interest. The situation changed at the beginning of the 20th century. thanks to the activities of V.S. Golenishchev (1856–1947) and, especially, B.A. Turaev (1868–1920), the father of Russian Egyptology. V.S. Golenishchev organized excavations in Egypt at his own expense and created an impressive collection of more than six thousand items; he carried out an annotated translation of many Egyptian literary texts ( The Tale of the Shipwrecked, Journey of Unuamon and etc.); in 1915 he moved to Egypt and founded the Department of Egyptology at Cairo University. B.A. Turaev did a great job of systematizing Egyptian monuments in Russian museums and organized the Department of Ancient Egypt at the Museum of Fine Arts. The main area of his scientific interests was Egyptian literature and religion ( God Thoth 1898 and Egyptian literature 1920). Sharing the position of G. Maspero and E. Meyer, he highly appreciated the achievements of the Egyptian civilization ( History of the Ancient East 1912–1913).
A student of B.A. Turaev, V.V. Struve (1889–1965), the founder of Soviet Egyptology, was the first to propose a Marxist interpretation of ancient Egyptian society as a special type of slave-owning (early slave-owning) society. His followers V.I. Avdiev, M.A. Korostovtsev and Yu.Ya. Perepelkin put social and economic relations at the center of their research, primarily the community and slavery; they also made a comparative analysis of the Egyptian and other ancient Eastern social systems; in the 1960s–1980s, this direction was continued by O.D. Berlev, E.S. Bogoslovsky and I.A. Stuchevsky. At the same time, certain attention was paid to issues of cultural and political history - religion (M.A. Korostovtsev, O.I. Pavlova), mythology (I.E. Mathieu), language (N.S. Petrovsky), law (I M. Lurie), the reforms of Akhenaten (Yu. Ya. Perepelkin), the history of wars (V. I. Avdiev). Since the late 1980s, the range of domestic research has expanded significantly: along with traditional socio-economic issues (T.N. Savelyeva), scientists are trying to reconstruct the mental structures of the ancient Egyptians (A.O. Bolshakov) and to study in more depth the connections of ancient Egyptian civilization with neighboring ones ( G.A. Belova).
Ivan Krivushin
Literature:
Teaching of the King of Heracleopolis to his son Merikara// Bulletin ancient history. 1950, № 2
Champollion J.-F. About the Egyptian hieroglyphic alphabet. M., 1950
Pharaoh Khufu and sorcerers: Tales, stories, teachings of Ancient Egypt. M., 1958
Carter G. Tomb of Tutankhamun. M., 1959
Korostovtsev M.A. Journey of Unu-Amun to Byblos. M., 1960
Mathieu M.E. Art of Ancient Egypt. M., 1961
Reader on the history of the Ancient East. M., 1963
King H.A. Egypt before pharaohs. M., 1964
Lyrics of Ancient Egypt. M., 1965
Herodotus. History. M., 1972
Poetry and prose of the Ancient East. M., 1973
Korostovtsev M.A. Religion of ancient Egypt. M., 1976
Culture of Ancient Egypt. M., 1976
Plutarch. Morals about Isis and Osiris// Bulletin of ancient history. 1977, No. 4
The Tale of Petheis III: Ancient Egyptian Prose. M., 1977
Tales and stories of ancient Egypt. L., 1979
Perepelkin Yu.Ya. Coup of Amen-hot-pa IV. Ch. 1–2. M., 1967–1984
Stuchevsky I.A. Ramesses XI and Herihor: From the history of Ancient Egypt era ramesside. M., 1984
Bolshakov A. O. Representation of the Double in Old Kingdom Egypt// Bulletin of ancient history. 1987, No. 2
Christian J. Egypt of the great pharaohs. History and legend. M., 1992
Rak I.V. Myths of ancient Egypt. St. Petersburg, 1993
Mathieu M.E. Selected Works on the Mythology and Ideology of Ancient Egypt. M., 1996
History of the Ancient East: The origin of the oldest class societies and the first centers of slave-owning civilization. Part 2: Western Asia, Egypt. M., 1998
Pyramid Texts. St. Petersburg, 2000
Perepelkin Yu. Ya. History of Ancient Egypt. St. Petersburg, 2000
History of the Ancient East. Ed. IN AND. Kuzishchina. M., 2002
On the banks of the Nile, the sacred river for the Egyptians, about six thousand years ago, on the African continent, the history of the existence of the ancient civilization of Egypt began, the age of which was not inferior to the Sumerian state.
The emergence of ancient Egypt and its population
The ancients said that without the Nile, Egypt could not exist. He is the only source fresh water, life and prosperity in the country. The bed of the Nile is filled with the purest spring water of hundreds of streams from the mountains of Central Africa. Its course, if you look at the geographical map, occurs from the bottom up, towards the Mediterranean Sea.
That is why the division of the country, adopted in the history of ancient times, into Upper Egypt (the southern lower part) and Lower Egypt (the northern upper part), was explained not by the geographical position of the state, but by the course of the river.
In the upper part of the continent, the Nile forms a branched delta and flows into the Mediterranean Sea. Weather conditions since the time of the ancient kingdom has not changed: summer and winter in Egypt are sunny and hot. Precipitation is extremely rare, there will be a short rain maybe once every four to five years. 95 percent of the country's territory is desert. And only 5 percent, mostly near the fertile lands near the Nile, are inhabited. Every year, the waters of the river overflowed their banks, leaving a silty sediment after the spill, which meant a rich harvest for the Egyptians. If this did not happen, the people of Egypt suffered from a lack of food and this sometimes served as a reason for popular uprisings, since it was believed that the pharaoh could not cope with his duties as an all-powerful governor on earth.
On the banks of the Nile, the culture of Ancient Egypt arose. Local residents transported food and materials for construction along the Nile. They learned how to build ships, small boats from reeds - papyrus, which grew on the river, so the craft was born. Then the Nile papyrus began to be used for writing. So on the banks of the Nile arose the history of ancient Egyptian writing.
The name "Egypt" was given to the country by the Greeks. Even in the ancient world, civilization became famous as a country of mysteries and a treasure trove of secret knowledge of all mankind. The culture and traditions of Ancient Egypt were of interest to such major powers of that time as the Roman Empire and Ancient Greece. The first archaeological expedition was carried out in Egypt in early XIX century. Researchers from France and England participated in their composition. The first Russian book about the history of Ancient Egypt was written by the traveler B. Turaev.
Farming on the Nile River
The Art of the Ancient Egyptians Agriculture admired by his contemporaries. They divided the year into three seasons, depending on the time of the flood of the river. From July to November, the Nile overflowed its banks. By this time, everything should have been ready for planting crops: special channels with embankments were built, which made it possible to retain water. At other times, free from work on the Nile, the local population was employed in construction. The history of the life of the local population in Ancient Egypt, written on the walls of architectural monuments, tells that, on the orders of the pharaoh, men rushed to earn money: construction, roads, tombs.
Mid-November was marked as plowing season. The earth was plowed with a plow, which was harnessed by animals - oxen or by hand. It is noteworthy that the locals did not use horses as labor force for a long time. In Africa, they appeared only after one and a half thousand years with the arrival of foreign conquerors.
The main agricultural crops in Ancient Egypt were barley and wheat. They also grew beans, cucumbers, peas, olives, dates, pomegranates, figs, and rice. The harvest season was in the spring, from March to April. The Nile was also full of fish, which were caught with nets. The ancient Egyptians produced flax and were its main suppliers to other countries.
History of the origin of the state of Ancient Egypt. Origin state structure on the banks of the Nile, due to the unification of numerous disparate tribes, began around 6000 BC. First, they formed city-settlements, which they called "nomes". There were about forty in all. There was no unity between them, each tried to occupy a larger territory. As a result of numerous internecine wars, they were divided into Upper and Lower Egypt, the final victory went to the state located in the center of the African continent. Around the third millennium BC. the first king of the united state of Ancient Egypt named Mina took the lead over the whole country. It was proclaimed the capital of civilization. The head of state received the hereditary title of pharaoh, which accompanies the entire history of Ancient Egypt.
Cities of Ancient Egypt
With the emergence of the state system, administrative units - cities - began to form. The pharaohs arranged residences in the largest of them, decorated with the most beautiful gardens of Ancient Egypt, where wild animals were often found and beautiful flowers grew. The halls of the palaces were painted by talented artists.
Houses were built by the locals from raw bricks. There was almost no furniture in their houses. Clothes were kept in chests.
Wealthy citizens were distinguished by clothes made of expensive fabrics and numerous decorations. It was customary for both men and women to wear wigs and brightly tint their eyes.
There were no monetary units and coins in Ancient Egypt, the assessment was carried out according to the commodity exchange and in relation to the amount of grain. The craftsman traded a piece of furniture for the merchant's food.
On the table of the ancient Egyptians was bread, grain soup, meat, poultry, vegetables, fruits and drinks, wine and beer. The tradition of brewing beer originated for the first time in the history of Ancient Egypt. With the help of it, local residents quenched their thirst and improved their health: hops contributed to the removal of limestone from the kidneys, which is found in large quantities in the water of the Nile.
The institution of the family in ancient Egyptian society
During the existence of the ancient civilization of Egypt, the family was the main component of society and was highly valued. Women had property and civil rights: they had the right to property, they could apply to the court.
Schools were organized for boys, where they studied craft, religion, and received writing skills. The most talented of them had the opportunity to get a high position in society in the service in the court of the pharaoh of Ancient Egypt.
The civilization of Ancient Egypt was formed in the Nile Valley, in a relatively isolated area, which left an imprint of originality on it. The long history of Ancient Egypt is characterized by the change of eras of centralization of the state (kingdom) by periods of disintegration (transitional periods). Each such stage has features of an economic, political and cultural order, although elements that denote the continuity of Egyptian civilization have always been preserved. The history of Egypt is traditionally divided into the following major periods:
I. Pre-dynastic period(IV millennium BC), during which 42 territorial-political units were formed - nomes. As a result of political, economic and military interaction, they united, creating two political formations: Upper Egypt (south) and Lower Egypt (north). Those, in turn, became parts of a single Egyptian state.
II. Early Kingdom period(c. 3300 - c. 2800 BC, I-II dynasties). Under King Menes, the founder of the 1st dynasty, Egypt was unified. The capital is located in the city of Memphis. The integrity of the country was strengthened by creating a centralized irrigation system and administrative apparatus, the invention and dissemination of hieroglyphic writing.
III. Period of the Old Kingdom(c. 2800 - c. 2250 BC, III-VI dynasty). Egypt becomes an economically and politically strong state. Economic prosperity and political stability made possible the improvement of the irrigation system, as well as the construction of the pyramids of the pharaohs Cheops, Khafre and Menkaure - the symbols of Egyptian civilization.
IV. First transitional period(c. 2250 - c. 2050 BC, VII-X dynasty). This is a time of internal strife and the collapse of a centralized state. The importance of the city of Thebes increased, it became the center around which the kingdom was again united.
V. The period of the Middle Kingdom(c. 2050 - c. 1700 BC, XI-XIII dynasties). The country was reunited, and the power of the leaders of the nomes was limited. Egypt increased its territory, especially in the south. Bronze tools became widespread, glass production began.
VI. Second transitional period(c. 1700 - c. 1580 BC, XIV-XVII dynasties). The Egyptian state collapsed as a result of the invasion of the Hyksos - nomadic tribes of Semitic origin, who invaded from Asia and conquered the northern and central parts of the country. The rulers of Thebes led the liberation struggle, which ended with the expulsion of the Hyksos.
VII. New Kingdom period(c. 1580 - c. 1070 BC, XVIII-XX dynasty). The heyday of Egyptian civilization. Egypt extended its possessions to the Euphrates in the east and the third threshold of the Nile in the south. The pharaohs made great efforts to preserve their lands in the fight against the Hittite kingdom, and later with the so-called. sea peoples.
VIII. Late period(c. 1070-525 BC, XXI-XXVI dynasties). Time of strife, invasions and foreign domination: Libyan, Nubian, Assyrian. Under the XXVI dynasty, Egypt experienced its last rise - the so-called. Sais revival.
IX. Period of Persian domination(525-405 BC, XXVII dynasty). The Persian kingdom conquered Egypt, but the increase in tax oppression and the abuse of the Persians led the Egyptians to rebel and liberate the country.
X. The Last Period of Egyptian Independence(405-342 BC, XXVIII-XXX dynasties). The unification was reduced to internal strife, which caused the weakening of the state and the restoration of Persian influence.
XI. Period of Persian, Greek and Roman-Byzantine domination(342 BC - 646 AD). In 332 BC. e. The Persians were expelled by Alexander the Great. After the collapse of the empire of Alexander in Egypt, the Hellenistic Ptolemaic dynasty was established, which lasted until the time of the Roman conquest (30s of the 1st century BC).
The legacy of Egyptian civilization is priceless. First of all, for the Greco-Roman world, which borrowed and reworked many achievements of the culture of Ancient Egypt.
History of World Civilizations Fortunatov Vladimir Valentinovich
§ 2. Ancient Egyptian civilization
ancient egyptian civilization developed in Northeast Africa in the Nile River valley. Thanks to periodic spills of this great river in a narrow valley with a width of 4 to 30 km, there were excellent conditions for agriculture.
Innovation. Irrigated agriculture
All life was connected with the Nile. During the flood season, from mid-July to mid-November, the fields were filled with water and agricultural work stopped. The population was attracted to public Works engaged in handicrafts. After the flood receded, the fields were plowed, sown, watered and weeded from weeds. Harvested in March-April sickles with flint blades. At the same time, taxes were being collected. From mid-March to mid-July, irrigation systems were being repaired. Cattle were driven over the collected ears to separate the grain from the chaff. After threshing, the grain was winnowed and stored in special granaries. The straw was used to feed livestock. The Egyptians raised cows, pigs, sheep, goats, geese, ducks, pigeons, and bees. Fish were caught with traps, on a hook, net or speared. The diet of the Egyptians was quite diverse, including beer, which appeared in ancient times.
Along with the Nile, another wealth of Egypt was stone. In the desert highlands, the Egyptians mined flint, necessary for the manufacture of ancient tools and various types of weapons. Limestone, sandstone, granite, diorite, basalt, porphyry, serpentine, onyx were mined. Various types of stone were used by the Egyptians both for building work and for the manufacture of statues, vessels and other objects. This led to the development of stone-mining craft. Metals were exported from the Arabian Desert, from the Sinai Peninsula, from the island of Cyprus, gold from Nubia. The need for delivery to Egypt various kinds foreign raw materials determined the direction of the most ancient trade routes. The most important trade route was the Nile itself. The trade road also ran from the northeastern part of the Nile Delta through Sinai and Palestine to Syria. From the Nile Valley to the west were roads to the oases. To the east, along the beds of dried-up channels, roads ran to the coast of the Red Sea.
Innovation. Trade
In the 3rd-2nd millennium BC. e., in the era of the Ancient and Middle Kingdoms, Egyptian trade spread to the regions of northern Syria. Numerous Egyptian products were discovered during excavations of the city of Byblos. There were many outposts of Egyptian trade in Syria. Minerals, salt, plants, wood, leather, birds, in particular pigeons, were exported from here to Egypt. Trade relations between Egypt and Babylonia were established. After the conquests in Nubia and Sinai, the gold and copper mines located in these territories came under the control of Egypt.
In the era of the New Kingdom (from the second half of the 2nd millennium BC), Egypt's trade with neighboring countries expanded more and more. From Syria, the Egyptians exported grain, livestock, wine, honey, Syrian handicrafts. Through Syria, Egyptian merchants brought goods from the Hittite state, from the islands of the Aegean Sea, from Mesopotamia. Numerous goods were sent from Syria by caravans by land or by sea, since Egypt had a navy. Large quantities of timber were exported from Lebanon. As the Sinai copper mines were gradually depleted, the rich copper deposits of the island of Cyprus acquired great importance. The Egyptians exported silver and precious handicrafts to Cyprus. The Egyptian pharaohs agreed with the Cypriot kings on a joint fight against sea pirates, and tried to maintain peaceful trade relations with each other. From the state of Mitanni, located in the northwestern part of Mesopotamia, the Egyptians received bronze, lapis lazuli, fabrics, clothes, oil, chariots, horses and slaves. Silver and precious items adorned with gold and ivory were exported from Babylon. Trade relations were established with Assyria, from where chariots, horses and lapis lazuli were supplied to Egypt. The Egyptians exported gold in ingots and products, stone vessels, ivory, fabrics and clothes to Asia Minor, to the islands of the Aegean Sea.
In the foreign economic policy of the pharaohs, military-trade expeditions and wars retained their importance. Thus, during the reign of Queen Hatshepsut (1525–1503 BC), a major expedition was sent south to the country of Punt, inhabited by typically Negroid tribes. The sail-oared ships returned loaded with precious woods, ivory, silver and gold, myrrh resin, frankincense, eye rubs, baboons, monkeys, dogs, wild animal skins, natives and their children. Conquests brought incalculable wealth. They did not always end with the actual conquest. Often the case was limited tribute. Dynastic and diplomatic relations were established, various agreements were signed. Egypt, having become the richest country of the Ancient East, itself became an object of expansion from neighboring states, which, for various reasons, managed to create more powerful armed forces.
Innovation. Ship
When the high-water Nile overflowed its banks, flooding almost all of Egypt, communication between the settlements was provided with the help of boats. River navigation in Egypt originated around the 5th millennium BC. e., when papyrus barges appeared. Early Egyptian barges were sickle-shaped boats made from bundles of papyrus. The bow and stern were curved. The ship was light but strong. His body was tightly pulled together by cables. Later, Lebanese cedar, which had high strength, began to be used in shipbuilding. Over time, rather large ships began to be built, which moved at the expense of rowers. Three-tier barges (triremes) were considered for a long time the best type of warship. The oars of different lengths, behind which the slaves sat, were staggered. Ships were also built with a large number of tiers. The oars on the ship of the Egyptian pharaoh Ptolemy Philopatra were located in 40 tiers. The ship of Pharaoh Ptolemy IV was 122 meters long and 15 meters wide. His crew consisted of 4 thousand people.
The order of life established by the rulers for the majority of the population, which consisted of free communal peasants, was preserved for many centuries. The political life of the country depended on ambitions pharaohs, rulers of large associations of tribal communities (nomes) - nomarchs big landowners, priests, officials. The history of Egypt is usually divided into the Ancient, Middle, New Kingdoms that existed in the 3rd-2nd millennium BC. e ... In the 1st millennium BC. e.
Egypt becomes an arena for the struggle of powerful empires. From time to time, the rule of local dynasties was restored. In 30 BC. e. After the death of the famous Cleopatra, Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire.
It would not be an exaggeration to say that the achievements of the ancient Egyptians in various spheres of life were of fundamental importance for the world civilizational development.
In their relationship with nature, the Egyptians showed respect, intelligence and ingenuity. Irrigated agriculture, productive animal husbandry, mining of gold and building materials led to the development of a diversified economy and trade.
Innovation. Construction. pyramids
Evidence of the outstanding achievements of material production was the construction of pyramids - huge stone tombs that were erected for the pharaohs during their lifetime. Near the pyramids of stones or bricks, mastabas (tombs) were built for nobles, rich and noble people. The largest of the approximately 70 pyramids that have survived to this day is the Pyramid of Cheops (Khufu). Its height is 146.5 m, each side at the base is 230 m. (Note for comparison that the height of the Peter and Paul Cathedral is 122 m, and the Ostankino TV tower is 360 m.) 2300 thousand stone blocks weighing two tons went into its construction every. The construction was carried out for 20 years, 100 thousand people took part in it, changing every three months. Inside the pyramids, the tombs of the pharaohs hid, most of which were nevertheless plundered. (Some authors argue that, in fact, the construction of Egyptian monumental structures was carried out by relatively small specialized artels using complex blocks, levers, etc. From these artels of masons, they trace the genealogy of Freemasonry - “free masons”.)
The Egyptians did a lot in the field of natural science. They had a decimal number system. They knew how to calculate the area of a triangle, a trapezoid, and a circle. Based on the observation of the heavenly bodies, they compiled a calendar, according to which the year was divided into 12 months and 365 days. Many achievements of the ancient Egyptian civilization in the field of "Man and Nature" were widely disseminated throughout the ancient world.
Ancient Egypt became the place where for the first time the political, social and economic institutions that have become commonplace in many countries took shape.
At the end of the 4th millennium BC. e. the ruler of Upper Egypt Menes (or Mina) managed to conquer Lower Egypt, become the first king (pharaoh) and transfer hereditary power to his son. That's how it started state power, perhaps for the first time in world history. Pharaoh's assistant vizier, to which the heads of individual "houses" (grain, gold, bulls counting, etc.) were subordinate, i.e., administrations of individual areas of the country's life. A special layer of society was made up of scribes, perhaps the most ancient "officials". In the Teachings of Duauf, the father instructs his son on the true path: “Look, there is no such work where there would be no overseer, with the exception of the work of the scribe, for the scribe is the overseer himself ... you will send many if you listen to the words of the elders ... there is no scribe who is deprived subsistence from the property of the royal house. The goddess of birth gives abundance to the scribe, he is placed at the head of the court. His father and mother thank God - he is directed to the path of life.
In the economic field have been tested various forms of ownership royal, priestly, large nobility, communal and personal. A variety of taxes, loans, credit, rent, pledge and other forms of economic relations between people were used. During the conquests, the prisoners were no longer killed and turned into slaves. These "living dead" were employed mainly in the royal, temple and other large households. It is natural that government in Egypt, it relied on an army that consisted of foot soldiers armed with bows, arrows and spears, and cavalry that fought on war chariots. Along with the ground army, there was a sailing and rowing fleet. The Egyptian family was patriarchal with the absolute authority of the father, the head of the family.
Names. Ramesses II the Great
Ramesses II the Great (1301-1235 BC). King of Egypt (XIX dynasty). One of the most famous kings in the history of Egypt. At the very beginning of his reign, he was busy fighting the Hittites. In the end, fear of destruction put an end to the conflicts, and peace reigned between both sides. Ramesses II strengthened ties with the Hittites by marrying the daughter of a Hittite king. Ramesses built a large number of fortresses, temples, and monuments, including the Temple of Seti I at Luxor, the Colonnade at Karnak, two rock-cut temples at Abu Simbel, and the Temple of Osiris at Abydos.. Ramesses II had over a hundred sons.
It is believed that Ramses II ruled for 67 years. But the longest in world history was the reign of Cheops II. His tenure on the throne began in 2281 BC. e., when he was 6 years old, and lasted 94 years. In Russia, the “record holder” for the length of reign is Ivan IV the Terrible (51 years old), who was declared the Grand Duke of Moscow at the age of 3 (born in 1530), crowned king in 1547 and died in 1584.
The ancient Egyptians attached great importance to life after death. They saw death as a transition to another, a better life. To save the three souls of man - ka, ba And Oh- it was considered necessary to preserve the bodies of the dead (in the pre-dynastic era, bodies were buried in shallow pits, which allowed them to remain in hot sand and thereby avoid decay; from the middle of the 2nd millennium BC, in the era of the New Kingdom, a technique was developed embalming). It was believed that after death, the deceased, with the help of an old carrier, crossed the River of the Dead, passed through twelve gates, and crossed the Lake of Fire. Then 42 judges read a list of sins, and the deceased had to swear that he did not commit them. (Very similar to a polygraph test - a "lie detector".) In the Hall of Judgment of Osiris, the heart of the deceased was weighed on the scales, it should not outweigh the Feather - the symbol of the goddess of truth. The one who passed the test became a resident of the Other World, or the Kingdom of the West. Sinners were given to be torn apart by a monster.
The ancient Egyptians had over 2000 gods and goddesses, but the cult of most of them had local meaning. Pharaoh Amenhotep IV(1364-1347, ruled 1351-1334 BC) tried to implement a religious reform, one of the first in the world. In the country, the veneration of all the former gods was canceled and their temples were closed. Monotheism was introduced, worship of the god of the sun - Aten. The construction of new temples began, a new capital was laid, and the pharaoh himself took the name Akhenaten, which meant "Pleasant to the Aten". This model of reforming society was subsequently reproduced many times, often with the same result, because after the death of Akhenaten, the reform came to naught, and the influence of the former priesthood increased, the position of the high priest began to be inherited.
Egyptian mythology reflected the gratitude of people for the benefits they used, the desire to receive the patronage of higher powers in all activities. So, for example, Tauert, a goddess in the guise of a female hippopotamus (behemoth), was considered the patroness of pregnant women and newborn children. key position occupied by the sun god Ra, the creator of the world Amon, the gods of fertility Osiris and Isis. The story of the death and resurrection of Osiris personified the life of a grain that is buried in the ground. And it is reborn as a new plant.
Man and woman in the history of civilizations
In ancient Egyptian mythology, the cohabitation of the gods was considered the source of life and existence of the world (myths about the creation of the world), so there was great tolerance regarding sex. The man played the main role. The family was monogamous, but pharaohs and aristocrats had many wives. A man had the right to divorce, polygamy. Women had no such rights. Adultery was punishable up to and including the death penalty. Women entered into marriage at the age of 12-14 years, men - at 15-17 years. Pharaohs and aristocrats, following the example of Isis, who married her brother Osiris, often entered into incestuous relationships (marriages). Because of this, the dynasties of the pharaohs quickly degenerated and ceased to exist.
Homosexuality was considered indecent. Slaves, prisoners of war were often cut off genitals, which meant the loss of status, male position. According to tomb paintings, it was established that in Egypt there were cases of sodomy, transvestism, oralism, analism, bestiality, as well as prostitution associated with the cult of fertility, and sacred (temple) prostitution (the cult of Isis). Great importance was attached to virginity and ritual defloration, which was seen as a sacrifice to the gods.
ancient egyptian mythology is an outstanding phenomenon of world culture. It reflected the rich spiritual world of Egyptian society, a complex system of philosophical, ethical and aesthetic views, ideas about the origin of the world and man. Mythological characters, rulers - favorites of the gods became the heroes of works of literature, fine arts. The achievements of the ancient Egyptian civilization were so organically absorbed by other civilizations, and she herself was so firmly forgotten that the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphs Francois Champollion in 1822 actually caused the "second birth" of Ancient Egypt.
Names. Cleopatra
Cleopatra (born 69 BC)– died in 30 BC. BC) - the last queen of Egypt from the Ptolemaic dynasty. After the death of her father, Cleopatra and her younger brother Ptolemy XII, according to the custom of Egyptian kings, were supposed to marry and rule together. The consanguineous marriages of the Egyptian rulers were the cause of the rapid degeneration and change of the dynasties of the pharaohs in Egypt. But the smart and educated Cleopatra (she knew about 10 languages) from 51 BC. e. took complete control of the throne. Guy Julius Caesar supported Cleopatra, who became his mistress, in the fight against the supporters of Ptolemy XII.
After the death of Caesar, Cleopatra became the wife of Mark Antony, who began distributing lands from the so-called Eastern provinces of the Roman state to her children. The Senate, under the influence of Octavian, great-nephew of Julius Caesar and later the first Roman emperor, declared war on Egypt. At Cape Action, the fleet of Cleopatra and Mark Antony was defeated. After the entry of Roman troops into Egypt, Cleopatra committed suicide.
The image of Cleopatra is widely reflected in literature and fine arts as well as in cinema.
Metamorphoses, similar to the fate of Ancient Egypt, also occurred with other ancient civilizations that were “opened” to mankind as a result of scientific research in the 19th–20th centuries.
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Developed states have existed on the territory of modern Egypt for more than 5 thousand years. The most ancient civilizations existed for about 40 centuries from the end of the fourth millennium to the beginning of our era.
A Brief Overview of the Major Civilizations of Ancient Egypt
It is customary for historians to single out 4 main stages in the development of the Ancient Egyptian civilization. The most ancient is the pre-dynastic period. It lasted approximately 2000 years and ended around 3100 BC.
The longest was the dynastic period that replaced it, which lasted more than 27 centuries and largely laid the main features of the appearance of modern Egypt.
Two subsequent periods of development of Ancient Egypt - Hellenistic and Roman - lasted until the 4th century AD. Both of them were characterized by active interaction and interpenetration of the culture of Egypt and other civilizations. First of all, this refers to the states of Ancient Greece and Rome, which had a great influence on the life of Egypt at that time.
The main reason for the emergence and development of Egyptian civilizations was the local climate and, above all, the fact that the Nile flowed through the territory of the state. In fact, it was the Nile that gave life to the civilization of the Egyptians. He not only gave them water in the surrounding desert. After its annual floods, it left tons of silt and algae, which served as natural fertilizer for the Egyptians.
A feature of the civilizations of Egypt to this day is the concentration of the entire population on a narrow strip along the Nile and its tributaries.
Architectural monuments, paintings and sculptures of Ancient Egypt already in antiquity were widely known beyond its borders. But then there were almost no means of transmitting information, all knowledge about the world around was transferred by travelers and passed on by word of mouth. The few sculptures and images taken out of Egypt were copied and distributed by spectators admiring their beauty.
Pre-dynastic period of ancient Egyptian civilization
During this period, in the territory of Egypt, which was occupied by numerous small tribes of tillers and hunters, the first cities began to appear, walled and protected from possible attacks.
The quality of the canals from the main water artery, the Nile, has improved significantly. Instead of stone tools and weapons, objects made of metal products came. These were copper swords, harpoons, needles. It is to this period that the first of the gold jewelry found by archaeologists belong. The society of that period was still quite united, there were no slaves and nobility managing them.
At the next stage, the tribes become more and more sedentary, instead of hunting, cattle breeding develops everywhere. At the same time, the first military leaders appeared, living more richly than the rest. At the same time, scattered tribes and settlements began to unite around several large cities, in which the main temples and dwellings of the leaders were built. The first prototypes of the state were created.
Since that time, several burial places of leaders have come down to us, in which artifacts, household utensils, weapons and jewelry made of copper, gold and silver were found.
In the last years of this period, there were various wars, during which the victorious leader became the supreme ruler of all Egypt, receiving the title of pharaoh. The first pharaoh of the whole Egypt was Narmer, who managed to collect almost all the nomes - regions - of Egypt during the wars under his rule.
In the same period, a kind of writing of the Egyptians was born - the famous Egyptian hieroglyphs.
Dynastic period of ancient Egyptian civilization
The dynastic period is the most famous and longest of the stages in the development of the Ancient Egyptian civilization. During his time in Egypt, 30 dynasties of pharaohs were replaced. This period lasted 3 thousand years from the end of the fourth millennium BC until the conquest of Egypt by the troops of the legendary Alexander the Great in 332 BC.
At an early stage of the dynastic period, buildings were built of clay and wood, stone was almost never used. The pharaohs were busy with continuous wars with their Asian neighbors and did not plan grandiose construction projects.
The country was then divided into Lower and Upper Egypt, until finally Pharaoh Khasekhemui put an end to this, uniting the country with the swords of his soldiers and opening for it a completely new stage of development, later called the period of the Old Kingdom.
It was during this era that the legendary Djoser and Cheops were in power. Under them, architecture reached heights that even now sometimes seem unattainable. It was then that the giant pyramids were built, the first of which was erected by the architect Imhotep, who forever glorified his name with this. For his achievements in science, he was deified. He was worshiped as the god of healing, and the pyramid he erected in Saqqara is called the oldest of the stone structures of mankind.
After 150 years in Giza, Pharaoh Cheops in Giza (a suburb of modern Cairo) began the construction of the pyramid, which became the highest of all.
In subsequent years, another series of pyramids was erected, inferior in size to the pyramid of Cheops, but with the so-called Books of the Pyramids inscribed inside - texts of extraordinary importance for archaeologists.
The heyday and period of the highest power lasted half a millennium, but then gave way to decline, a period of disunity, a constant struggle for power between the rulers of individual provinces. At the same time, it was then that the highest period of cultural development took place, the Bronze Age replaced the Copper Age, bringing new, more advanced technologies.
A new period of prosperity coincided with the reign of Thutmose III. He was an outstanding military leader of his time, having made a number of successful campaigns in Asia. It was in those days that Egypt became part of the whole world, ceasing to be a closed and closed country. His descendants were unable to maintain the created state, and gradually it was fragmented by internal strife and conquerors from outside.
Hellenistic and Roman periods of civilization of Ancient Egypt
After the death of Alexander the Great, his friends and associates immediately began to tear apart the great power. In Egypt, Ptolemy, one of Alexander the Great's generals, succeeded. He proclaimed himself pharaoh and founded a dynasty that ruled for three centuries.
Alexandria, founded by Alexander the Great and named after him, became the capital of the state.
In subsequent years, the power became stronger and at the time of its highest prosperity, in addition to Egypt, included various islands in the Mediterranean and Aegean seas, a significant part of Asia Minor and the territory of modern Bulgaria.
At the same time, there was a significant merger of Greek and Egyptian cultures, in particular, many gods were united. One of the centers for the emergence of a new common culture was the capital of Alexandria, in which the famous Library of Alexandria was created. Unlike the modern concept of the word library, the library of Alexandria, in addition to the function of collecting and preserving books and manuscripts, was one of the largest educational centers of that time. At various times, such prominent figures of science as Euclid, Archimedes, Eratosthenes, Claudius Ptolemy worked in it. These scientists laid many of the foundations of modern science.
In our time, on the site of the destroyed ancient library in 2002, a new "Library of Alexandrina" was created.
In the era of the Ptolemies in Egypt, another of the wonders of the world was created. The majestic Pharos lighthouse was added to this list, which, unfortunately, was destroyed in the 14th century during a devastating earthquake.
By the way, it was in this era that one of today's symbols of Egypt was brought to Egypt - one-humped camels.
The Roman period in the history of Egypt began after the tragic end of one of the most romantic stories of the ancient world - after the death of Mark Antony, Cleopatra's lover, and her suicide, Egypt was annexed to the Roman Empire.
During this period, the heyday gave way to wars and gave way to decline. During the same period, Egypt became one of the centers of first Jewish and then Christian culture. The descendants of the first Egyptian Christians - the Copts - still live in the territory .
This period ended with the arrival and conquest of the country by Muslim Arabs around the 5th century AD.
Conclusion
Since the time of Ancient Egypt, many ancient monuments, artifacts, paintings, sculptures and other things have come down to us, which are the most valuable exhibits of many museums in the world.
The Egyptian pyramids, the only one of the "seven wonders of the world" that have come down to us, every year attract millions of tourists from all over the world to the country who want to touch antiquity.
