The laws of the social process. Concepts for the development of society. The main forms of development of society Development of society and the means
As part of the transition to more concrete stages of the ascent from the abstract to the concrete, namely, to research historical stages of development of society, it seems appropriate to highlight in brief the specifics of the research methodology. In this case, we focus on two sides of the methodology - historical and logical. Historical there is a process of development of an object, with all its necessary stages, in time. Logical- analysis of the already mature sides of the subject in their "classical", complete form, in their simultaneous given. So, we can make the following judgment on the basis of these premises: logical there is filmed historical... Logical and historical are internally united, interconnected, dialectical-materialistic consideration O pre-given moments development process is reflected in withdrawn the sight of him development in time , but development in time there is development exactly this, and not the other process and, therefore, his moments as simultaneously data , however, it is - identity with a difference... This is clear from the above. Consequently, these single moments can be viewed in their relative isolation.
The materialistic understanding of history, discovered by Marx and Engels, made it possible to understand history as a truly objective process, with its own laws. History has become a science proper. However, historical materialism did not postulate (and does not do so now) determinism in the form of absolute predetermination, a kind of Fate. Along with the objective processes of historical development, the activity of thinking, feeling people who have their own will and their interests is also taken into account, that is, subjective activity is important constituent element materialistic understanding of history. So, there is a natural development of society, insofar as it is natural, it is carried out in a certain direction. Along with this, there is the activity of subjects acting within a certain historical framework. Realizing this in one way or another, ultimately people must reckon with cash. material conditions of their existence... Historical development is a resultant, consisting of the activities of the masses of people.
History is not free from zigzags, interruptions and accidents, but the pattern of historical development necessarily makes its way. This becomes clear when considering long development periods.
To characterize any historical development process, it is necessary to consider its general direction, which means the beginning of the process, the stages it goes through, as well as the “mechanisms” of the transition from one stage to another, the specificity, continuity and direction of the development process as a whole and its stages.
It is worth noting that we single out the main direction of the development of society, abstracting from the fact that there are other branches of development, and interaction between them and the main direction can occur.
Society as an organic whole. Stages of its development
So, society is an organic whole, passing through characteristic stages in its development. Within the framework of scientific research we, again, need to abstract from a number of additional circumstances, because in reality the existing history did not happen and does not happen in its “pure form”. It is necessary to carry out this action in order to identify a general pattern, a "main" direction, the study of which will allow in the future to gradually introduce modifying circumstances, specific points. All this will help to fully understand the essence of the subject under study, its internal connections.
The social form of movement is qualitatively different from the biological form of movement, and at the same time society arises from nature and, in the most immediate way, from the biological form of movement.
Since society is an “organic” whole, it is necessary to highlight the stages of its development that are characteristic of any “organic” whole.
- Start the process of the historical development of society. Within the framework of this stage, in the depths of biological, in general, natural, a new source of movement begins to form - social, or rather, its prerequisites, while maintaining the dominance of the biological and its leading role. The essence of society, as such, does not yet exist.
- Initial occurrence society. Here we include the primitive communal system.
- Formation society. There is a process of social transformation of its natural, biological basis. This includes the period of antagonistic class societies and formations.
- Maturity society. Within this stage, the process of transformation of the natural by the social is completed, the inclusion of the latter as a substantially transformed moment in the movement of the social, in the process of development of society. In fact, this is the end of the "earthly" history of mankind. A mature society is communist society.
All three first stages belong to us the establishment human society.
Within the framework of the first stage, the prerequisites of the social arise, but it is the natural, natural laws that dominate. The source of movement and development should be considered within the framework of natural processes. At the second stage, the social already arises, as a new form of movement, which begins the process of transforming the natural, its basis. Nevertheless, to one degree or another, nature remains not transformed, and in this sense, the dominance of the essence of society, the social, has not yet been established, but the essence acts as leading development factor. In the stage of formation, the transformation of the emerging essence of its natural basis continues.
A mature communist society is characterized by the fact that essence acts not only as a leading factor, but also as a directly dominant factor. Summing up: in the beginning, nature dominates, then the social arises, which immediately becomes the leading, dominant factor, but not the dominant one; dominates the same interaction these two factors. The third stage retains the social factor as the leading one. At the fourth stage, the social becomes the undivided dominant factor, for the reason that the natural is completely transformed. And only now they reign supreme self-movement, self-development of society, interaction of people as an end in itself, the development of a person's essence as an end in itself... Here it comes it is about interaction with nature on a planetary scale, but already at the last stages of the formation of society, the prerequisites for the cosmic era arise, that is, the emergence of a fundamentally new stage, a new round of interaction between humanity and nature.
"Beginning" as a logical category
IN usual meaning concept “ Start”Is understood as the first stage of development of any object, process, its most undeveloped stage. In this case, we identify two different stages: stage of education historical background process, subject, and stage the initial emergence and in fact the beginning is called the initial emergence of the essence of an object, a process.
We have " Start”Is the stage of education historical background process, object, that is, the stage when essence this process has not yet emerged... It is wrong to identify and separate these two stages from each other. The beginning of the process, reaching its highest development, changes according to entities and quality. The stage of the beginning in the highest development turns into the stage of the initial emergence of its essence.
As an example, commodity-money relations. Existing before capitalism, they represent the beginning of capitalist relations, and becoming universal, dominant, completely subjugating the entire process of labor, production, labor power, means of production, they turn into capitalist.
Mix wrong Start with the simplest relation, because simplest relation there is start inwithdrawn , transformed, in which Start persists with the formation entities subject. Consequently, beginning existsbefore process the beginning of which it serves, and Start of this, and not of another process, it is a set of necessary and sufficient prerequisites for the initial emergence of the essence of a process, an object... To determine the necessary and sufficient prerequisites for the initial emergence of the essence of the process, one must keep in mind its emerged essence. Otherwise it is impossible to talk about the prerequisites, preconditions of unknown what. There must also be some idea of the subject, about the beginning of which we are talking. Since we have considered simplest relation society, that is Start in the transformed form in which it already exists in the presence of the formed entities society, this provides a well-known guiding thread in the study start.
The beginning of human history
Formation of natural (biological) prerequisites
The beginning of human history - education natural, biological prerequisites necessary and sufficient for the occurrence social.
For of humanity were the following necessary and sufficient prerequisites:
- - certain external natural conditions(climate suitable for life, availability of natural pantry for minimum satisfaction of needs)
- - the presence of animals with a certain body structure
- — gregarious lifestyle
The beginning of human history also has stages: Start, the initial emergence of its entities, maturity, dying and disappearance.
We will touch on these stages quite a bit.
Development of premises
Prerequisites the emergence of mankind also have their own stages of development, their stages within the stage " start”. Earlier we have already considered these stages, developing forms relationship living formations to the environment. In the beginning, it is direct immersion in it, in withdrawn In a (transformed) form, this immersion, this inextricable connection is preserved even now in a person - for example, breathing. Such a direct connection between a living organism and its environment can be called basic, minimally necessary condition for the existence of living things as such, such existence does not require complexly developed structures of the organism.
The next, much more complex form of connection, a more developed attitude to the environment, is formed with the emergence of animals. More complex forms of organisms are formed as a result (and at the same time) of the development of more complex, indirect connections with the environment. The expression "as a result and at the same time" means the dialectical unity of development processes as living organism as well as relationship of this organism to the environment. The difference between such a more indirect connection from the previous stage lies in the ability of a living organism to move in space, which increases its chances of survival, of finding (it should be noted - already available) more favorable environmental conditions. At the same time, the character also changes. reverse action of this living organism on the external environment - in addition to the release of substances, a mechanical external effect also joins this effect - for example, trampling plants or the destruction of prey as an influence factor not related to the process direct consumption, but indirectly influencing the ecosystem of the habitat, its food chains. At the same time, the arising changes in the environment cause the need to change and relationship living organism to this environment, which ultimately leads to the need for certain changes in the living organism itself. Influence Wednesday on a living organism remains the leading, decisive.
The end of the stage, the emergence of the basis for the "social"
Then comes the stage of "dying" of domination animal relationship to the environment that forms the basis of the new, human relations... This stage is characterized by random, more unstable the use of objects of nature as a means of influencing other objects of nature. Such an attitude to external nature is still characteristic of primates, it was this that became the factor that allowed our animal ancestors to move to a qualitatively new level of development.
Since movement in space and mechanical action on the external environment (as a way of interaction of the organism with it) turned out to be the most promising way, it was these abilities that formed the corresponding organs of animals, gradually changing their morphology. It is no coincidence that the greatest opportunities for the further development of the reverse impact on nature were those animals in which the movement in the space of their own body was often also the movement in space of other objects of nature. Gripping branches with limbs when climbing trees is a typical example of the coincidence of both movements. At the same time, it is necessary to note an important difference between the expedient movement in space of consumer goods, available in a finished form, from the movement of objects that are not consumer goods. That is, the movement of prey (food, etc.) in space is fundamentally different from the movement of a stick lifted from the ground by an animal towards a fruit hanging on a tree. In animals adapted to moving in space on trees by grasping branches by limbs, there is a frequent, stable coincidence of movement in the space of their own body with the movement in space of objects that do not have direct meaning neither for the maintenance of its own existence, nor for the continuation of the life of the species. It is, so to speak, an almost constant by-product of their lifestyle.
Stage the beginning of human history ends with the transition of animal ancestors of man to a terrestrial way of life, to upright posture, the release of the upper limbs from participation in the movement of the body, the use of mainly means of influence given by nature in a finished form.
In his classic work on the role of labor, Engels starts from that stage of our ancestors, which he characterized as an unusually highly developed breed of great apes. Here we can mean, for example, a very high level of bodily organization of our ancestors, their flexible adaptability to new environmental conditions, high development of the brain.
Walking upright, according to Engels, was a decisive step on the way to humanizing the monkey, since when the body was straightened, the arms were freed from the functions of support and locomotion. Initially adapting to very simple labor operations, the hands experienced progressive development over a huge period of time when a person was formed under the influence of labor. Engels writes that labor had a direct impact on the structure and function of the hand, with the subsequent transmission of individually acquired characteristics by inheritance. At the same time, Engels emphasizes that upright walking in our ancestors was not established immediately and that, having first become the rule, it then turned into need... The straight gait acquired a new meaning and began to progress due to the fact that the hands turned to a completely new, previously untested function, namely, to the use of tools. The latter in turn from random phenomenon became vital and a specifically characteristic action, turning into the collective making of tools and their use in a society of their own kind. This again entailed the formation of the hand in a certain direction: the hand not only became an organ of labor, but it also turned into its product, reflecting on its structure and functions the influence of labor activity as a part of the whole. The changing hand influenced the rest of the body... But, being correlatively connected with him, she also experienced the opposite influence.
The stage of the initial emergence of human society
Mining as a precursor to labor
Initial stage human society begins when the accidental, unstable use of objects of nature as a means of influencing other objects of nature gradually becomes necessary, sustainable... The more often, the more stable the use of objects of nature for influencing other objects of nature becomes, the more stable the form and material of the means of influence become, the more the means of influence are differentiated according to their material, the nature of the object on which the impact occurs, and for the sake of which the impact is carried out (for the sake of satisfaction of a particular need). Labor is transformed from instinctual into human labor proper with all its components (purpose, means, objects, process, result, subject of labor). Material stability, the need to use means of influence is fixed in the creation, production of these very means. It is often said: "Labor created man." This statement is not entirely accurate, because the impression may be created that labor was formed first, and then man. Meanwhile, the education of man proceeded in the process of education of labor.
Due to the very nature of the front, and then the upper limbs, the impact on objects of nature could be mainly mechanical... Of the objects of nature, most often found and given by nature in a finished form, the most suitable for mechanical action on other objects of nature was a rock. Manual mechanical stone processing, which turns it into a means of influence, goes through a number of stages.
From the stage of the beginning of human history, such a way of maintaining existence as prey takes its origin. In the early stages of the initial stage of history directly dominates not production, but booty for it is a society of hunters, fishermen, gatherers.
As the manual mechanical processing of stone reaches perfection and basically exhausts its possibilities, that is, as the transition to the Neolithic, such improvement of mining occurs, which leads to the exhaustion of the possibility of mining. After all, the possibilities of extraction are determined by the given nature in finished form, the quantity and quality of animals and the biological needs of man. The more perfect the means of extraction become, the more the natural "storeroom" is exhausted, the need arises and grows to influence this "storehouse" of nature itself. And this influence is realized by the transition to cattle breeding and agriculture, that is, to the domination of the not appropriating but of the producing economy, to the domination of not extraction, but of production. With the transition to the Neolithic, the transition to the first stage of animal husbandry and agriculture, to the early stage of the production economy, is also carried out.
The prohibition of intrageneric sexual intercourse as evidence of the emergence of social relations within the herd. Becoming kind and communities
Extraction with the help of the produced means of influence is more complicated (it requires more complex preparation and organization, it complicates the extraction process itself ...), it is more efficient than extraction without such means. Its formation leads to an increase in the stability of the herd (due to an increase in consumption items, that is, an improvement in living conditions and an increase in opportunities for growth in the number of individuals), a higher level of coordination of actions of herd members, leads to the fact that the need to eliminate conflicts within the herd becomes more and more urgent. (just for the consistency between individuals in social labor, production). The most common source of conflict is the struggle to satisfy the sexual instinct. As the herd becomes more resilient, members of the herd are prohibited from having sex with each other. Formed genus... One of the quality differences kind from the herd is that, within the herd, the relationship between its members is endogamous, and within the genus - exogamous. In addition to increasing the role of the production of means of influence and improvement, complicating the harvest carried out with the help of these means, their influence on the growth of herd stability and on the exclusion of sexual relations within the herd, it makes sense to recognize the role of natural selection in the origin of the genus. Prohibitions on sexual intercourse within the herd becoming by birth, is this or that awareness the need to exclude these links. Awareness- product of occurrence social(in the broadest sense of the word) relationships. Natural selection cannot explain the occurrence of these prohibitions. But it still does not follow from this that unconscious natural selection did not contribute to the formation of the clan by leading to the degeneration and death of those herds in which intra-herd sexual intercourse took place.
Genus finally arises when fully sexual intercourse within the herd is excluded and sexual intercourse between members of different genera becomes regular, stable. Apparently, these two processes were not completely identical.
With the possibility of regular, periodic meetings of different herds (genera), and even more so with constant living in the zone of their accessibility in relation to each other, the sexual partners could well live each in his own herd, which turned into a genus, without passing into a genus of sexual partners. If the meetings of the communities were - due to the circumstances of their residence - irregular, difficult, then in such conditions it became necessary to transfer persons of the male or female sex into the clan of their sexual partners.
The most probable, apparently, was nevertheless the predominance in the end of the tendency of resettlement in the genus of one's (one's) sexual partner (s). Firstly, because the connections between different herds during the period of the herd's transformation into a genus, on the whole, most likely were rather difficult, irregular. Secondly, the tamed instinct could hardly be tamed sufficiently steadily if, at the same time, it was not satisfied regularly enough in accordance with its nature.
In our opinion, the predominance of the resettlement of one's (one's) sexual partner (s) into the genus was conditioned, in our opinion, not only by the nature of the economy, but also by the natural living conditions of the communities, and by the need for a fairly regular satisfaction of the sexual instinct in accordance with its nature.
Members kind, together with persons who have migrated to the genus from other genera, form community other than kind... If the clan lives apart, then the community and the clan represent a direct identity, they do not differ from each other.
Period formation productive forces(as opposed to their initial occurrence), if you have in mind product of production, begins from the stage when the level of productive forces allows the production permanent surplus in excess of the absolutely necessary to maintain physical, biological existence, and continues until the level is reached when it becomes possible to produce an abundance of material goods. Throughout this stage, there is the following contradiction. On the one side, production is already there, it develops, the means of livelihood, in the main, are not obtained, but produced... On the other hand, there are not enough livelihoods for optimal satisfaction of biological needs, and throughout the entire stage there is a struggle between people for livelihoods, for satisfaction biological needs, and the goal of production essentially remains at the animal level - an elementary biological survival... From this side, people still do not rise above the animal world, their struggle in this regard is fighting social animals.
If we mean the instruments of labor, production, then for the stage characteristic, using the terminology of K. Marx and F. Engels, "naturally arising instruments of production." “… Here,” they write, “there is a difference between the naturally arising instruments of production and the instruments of production created by civilization. Arable land (water, etc.) can be viewed as a naturally occurring instrument of production. In the first case, with naturally occurring instruments of production, individuals obey nature, in the second case they obey product of labor» .
In addition, to the stage formation of productive forces also refers to that stage of development of "tools created by civilization", that is, manufactured tools, when they begin to conquer dominance in production, even play the role of dominant, but when their dominance (dominance automatic system) more not completely, i.e., when the stage of development of these tools has not yet reached full maturity.
Formation productive forces starts after they first appeared Components, and it consists in essence in the formation social nature of labor... At the stage of the initial emergence of society, the social character of labor only emerges, and - with the domination of prey - it exists mainly in a concrete identity with biological links people with a natural attitude to nature. Transition to dominance of production(to early cattle breeding and early agriculture) in the depths of the stage of the initial emergence of society led to the formation of a mismatch of productive forces with the relations that existed then between people, and in the future to going beyond this stage.
Stages formation of productive forces corresponds to the public division of labor... The social character of labor exists here through its division, dismemberment, through its own, one might say, negation... The social nature of labor proper, the social nature of labor in positive relation, although it arises at the last stage (substage) of the formation of human society, but does not matchindustrial relations this substage.
At the stage of formation of the productive forces of society as public there is already a specific difference public the relationship of people to nature from their natural relationship to nature, and this distinction develops. The specifically social relationship to nature is becoming more and more isolated from the natural relationship to nature and is increasingly transforming the latter. At the same time, within the framework of the connection between a specifically social and natural relationship to nature, the prerequisites for their unity develop, and this is already on the basis of dominance of a specific public(and not natural) relationship to nature. The formation of the social nature of labor begins to end when processes in which production on the scale of all mankind begin to prevail. different people serve as moments of a single process production. The formation of the social character of production ends completely when produced implements of production come to undivided domination and when the whole production process humanity becomes internally dismembered.
At the stage of formation of the productive forces, there is a transition from the predominant use found in nature ready objects of labor to prevailing use artificial objects of labor, objects of labor with predefined properties.Mankind at the stage of formation of productive forces begins to move to appropriate impact on all terrestrial natural conditions, on the entire surrounding terrestrial natural environment. Finally, at this stage, man as a component of a specifically social productive relationship to nature... All of the above transformations mean penetration into essence of natural processes, therefore, assume the beginning of the transition from everyday empirical level of knowledge development to dominate theoretical... The formation of man as a productive force is not only his mastery of the "tools created by civilization", but also his transformation into an individual armed with theory, capable of all-round activity, the need for which is formed with the transition to dominance of manufactured tools(the fragmentation of human activity at this stage is determined mainly by the social division of labor).
The process of the formation of society, from the point of view of the development of industrial relations
Formation of society, if we mean development industrial relations , is committed ultimately under determining influence emerging productive forces... But at the same time, the formation of production relations is relatively independent process. Productive forces are also something external in relation to the relations of production, but at the same time the productive forces and the relations of production form inner unity, social mode of production ... Neither one nor the other exists outside of their distinction and unity with each other. Their inner unity and "struggle" and form internal source self-development of society... The social mode of production, the internal source of self-development of society, is not something immutable, it also goes through the stage formation.
Availability produced instruments of production determines the actual relations of production... The presence of "naturally occurring instruments of production" human enslavement by natural forces cause the preservation of one or another form of natural connection, natural community of people... We will henceforth call them "Naturally occurring communities", "Naturally occurring connections."
Development industrial relations at the stage formation society is contradictory as in the respect that is formed contradiction between productive forces and relations of production, which in the end will lead to the elimination of one and the other side of this contradiction, and in the sense that relations of production gradually detached from natural ties of people, subjugate them and are filming them, actually relations of production in comparison with "naturally occurring connections" people gradually turn into reigning... That is, if initially people arose and existed mainly as animals, as a special biological species, then over time their existence becomes social, and the maintenance of biological life becomes subordinates (removed) the moment of a new form of existence.
The social division of labor and the struggle of people to satisfy biological needs determine the existence of classes and the struggle between them. Consequently, stage of formation of society there is a stage of it antagonistic class development... This stage, in turn, itself is divided into several substages which will be discussed later.
Relations of production relatively independent. Their relative independence affects a certain mismatch stages (as well as substages) of the formation of productive forces and the stage (as well as substages) of the formation of production relations. First, a new stage (substage) of productive forces arises, which begins not to correspond to the previous stage (substage) of production relations and, in its further development, comes into conflict with the old stage (substage) of production relations, the contradiction is resolved by the transition or to a new stage (substage) of production relations , or, upon reaching maturity, to create the prerequisites for a significant change the very dialectics of productive forces and production relations(in particular, by displacement of a person from the sphere of direct production Thus, we have already seen that the producing economy goes through its early stage already at the stage initial emergence society, and with the further development of animal husbandry and agriculture, a contradiction develops between them and the primitive communal structure of society, the resolution of this contradiction means a transition to the stage of formation (of society)
Periodization of the history of the development of society
Different approaches to articulating the history of mankind
With the formation division of society, it is not directly recorded development society and just stated one historical form along with another, the formations are presented as external each other.
There is a more general division of society: pre-class, class, classless. The original in the definition here is one stage of society - class, but rest characterized by only negative in relation to her. Here, too, the positive development of society is not recorded. In addition, this division of history takes, although extremely important, but only one of the aspects of development. Finally, in the division of history into communal, private and public property, an essential side of the development process is highlighted and, moreover, positively, but the process is considered unilaterally. In our periodization, it is directly indicated that we are talking about the stages of development of society and periodization is given from the point of view of the entire development of mankind as a whole, that is, we are talking about the periodization of the history of mankind according to internal to the development process base.
In our opinion, the main task of the modern era is the fight against capitalism, negation capitalism, the accomplishment of the socialist revolution - in the end subordinate to the task constructing communist society. And not only in practical-political terms, but also in terms of the methodology of historical research, it must now be considered in the perspective of solving the problem of building a communist society.
In the light of the task building communist society comes to the fore not opposing communism only capitalism, but the difference and connection of communism with all previous history humanity as background human society. At the same time, attention is fixed on the turn of the spiral: primitive communal system - pre-class society; the initial emergence of society - antagonistic, class societies; the formation of society, communism - a classless society, a mature human society. Consequently, the formational division of history turns out to be a necessary, but subordinate aspect of a more general division of history. This division we would call division by types historical process.
To divide the history of pre-capitalist societies according to the forms of communal structure means to bring to the fore the fact that disappears. To divide the history of antagonistic societies on the basis of forms of private property is to highlight that denies primitive communal system, communal structure. But denial of something exists only as long as, to one degree or another, in one respect or another what is denied persists... Throughout the stage formation there is not only a denial of the primitive communal system, but also in one way or another, in one respect or another and in the form of preservation of remnants, survivals of the primitive communal system. If we proceed from the fact that communism is the history of mankind, one with all previous history and different from it as from prehistory, if we proceed from the problem constructing communism as of the main task, then it is necessary to dismember the stage of the formation of society into such stages, the difference of which would take into account both sides: and preservation certain forms of relations, etc. primitive communal structure, and negation the primitive communal system with the system of private property.
Stages of the formation process. The logical structure of the process in relation to the formation division
Any process of formation, in our opinion, is divided into three stages, or periods:
1) the initial period of formation, transformation of the inherited basis;
2) the emergence of an adequate, new basis;
3) completion of the formation of an adequate, new basis.
This is, for example, the process of the formation of capitalism:
1) the manufacturing period (the period of domestic capitalist production);
2) the transition to large-scale industry, to machine production (during the period of this transition, the machines themselves were still created by the manufacture, handicraft method);
3) the completion of the transition, the period of large-scale industry itself (in this period, the production of machines by machines already predominates).
In the process of the formation of human society, in our opinion, three periods should also be distinguished.
1. The initial period of the formation of human society. This includes the slave-owning socio-economic formation. Private property already arose, but it exists and develops in general on the basis of naturally occurring means of production, based on the direct relationship of people to the conditions of production and to each other, the relationship inherited from the previous stage. Private property remains subordinate clan, communal property to the ground.
Therefore, in slave-owning societies, slave labor can quantitatively prevail over communal labor only in completely exceptional cases.
2. The period of transition to a basis adequate to private property is feudalism. It is for the feudal socio-economic formation that the predominance of private property is characteristic, but private ownership of land, i.e. on naturally arisen means of production. Consequently, private property continues to exist on an inadequate basis.
What is the transition to a basis adequate to private property? Iron tools appear and begin to spread even before feudalism. But agriculture, based on the widespread use of iron implements and, moreover, as the main type of production, corresponds precisely to feudal production relations.
In the slave-owning socio-economic formation, agriculture was carried out mainly on soft lands and could well occur mainly with the help of stone tools. But if the stone is by its nature such a material that can be widely used (as a means of labor) without pre-treatment, then iron is by its nature such a material that, with its more or less widespread use as a means of labor with the need assumes preprocessing.
Widespread use, and therefore production iron tools - first mainly in agriculture - there is a transition to a basis adequate to private property.
3. The period of completion of the formation of a basis adequate to private property - capitalism. An adequate basis for private property, in our opinion, not naturally occurring, but produced means of influence. Feudal social (including industrial) relations correspond to the internally necessary division into production means of production and production commodities, but such a division in which the main role belongs to the use of labor tools to earth (naturally emerging education). Capitalist social relations correspond to such an internally necessary division into the production of means of production and the production of consumer goods, when the main role is played by the production of means of production(and not the production of consumer goods), the use of the produced means of labor to already past the process (or processes) of production of the subject of labor. Under capitalism for the first time dominated by private ownership produced means of production. For the first time, the dominant type of production becomes industry, not agriculture. Industry as a determining type of production on the scale of the entire human society is necessarily industry on a large scale, large-scale industry. Before the formation of such an industry, handicraft can determine the entire social order only within the limits of one or another separate community under exceptional conditions.
Literature
Required literature:
- V.A. Vazyulin. ... Questions of theory and methodology. Part III (from the beginning to §1 of Chapter 2)
- Can we say that the social in man is no longer subordinated to the biological? Why?
- To what extent, in your opinion, do social ties now prevail or, on the contrary, are subordinated to natural (including clan, "blood") ties?
- What is the materialistic understanding of history? Why is it the materialistic understanding that is the scientific understanding? Give comparative characteristics essential features of the materialistic and idealistic understanding of history. What understanding prevails in modern approaches to the study of the historical process, and why is there a prevalence of one approach over another? Or is there none?
- Can we divorce the philosophy of dialectical materialism (methodology in general, the relationship between the logical and the historical) from historical materialism?
- What do you think: was there a rational understanding economic activity among people who worked in the framework of the first forms of a productive economy: cattle breeding and agriculture?
Control section for grades 10-11
In the process of development, society: A) separated from nature, but remained inextricably linked with it;
B) separated from nature and became independent of it;
IN) remained a part of nature;
D) has ceased to influence nature.
2. The activities of the legislature are related to:
A) the spiritual sphere of the life of society;
B) the economic sphere of society;
IN) the political sphere of the life of society;
D) the social sphere of the life of society.
3
A) judgment; B) observation;
C) sensation; D) inference
4. The position of a person in society is:
A) social status; B) social role;
C) social mobility; D) social adaptation.
5. One of the main features of the rule of law is:
A) public authority;
B) system state laws;
C) the system of law enforcement agencies;
D) separation of powers.
6. A distinctive feature of the elite culture is:
A) the complexity of the content;
B) limited by national boundaries.
C) the ability to make a profit;
D) targeting the general public.
7. Branches of private law include:
A) civil; B) criminal;
C) administrative; D) constitutional.
8. The highest representative body of the Russian Federation is:
A) Federal Assembly; B) government;
C) the Supreme Court; D) President.
9 ... Deviant behavior is:
A) any changes in a person's life;
B) moving a person within his group;
C) non-observance of norms accepted in society;
D) change in the social status of a person.
10. In society with market economy the state influences economic life through:
A) taxation system;
B) centralized pricing;
C) directive planning of the production of goods;
D) supply of the population with goods
11. Are the following judgments correct?
A. Interaction with the outside world is a characteristic of human activity.
B. Human activity has goals and motives
12. Are the following judgments correct?
Political party as an institution of the political system:
A. Has the right to develop and adopt corporate regulations.
B. Represents and defends various public interests in the political arena.
a) only A is true; c) both A and B are true;
b) only B is true; d) both judgments are wrong.
13. Establish types of societies and characteristics of social development. Write down the letters of the selected answers in the table.
Types of societies: Characteristics of social development:
traditional A) industrial revolution;
2) industrial B) development of information technologies;
3) post-industrial B) the estate character of social stratification.
14 ... What is related to vertical social mobility? Write down the corresponding letters in alphabetical order.
A) a citizen has moved from a two-room apartment on the fifth floor to a three-room apartment on the ninth floor in the same building;
B) an ordinary engineer is appointed as the project manager;
C) the officer was stripped of his military rank for committing an unseemly act and dismissed from the army;
D) a small food merchant started selling used things;
E) the citizen has remarried;
F) the secretary has agreed to perform additional duties.
15 .What is the division of society into different social groups called?
16. Which of the following is characteristic exclusively of elite culture?
a) the expression of the refined tastes of the privileged part of society;
b) commercial focus;
c) complexity and inconsistency;
d) general availability;
e) calculation for a narrow circle of experts;
f) anonymity.
17. Insert the missing word:
The _________________ process is the assimilation of social roles and cultural norms, starting in infancy and ending in old age
18. A political party criticizing the government's program and proposing an alternative way of developing the country is called ______________________.
19. Karl Marx divided the entire historical path of mankind into five socio-economic
formations. Write them down in sequential order in the form of a "ladder".
20. Draw a diagram of the form of government.
21 ... What word is missing in the diagram?
22. Write down the word that is missing in the next phrase.
“The problems affecting the interests of all mankind were especially clearly manifested in the second half of the XX century. in the conditions of the scientific and technological revolution and the growing threat of a nuclear catastrophe ”.
23. Establish a correspondence between the areas of culture and their characteristics; for each position from the first column, select the corresponding position from the second.
Signs Area
culture
performance of rituals A) morality
belief in the existence b) religion of a higher power
focus on ideal relationships between people
lack of special institutions that approve norms and monitor their implementation
belief based
24 ... Find facts about the economic life of society in the list below. Circle the numbers under which they are indicated.
holding a scientific conference
study of economic theory at the university
development of state budget items
participation in an antiwar rally
use of new technology in production
Write the circled numbers in ascending order.
25 ... Read the text below where a number of words are missing.
Close (1) with particular acuteness raise the question of compliance with certain (2). The transformation of these requirements into personal rules, their acceptance by a person as an indispensable condition for attitudes towards others is moral _________________ (3). The family primarily influences the upbringing of children. Society represented by ___________ (4) assumes the protection of the family, motherhood and childhood, and requires parents to fulfill their duties. Every child from the moment of birth has a state guaranteed right to the care and attention of adults. Although the family is a purely personal matter, the state is not indifferent to the conditions in which its citizens are formed,
it, providing (5), at the same time determines their duty - to take care of their children, to create the necessary conditions for their full development.
Select from the proposed list the words (phrases) to be inserted in the spaces. The words in the list are given in the nominative case. Remember that there are more words (phrases) in the list than you need to select. Choose sequentially one word (phrase) after another, mentally filling in each gap.
|
moral requirements |
civil rights |
||
|
state |
|||
|
family ties |
Federal Assembly |
||
|
parental rights |
Note that spaces are numbered. The table below shows the numbers of the spaces. Under each number, write down a letter that represents your chosen word in the list. Transfer the resulting sequence of letters to the answer form.
26 ... What are five hallmarks of a democratic state?
27 .Give three examples of legal relations governed by the norms of civil law.
28. Composite task. Read the text and complete the assignments.
On the omnipotence of the majority in the United States of America and its consequences
The basis of democratic forms of government is the undivided power of the majority, since, apart from it, there is nothing permanent in democratic states.<...>Of all types of political power, the legislature is best subordinated to the will of the majority. At the will of the Americans, its representatives are elected directly by the people and for a very short term. This forces them to express not only the fundamental views of their constituents, but also their passing passions. Representatives of the same classes can become members of both chambers, the procedure for their election is the same. In this regard, the legislative body is subject to the same rapid and inevitable changes, as well as one separately taken assembly. By giving the legislature such a structure, the Americans placed almost all government functions into its hands.<...>The law did not ensure either stability or independence to representatives of the executive branch; it completely subordinated them to the whims of legislators. In many states, the formation of the judiciary was also left to the will of the majority, since it was elected, and in all states the judiciary depended on the legislature: the people's representatives had the right to appoint the salaries of judges annually.<...>In the United States, a habit is becoming more and more prevalent, which in the end can negate the possibility of a representative form of government. Very
often, when electing a deputy, voters outline a plan of action for him and give him some specific assignments that he must fulfill.
Alexis de Tocqueville
D. State any three principles of political power that are described in the text.
1. A characteristic feature of evolutionary processes in public life is an:
A) spasmodic changes;
B) the revolutionary nature of the changes;
C) the gradual nature of the processes;
D) irreversibility of processes.
2. A person differs from an animal in that he:
A) has natural instincts;
B) possesses large size brain;
C) does not depend on natural conditions;
D) has an articulate speech.
3 ... The forms of sensory cognition include:
A) judgment; B) observation;
C) sensation; D) inference
4. The generally accepted means of payment that a consumer can exchange for any goods and services is:
A) discount card; B) sales receipt;
B) money; D) bond.
5. Which of the following applies to natural resources:
A) raw materials not included in production;
B) machines operating in production;
C) qualified workforce;
D) fuel standing on access roads.
6. The difference between the cognitive activity of a scientist and the cognitive activity of a schoolchild is that the scientist:
A) uses an experiment; C) develops his intellectual capabilities;
B) approaches work creatively; D) obtains knowledge that is new for all mankind.
7. The most complete meaning of the concept of "humanization of education" is
A) democratic self-government at school;
B) compulsory secondary education;
C) taking into account the needs and interests of students;
D) free education in any educational institution.
8. The state budget deficit is:
A) decrease in tax revenues;
B) excess of expenses over income;
C) an increase in public debt;
D) reduction of funding for social programs.
9 ... Law as a social regulator has the following special feature:
A) corresponds to the generally accepted ideas about good and evil;
B) is the embodiment of the ideal of justice;
C) is characterized by a special order of development and adoption;
D) provided by the strength of public opinion.
10. The direction of the state policy is the policy:
A) demographic; B) creative;
C) active; D) humane.
11. Are the following judgments correct?
A. Traditional society values personal freedom above all, the rights of an individual.
B. In an industrial society, traditions and customs retain the significance of the norms governing social life.
a) only A is true; c) both A and B are true;
b) only B is true; d) both judgments are wrong.
12. Are the following judgments correct? Criminal liability arises for:
A. Hooliganism B. Petty hooliganism.
a) only A is true; c) both A and B are true;
b) only B is true; d) both judgments are wrong.
13. Set the correspondence: for each concept in the first column, select the corresponding definition from the second. Write down the letters of the selected answers in the table.
1) Individual A) A person who actively assimilates and purposefully transforms
2) Individuality, nature, society and oneself;
3) Personality B) An individual representative of the entire human race
C) The unique uniqueness of a person, a set of his unique properties
14 ... Write down the words missing in the following phrase: “Man is a creature not only _________________, but also _________________. This determines the need for each individual to go through the process of socialization ”.
15 ... Divide the positions listed below into two groups as follows: 1 gr. - must characterize the majority (single-mandate) election system, 2 gr. - proportional electoral system. Write the letters in each group in alphabetical order.
B) the winner is the candidate who has received the largest number of votes in comparison with the competitors;
C) the distribution of seats between parties in parliament is carried out in proportion to the number of votes cast for each of them;
I gr. - ……………; II gr. - ………….
16. Write down the word missing in the diagram:
« The education system in the Russian Federation ”.
|
Preschool educational institutions |
General educational institutions |
Medium special educational institutions (schools, technical schools, colleges) |
……………… establishments |
17. Insert the missing word: Many scholars consider ____________ to be a type of ethnic group that emerged under capitalism.
18. Complete the phrase. The main political organization society, which manages and ensures the protection and stable structure of society, is called _____________________.
19. What are the main social roles that are most typical for most people (follow the diagram)
20. Follow the scheme "Spheres of life of the community."
21. Fill in the blank in the diagram.
22. What word is missing in the next phrase?
"The goal is to gain knowledge about the real world in which humanity lives."
23 ... Establish a correspondence between factors of production and their examples; for each position from the first column, select the corresponding position from the second.
Examples Factors
production
factory building
crane A) ground
forest B) capital
arable land B) labor
Write down the selected letters in the table, and then transfer the resulting sequence of letters to the answer form (without spaces and other symbols).
"> Control section for 10 classes
Test number 1.
- "> In the process of development, society:">
"> A) separated from nature, but remained inextricably linked with it;
"> B) separated from nature and became independent of it;
"> B)"> "> remained a part of nature;
"> D) has ceased to influence nature.
">2. "> The activities of the legislature are related to:
"> A) the spiritual sphere of society;
"> B) the economic sphere of society;
"> B)"> "> the political sphere of the life of society;
"> D) the social sphere of society.
">3 ">. The forms of sensory cognition include:
"> A) judgment; B) observation;
"> C) sensation; D) inference
">4. "> The position of a person in society is:
"> A) social status; B) social role;
"> C) social mobility; D) social adaptation.
">5. "> One of the main features of the rule of law is:
"> A) public authority;
"> B) the system of state laws;
"> C) the law enforcement system;
"> D) separation of powers.
">6. "> A distinctive feature of elite culture is:
"> A) the complexity of the content;
"> B) limited by national boundaries.
"> B) the ability to make a profit;
"> D) targeting the general public.
">7. "> The branches of private law include:
"> A) civil; B) criminal;
"> C) administrative; D) constitutional.
">8. "> The highest representative body of the Russian Federation is:
"> A) Federal Assembly; B) government;
"> B) Supreme Court; D) President.
">9 ">. Deviating behavior is:
"> A) any changes in a person's life;
"> B) moving a person within his group;
"> C) non-observance of norms accepted in society;
"> D) change in the social status of a person.
">10. "> In a society with a market economy, the state influences economic life through:
"> A) the taxation system;
"> B) centralized pricing;
"> B) directive planning of the production of goods;
"> D) supplying the population with goods
">11. "> Are the following judgments correct?
"> A. Interaction with the outside world is a characteristic of human activity.
"> B. Human activity has goals and motives
">12. "> Are the following judgments correct?
"> Political party as an institution of the political system:
"> A. Has the right to develop and adopt corporate regulations.
"> B. represents and defends various public interests in the political arena.
">13. "> Establish the types of societies and characteristics of social development. Write down the letters of the selected answers in the table.
"> Types of societies">: "> Characteristics of social development">:
- "> traditional A) industrial revolution;
"> 2) industrial B) development information technologies;
"> 3) post-industrial B) the estate character of social stratification.
">14 ">. What is related to vertical social mobility? Write the corresponding letters in alphabetical order.
"> A) the citizen moved from a two-room apartment on the fifth floor to a three-room apartment on the ninth floor in the same building;
"> B) an ordinary engineer is appointed as the project manager;
"> C) the officer was stripped of his military rank for committing an unseemly act and was dismissed from the army;
"> D) a small food merchant started selling used things;
"> E) the citizen remarried;
"> E) the secretary has agreed to perform additional duties.
">15. "> Which of the following is characteristic exclusively of elite culture?
"> a) the expression of the refined tastes of the privileged part of society;
"> b) commercial orientation;
"> c) complexity and inconsistency;
"> d) general availability;
"> e) relying on a narrow circle of experts;
"> f) anonymity.
">16. "> Draw a diagram of the form of government.
">17 ">. What word is missing in the diagram?
">18. "> Establish a correspondence between the areas of culture and their characteristics; for each position from the first column, select the corresponding position from the second.
"> Signs Scope
"> culture
- "> performance of rituals A) morality
- "> belief in the existence B) religion of a higher power
- "> focus on ideal relationships between people
- "> lack of special institutions that approve norms and monitor their implementation
- "> beliefs based on faith
">19 ">. Name five signs of a democratic state.
">20 ">. Give three examples of legal relations regulated by the norms of civil law.
2. A person differs from an animal in that he:
A) has natural instincts;
B) has a large brain size;
C) does not depend on natural conditions;
D) has articulate speech.
3. The forms of sensory cognition include:
A) judgment; B) observation;
C) sensation; D) inference
4. The generally accepted means of payment that a consumer can exchange for any goods and services is:
A) discount card; B) sales receipt;
B) money; D) bond.
5. Which of the following applies to natural resources:
A) raw materials not included in production;
B) machines operating in production;
C) qualified workforce;
D) fuel standing on access roads.
6. The difference between the cognitive activity of a scientist and the cognitive activity of a student is that the scientist:
A) uses an experiment; C) develops his intellectual capabilities;
B) approaches work creatively; D) obtains knowledge that is new for all mankind.
7. The most complete meaning of the concept of "humanization of education" is
A) democratic self-government at school;
B) compulsory secondary education;
C) taking into account the needs and interests of students;
D) free education in any educational institution.
8. The state budget deficit is:
nine . Law as a social regulator has the following special feature:
A) corresponds to the generally accepted ideas about good and evil;
B) is the embodiment of the ideal of justice;
C) is characterized by a special order of development and adoption;
D) provided by the strength of public opinion.
A) demographic; B) creative;
C) active; D) humane.
A. Traditional society values personal freedom above all, the rights of an individual.
B. In an industrial society, traditions and customs retain the significance of the norms governing social life.
a) only A is true; c) both A and B are true;
b) only B is true; d) both judgments are wrong.
Criminal liability arises for:
A. Hooliganism B. Petty hooliganism.
a) only A is true; c) both A and B are true;
b) only B is true; d) both judgments are wrong.
1) Individual A) A person who actively assimilates and purposefully transforms
2) Individuality, nature, society and oneself;
3) Personality B) An individual representative of the entire human race
C) The unique uniqueness of a person, a set of his unique properties
15. Complete the phrase. The main political organization of society, which administers and ensures the protection and stable structure of society, is called _____________________.
">16. "> What are the main social roles that are most typical for most people (follow the diagram)
17. Follow the scheme "Spheres of life of the community."
"xml: lang =" en-US "lang =" en-US "> 18">. Fill in the blank in the diagram.
nineteen . Establish a correspondence between factors of production and their examples; for each position from the first column, select the corresponding position from the second.
Examples Factors
production
- crane A) ground
- forest B) capital
- arable land B) labor
- farmer
- factory building
Write down the selected letters in the table, and then transfer the resulting sequence of letters to the answer form (without spaces and other symbols).
twenty . Find the top destinations in the list below social policy... Circle the numbers under which they are indicated.
- payment of state pensions and social benefits
- protection of natural resources
- education of the younger generation in the spirit of the official ideology
- creation of an employment service
- state enterprise management
- setting a guaranteed minimum wages
21. Name two features that distinguish the constitution from all other laws.
22. In what can the social nature of a person be manifested? Give an example.
1. A person as a person is characterized by:
A) features of the structure of the body;
B) social activity;
C) features of temperament;
D) health status
2. Democratic values include:
A) nationalism; B) militarism; C) monopoly; D) pluralism
3. A new type of cash payments in modern Russia is an:
A) barter transaction; B) payment by promissory note;
C) payment by credit card; D) payment in cash;
4. Give three examples of the negative impact of society on the state of the natural environment.
5. The state budget deficit is:
A) decrease in tax revenues;
B) excess of expenses over income;
C) an increase in public debt;
D) reduction of funding for social programs.
6. The result of sensory cognition, in contrast to rational cognition, is:
A) generalized judgment about the subject; C) the concept of the subject;
B) a specific image of the subject; D) an explanation of the reasons for the change in the subject.
7. List any three significant differences between humans and animals.
8. Nature:
A) is part of society;
B) determines the development of society;
C) has an impact on society;
D) does not depend on society.
10. Which of the following sciences studies power relations in society:
A) sociology; B) political science;
C) jurisprudence; D) ethics.
11. Are the following judgments correct? A person from an animal is distinguished by the ability:
A. Create a socio-cultural environment.
B. Work together.
a) only A is true; c) both A and B are true;
b) only B is true; d) both judgments are wrong.
12. Are the following judgments correct?
A. Each item material culture- this is the result of the work of not only the "performing hand", but also the "thinking head".
B. Each product of spiritual culture can exist only in material form.
a) only A is true; c) both A and B are true;
b) only B is true; d) both judgments are wrong.
13. Set the correspondence: for each concept in the first column, select the corresponding definition from the second. Write down the letters of the selected answers in the table.
1) What to produce? A) determination of the circle of consumers who use the goods and
2) How to produce? services;
3) For whom to produce? B) definition of goods and services offered to the consumer;
C) determination of ways to obtain the desired result.
fourteen . Establish a correspondence between the foundations of marriage and family and their manifestations; to each position from the first
column, select the appropriate position from the second.
Manifestations of the Basics of Marriage
- mutual respect of spouses A) moral
- reaching marriageable age B) legal
- Marriage registration
- observance of family traditions
Write down the selected letters in the table, and then transfer the resulting sequence of letters to the answer form (without spaces and other symbols).
">15 ">. Distribute the following as follows: the first 3 positions should represent demographic social groups, the next 3 should represent ethnic social groups.
"> groups. Letters in each triplet should be written in alphabetical order.
"> 1 gr. -…,…,…; 2 gr. -…,…,….
"> a) men, b) nations, c) tribes, d) nationalities, e) women, f) youth.
16. Complete the phrase. The current Constitution of the Russian Federation was adopted in _____________.
">17. "> Insert the missing word: An international legal act adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1948, which for the first time formulates all the main civil, political and social rights person is _________________________________">.
18 Write down the word that is missing in the next phrase.
"Is a generally accepted means of payment that can be exchanged for any goods and services."
19. What word is missing in the diagram?
20. Find in the list below the characteristics common to any state. Circle the numbers under which they are indicated.
- the presence of a parliament
- availability of territory
- existence of laws
- political power
- presence of a monarch
- presence of power structures
- the presence of a constitution.
Write the circled numbers in ascending order.
Test number 4.
- Society in the broad sense of the word is called:
A) a set of forms of uniting people;
B) whole the world;
C) groups in which communication takes place;
D) the interaction of people in everyday life.
2. The functions of political parties in a democratic society include:
A) participation in commercial activities; B) control over the private life of citizens;
C) the creation of the armed forces; D) participation in the electoral campaign.
3. In a society with a market economy, the state influences economic life through:
A) taxation system; B) directive planning of the production of goods;
C) centralized pricing; D) supplying the population with goods.
4. Creation of an artistic image is necessarily present in the activity:
A) filmmaker; B) politics;
C) a scientist; D) teacher
5. Human activity differs from animal behavior in that it always:
A) is inextricably linked with the environment; B) is hardcoded;
C) is based on a conscious choice; D) is associated with the manifestation of emotions.
6. Culture in a broad sense:
A) the level of technical development of society; C) the level of education of the population;
B) the totality of all human achievements; D) all genres of art.
7. "> Write down the word missing in the above diagram.
8. The state budget is:
A) the amount of money supply in the country;
B) the distribution of the total product created in the country;
C) internal and external debt of the state;
D) distribution of income and expenses of the state for the year.
nine . Any state is characterized by:
A) the presence of our own law enforcement agencies; B) a multi-party system;
C) the presence of a constitution; D) mutual responsibility of the state and the individual.
10. An agreement on the procedure for relations between an employee and an employer is called:
A) a business agreement; B) a deal;
C) collective agreement; D) an employment contract.
11. Are the following judgments correct?
A. Man is the subject of study of all sciences.
B. Man is a subject of study only in the humanities.
a) only A is true; c) both A and B are true;
b) only B is true; d) both judgments are wrong.
12. Are the following judgments correct?
A. Taxes are the only source of funding for government programs
B. Taxes are compulsory payments of citizens and economic organizations levied in favor of the state.
a) only A is true; c) both A and B are true;
b) only B is true; d) both judgments are wrong.
13. Set the correspondence: for each concept in the first column, select the corresponding definition from the second. Write down the letters of the selected answers in the table.
1) Legislature A) protects the right
2) Executive power B) creates laws
3) The judiciary B) implements the decisions
fourteen . Complete the phrase. Modern problems that pose a threat to all mankind and can only be overcome by the joint efforts of all peoples are called ____________________.
">15 ">. Distribute the following as follows: the first 3 positions (I) should represent social groups, the next 3 (II) - ethnic groups... Write the letters in each triple in alphabetical order.
"> I gr. - ..., ..., ...; II gr. - ..., ...,….
"> a) estates, b) nations, c) classes; d) nationalities, e) tribes, f) castes
16. Write down the word missing in the diagram:
"State power of the Russian Federation".
">17. "> Insert the missing word: A part of the material world that is isolated from nature, but closely related to it, which includes the ways people interact and the forms of their unification - this is _____________________.
18. It is known that nature influences the development of society. Name any three manifestations of this influence.
19. Give any three examples (from history, literature, films or documentaries, your own experience) that illustrate how people fulfill their moral duty.
Test No. 5
1. The author of the point of view: “The fundamental principle of the development of society is labor activity. Before engaging in politics and philosophy, a person must take care of food, housing, providing other needs "is:
A) F. Nietzsche
B) K. Marx
C) K. Popper
2. The sphere of human activity, the function of which is the development and theoretical systematization of objective data about reality, as well as the result of this activity, is ...
B) philosophy
C) education
D) public consciousness
3. The political sphere of society includes (indicate the correct combination):
A. political institutions
B. social relationships
B. public sentiment
D. political parties and movements
D) All of the above
4. Judgments of truth that are correct (specify correct combination):
A. The truth of any knowledge has its limits, therefore it contains moments of both absolute and relative truth
B. Absolute truth is a well-established knowledge about an object, phenomenon, the exhaustive content of any element of its structure, function or phase of development
Q. Absolute truth is such knowledge with which everyone agrees, i.e. this is something that is obvious, that you cannot imagine otherwise
D. Some of the absolute truths can become relative
D) All of the above
5. One of the spheres of human activity aimed at the production of new knowledge about nature, society and man himself is ...
A) education
C) philosophy
D) subculture
6. The criterion for identifying strata can be:
A) income level
B) attitude to religion
C) attitude to political ideology
D) the level of development of personal abilities
7. The value of money is determined:
A) precious metals with which they are provided
B) reserve financial institutions distributing money
C) the number of goods and services that can be purchased with money
D) a government that prints paper money and coins with an indication of their value
8. Directed development, which is characterized by the transition from lower to higher, from less perfect to more perfect - this is ...
A) regression
B) fatalism
C) progress
D) mercantilism
9. A political agreement reached on the basis of mutual concessions is called ...
A) contract
B) incident
C) consensus
D) compromise
10. A type of worldview, a distinctive feature of which is the development of a theoretically and actually grounded picture of the world:
A) ordinary
B) scientific
C) religious
D) humanistic
11. Are the following judgments true:
A. Society is entirely dependent on the processes of natural development of nature
B. Society is separate from nature, but is closely related to it
A) only A is true
B) only B is true
C) A and B are true
12. Extensive factors of economic growth include (indicate the correct combination):
A. Increase in the number of employed workers
B. Increasing investment to leverage existing technology
B. Improving the level of education and qualifications of workers
D. Improving the organization of labor in production
D) All of the above
The laws that determine the course of the social process are as objective as the laws of society or nature. Because of this, we can say that laws work regardless of the will or consciousness of people, exclusively independently. It should be noted that the laws of society are limited by social time and space. This is due to the fact that they appear and begin to function only from a certain moment in the development of the universe. From the moment when society reaches its highest material system.
The laws of society
Social laws are very different from the laws of nature. The laws of society are based on the activities of people. They exist purely within society and its activities; outside these conditions, such laws cannot function. There is a direct relationship between how deeply and consciously a person learns the laws of society, as well as their ways of working and permanent development, so much his level of awareness increases when using them. Moreover, it also affects the way historical and social processes proceed, as well as the progress of society.
Knowledge of the laws of nature and the processes occurring in the environment allows a person to use natural resources reasonably well. In the same way, knowledge of social laws enables people, namely the ruling stratum of the population, who decide the fate of people, to consciously approach the process. This means that the ruling elite must use progressive methods of leadership and administration, because it is in their hands that history. The leaders of any country must first learn and then use social laws. This helps them to build their ruling policy not spontaneously, but verified up to every step. At the same time, relying on scientific knowledge and concepts, they develop programs in all areas of human activity. It should be noted that all processes occur based on the achievement of certain goals.
Social laws are of a different nature and degree of manifestation. By nature, they are divided into:
- The laws of structure.
- The laws of functioning.
- Development laws.
According to the degree of manifestation, they are divided into:
- Universal laws.
- General laws.
- Private laws.
In essence, the laws of structure reflect the social and social organizational and structural dynamics that are inherent in a particular historical moment.
The laws of functioning serve as a certain impetus that creates the conditions for the transition from one state of relative stability to another. In addition, the laws of functioning preserve this stability of the social system.
The laws of development create the prerequisites for the formation of conditions conducive to a change in measure and transition to a new state.
The degree of manifestation of universal laws is reflected in a kind of triad of laws of philosophy or laws of dialectics, which operate both in nature and in society.
There are the following types of general laws:
- The law of the influence of the mode of production on the nature of the social process. This refers to the influence on the formation, activity and development of areas of social life and production spheres, the structure of society.
- The law that determines the functions of social life in relation to public consciousness, subject to feedback.
- The law that determines the level of personification of an individual from the state of the system of social relations.
- The law of socialization, or in other words, the law that determines the level of social and social continuity.
- The law of the priority of universal values over group values.
Speaking about private laws, it should be noted that they include laws that are related to a certain area of human life or areas of society.
Example 1
The following laws work in the political sphere or the sphere of government: the law of separation of powers, the law of political pluralism, the law of the priority of human rights over the rights of the state, the law of the emergence and development of political needs, etc.
Social laws are often more trends than laws in their original form. This happens due to some dialectical necessity, and sometimes even quite by accident. These tendencies are formed in subjective and objective conditions, passing the obstacles of social collisions and the chaos that forms at the moments of the collision of opposite social tendencies. In turn, these collisions serve as a basis for the formation of the possibilities of their existence in different historical periods. Therefore, the conscious creation of conditions for the existence of such trends makes it possible for society and society to realize opportunities in the existing reality in different spheres of life and areas of production.
It should be noted that there are certain conditions and attendant factors for trends to move into the rank of laws. Among such factors are the achievements of scientific and technological progress. However, one should not forget that, in essence, scientific and technological progress is a regularity of social development. Based on this judgment, we can safely conclude that one of the laws of social activity is the law of combining the real possibilities of society with the discoveries of scientific and technological progress. This law is rooted in the distant historical past, in other words, it is historical. Has objective characteristics in time and space, which are based on social needs and abilities associated with the subject synthesis of science and technology.
Due to its functionality, the law manifests itself in all spheres of human life individually and in society as a whole.
Remark 1
The law of combining the real possibilities of society with the achievements of scientific and technological progress was discovered at the end of the 20th century. VP Petrov proposed to separate it into a separate law. IN Newest time based on the knowledge of the law described above, we can talk about innovative progress, the conditions for which are created in society.
Returning to the question of what is the true difference between the laws of nature and the laws of society, we can conclude that they have different mechanisms of implementation.
It is obvious that the laws of nature, as well as the laws of society, are objective. The connection between processes and phenomena in laws is necessarily stable, periodically repeating, essential and necessary. However, the differences also lie in the fact that in nature all these connections occur by inertia. For example, a ball that is thrown up will surely fall to the floor due to the force of gravity. In society, the objectivism of laws depends only on a person. Provided that the development of personality affects the course of history, since a person can contribute to both the progress of social life and regression. The laws of society are of a historical nature and can arise and function in different historical conditions as certain factors appear for their discovery and activity.
Social laws are effective only when society and people, its constituents have goals and strive to achieve them. In a split society or a society consisting of passive individuals, social laws do not manifest themselves.
K. Marx expressed the opinion that the natural-historical process is determined precisely by the similarity and difference between the laws of society and the laws of nature. This fully characterizes social development. The natural-historical process is necessary, natural, objective and natural, like all natural processes. Moreover, it is also historical. Due to the fact that it is the result of the activities of many generations of people.
The concepts of "objective conditions" and "subjective factor" are characteristic for the implementation of the laws of the social process.
Definition 1
Objective conditions are circumstances and phenomena of a socio-economic nature that do not depend on the will and consciousness of people, necessary for the formation of a certain historical phenomenon (for example: a change in the form of a socio-economic direction). But in essence, these conditions are incomplete.
Only in conjunction with a subjective factor can a specific historical or social event occur or not. The objective conditions are completely dependent on the subjective factor.
Definition 2
The subjective factor is the purposeful, conscious activity of society, social groups, socio-political movements, the ruling elite, individuals, which is aimed at transformation, maturation or preservation of the objective conditions of social existence.
It should be noted that not always a subjective factor can be progressive, a regressive character is also inherent in it.
The consistency of objective conditions and the subjective factor is manifested in the fact that history is created by people, but this happens not according to their desire and views, but in accordance with certain conditions dictated by specific historical conditions.
Example 2
Napoleon, F. Roosevelt, V. Lenin, A. Hitler, I. Stalin, of course, determined the properties of one historical period, but it was this historical period that gave birth to these individuals and created the conditions for the formation of certain qualities and characteristics in them. There would be no these personalities, there would be others, with different names, but with approximately the same abilities, needs and personal qualities, which would still have created what was characteristic of that historical era.
Society development concepts
A complex and contradictory social process can be of the nature of progressive development and leapfrogging. Some scholars are of the opinion that social development occurs in a sinusoidal manner. This means that at first there is a rise to the peak of perfection, and then the process begins to decline again to the beginning, thus, the decline of social development occurs again.
By virtue of all the indicated factors, it can be concluded that the concepts of social development are of a formational and civilized nature.
Formation concept
Socio-economic formation is a concept that is used in Marxism. The basis of the formation is a mode of production of material goods.
Definition 3
Socio-economic formation (according to Marx) is a historically formed society in a specific period of its economic development.
Each formation is a social organism with its own characteristics, which is formed and developed on the basis of its inherent laws. At the same time, the socio-economic formation is a certain stage in the development of society.
K. Marx put forward the opinion that social development is a harmonious order of several formations that contribute to a change in the mode of production, and this, in turn, entails changes in production relations. By virtue of this opinion, K. Marx singled out five socio-economic formations in the history of society:
- Primitive communal.
- Slave-owning.
- Feudal.
- Bourgeois.
- Communist.
The scientist says that changes in formations occur at a time when contradictions become more acute at a certain moment of social development. The maturation of these contradictions is characterized by the discrepancy between the mode of production and the established production relations. This creates conditions for the change from one social formation to another. Moreover, each subsequent formation becomes more progressive in relation to all previous ones.
Today we can safely say that K. Marx's division of social history into formations is imperfect. But one cannot but admit the fact that this was an undoubted contribution to the science of society and social philosophy precisely in the period of the 19th century.
From the modern standpoint of understanding the concepts of formation, some points should be clarified. Definitely K. Marx did not say anything about the transitional periods from one formation to another, moreover, he did not in any way characterize these stages of social development. In addition, not in all countries and not all peoples was able to pass all levels of social formation.
Example 3
In Russia there was no slave system, in Mongolia, bourgeois society did not reach a high level of development, China moved from feudal relations to a convergent plane.
In addition, in the formations proposed by K. Marx, there is an understatement regarding the determination of the measure of the productive forces of the slave-owning and feudal society. There are specific judgments regarding the phase of socialism, which is part of the communist formation. Moreover, the communist formation has a utopian character.
The problem of the inter-formation period has not been described in any way and there is no judgment that during the transition from one formation to another there is a possibility of returning to the stage of the previous formation or repeating characteristic features over a period of time that is not indicated in any way from a historical point of view.
Based on these reasons, we can say that the civilized concept of social development seems to be quite substantive.
Civilization concept
The author of the civilizational concept, with a slight reservation, is the British scientist A. Toynbee. "The Study of History" is his work, which includes twelve volumes, where he attempted to explain the meaning of the historical process, using the method of systematizing many facts, resorting to general scientific classification and using philosophical and cultural concepts.
What is the disclaimer? In the fact that long before A. Toynbee, the Russian sociologist N. Ya. Danilevsky tried to reveal the problems of periods of social and historical development. In his course of lectures, he outlined his position on this issue. In addition, in his work "Russia and Europe", he back in the XIX century. spoke about the theory of "cultural-historical types" or, in other words, civilizations that develop like living organisms.
N. Ya.Danilevsky identifies eleven civilizations:
- Egyptian.
- Chinese.
- Assyro-Babylonian-Phoenician.
- Chaldean.
- Old Semitic.
- Indian.
- Iranian.
- Jewish.
- Greek.
- Roman.
- New Semetic or Arabian.
- Romano-Germanic or European.
This division into civilizations, proposed by N. Ya.Danilevsky, is undoubtedly a serious contribution to the development social science and philosophy, so it is naturally unfair to ignore his contribution to science.
Definition 4
Civilization is the totality of the spiritual and material achievements of society.
Modern ideas about the concept of "civilization", in one way or another, are based on judgments that the world is an integral object or a single whole. Very often, but very erroneously, the concept of "civilization" is correlated with the concept of "culture". However, culture has a wider application and is with civilization in a "common-individual" relationship.
Philosophy has its own concept of civilization. In a general philosophical sense, it can be defined as a measure of a certain stage of social development. In turn, in the socio-philosophical sense, the world-historical process is characterized through the prism of civilization and determines a specific type of development of society.
Definition 5
Civilization is a social form of the movement of matter.
A. Toynbee's concept is an analysis of the history of mankind through the alternation of a number of civilizations.
Definition 6
Civilization according to A. Toynbee is a stable unity of people who choose the same religious customs and geographical limits.
World history is a set of civilizations:
- Sumerian.
- Babylonian.
- Minoan.
- Hellenic.
- Orthodox Christian.
- Hindu.
- Islamic.
A. Toynbee expresses the opinion that at least two dozen different local civilizations existed in the history of mankind.
A. Toynbee's worldviews were based on two hypotheses:
- The development of human history cannot be applied to all civilizations at once, it happens locally.
- Civilizations are not interconnected with each other, unlike the components that make them up.
A. Toynbee says that each civilization has its own path of development, different from the path that is inherent in another civilization. Because of this, the scientist decides to analyze the historical factors of social development. First, he raises the question of the "law of challenge and response." Here we mean the very emergence of civilization and the process of further development and progress, which is determined by the ability of society and individuals, to give an appropriate response to the challenge that was formed in certain historical conditions. This takes into account both natural and human factors.
Here it is quite correct to recall the theory in which it is said that society develops following the example of a sinusoid. Because if society has failed to adequately respond to the challenge of historical conditions, the social organism will decline. To prevent this from happening, and the reaction has entered into history, correctly develop the conditions for the formation of a "creative minority". These are scientists, politicians and the creative elite who are able to generate new ideas and implement them, involving the global community in this process.
The development of civilization always entails decline. Of course, it can be postponed, pushed back and even avoided, but for this it is necessary to rationally dispose of their powers, first of all, by the ruling elite.
Remark 2
Toynbee Arnold Joseph (1889-1975). English historian, diplomat, public figure, sociologist and philosopher. Born in London. O. Spengler greatly influenced his activities. Thanks to this, A. Toynbee strives to give a new meaning to the ideas of the socio-political development of mankind through the theory of the circulation of local civilizations.
At the beginning of his research, he speaks of twenty-one local civilizations, after reflection and deep analysis, he leaves only thirteen. The creative elite, in his opinion, determines the nature of the responses to historical conclusions. Moreover, it is those whose opinions are innovative that lead to an inert majority. The peculiarities of these answers determine the specificity of each of the civilizations.
Analysis of the concepts of social development
Analyzing all the properties that are inherent in both concepts - formational and civilizational, we can conclude that they have something in common and different. In addition, when comparing them, disadvantages and advantages are visible.
The truth is that the dialectic nature of the socio-historical process is subordinated to certain patterns of trends in the development of society.
The analysis of concepts involves:
- Application of the systemic principle. The meaning of which is the description and disclosure of social phenomena, as well as research in a compartment of elements and connections that unite them.
- The application of the multidimensional principle, which implies that all the constituent parts of the development of society can be subsystems of others: economic, managerial, environmental, scientific, defense, etc.
- Application of the principle of polarization, which is based on the study and study of opposite trends, characteristics, parameters, properties of social phenomena. This means: actual - potential, material - personal.
- Application of the interrelated principle. Its essence is to analyze each social phenomenon and its properties in relation to other phenomena of society and their properties. Moreover, these relations can be built on the principles of subordination and coordination.
- Application of the hierarchical principle of the existence of social phenomena, as well as the connections that are formed with these problems - local, regional, global.
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There are many changes. Some of them are performed constantly and can be fixed at any time. To do this, it is necessary to select a certain period of time and trace which features of the object disappear and which appear. Changes can relate to the position of an object in space, its configuration, temperature, volume, etc. those properties that do not remain constant. Summarizing all the changes, we can highlight the characteristic features that distinguish this object from others. Thus, the category “change” is understood as the process of movement and interaction of objects and phenomena, the transition from one of their states to another, the appearance of new properties, functions and relations in them.
A special type of change - development. If change characterizes any phenomenon of reality and is universal, then development is associated with the renewal of the object, its transformation into something new. Moreover, development is not a reversible process. For example, a change in "water-steam-water" is not considered development, just as it is not considered quantitative changes or the destruction of an object and the termination of its existence.
Development always presupposes qualitative changes occurring in relatively large intervals of time. Examples are the evolution of life on Earth, the historical development of mankind, scientific and technological progress, etc.
Development of society - it is a process of progressive changes that occur at any given moment at every point of human community. In sociology, the concepts of "social development" and "social changes" are used to characterize the movement of society. The first of them characterizes a certain type of social change directed towards improvement, complication and improvement. But there are many other changes. For example, the emergence, formation, growth, decline, disappearance, transition period. These changes carry neither positive nor negative meaning. Social change encompasses a wide range of social change, regardless of its direction.
Thus, the concept "Social change" the various changes occurring over time in social communities, groups, institutions, organizations, in their relationships with each other, as well as with individuals are indicated. Such changes can occur at the level of interpersonal relations (for example, changes in the structure and functions of the family), at the level of organizations and institutions (education, science are constantly subject to changes both in terms of their content and in terms of their organization), at the level of small and large social groups.
Can be distinguished four types of social change:
1) structural changes concerning the structures of various social formations (for example, family, any other community, society as a whole);
2) changes affecting social processes (relations of solidarity, tension, conflict, equality and subordination, etc.);
3) functional social changes concerning the functions of various social systems(in accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation of 1993, there were changes in the functions of the legislative and executive authorities);
4) motivational social changes (recently, the motives of personal monetary earnings and profits have come to the fore among significant masses of the population, which affects their behavior, thinking, consciousness).
All these changes are closely related. Changes in one species inevitably lead to changes in other species.
Development studies are dialectics. This concept originated in Ancient Greece, where the ability to polemize, to argue, to convince, proving their innocence was highly valued. Dialectics was understood as the art of argument, dialogue, discussion, during which the participants put forward alternative points of view. In the course of the dispute, one-sidedness is overcome, a correct understanding of the discussed phenomena is developed. The well-known expression "truth is born in a dispute" is quite applicable to the discussions of ancient philosophers.
The ancient dialectics presented the world as constantly moving, changing, and all phenomena are interconnected. But at the same time, they did not single out the category of development as the emergence of something new. In ancient Greek philosophy, the concept of the great cycle dominated, according to which everything in the world is subject to cyclical recurrent changes and, like the change of seasons, everything ultimately returns "to square one."
The concept of development as a process of qualitative changes appeared in medieval Christian philosophy. Augustine the Blessed compared history with human life, passing through the stages of childhood, adolescence, maturity and old age. The beginning of history was compared with the birth of a person, and its end (terrible COURT) - with death. This concept overcame the idea of cyclical changes, introduced the concept of progressive movement and uniqueness of events.
In the era of bourgeois revolutions, the idea arose historical development, put forward by the famous French educators Voltaire and Rousseau. It was developed by Kant, who raised the question of the development of morality and the social development of man.
A holistic concept of development was developed by Hegel. He found many changes in nature, but saw true development in the history of society and, above all, in its spiritual culture. Hegel identified the main principles of dialectics: universal connection of phenomena, unity of opposites, development through negation.
Dialectical opposites are inextricably linked, unthinkable without each other. Thus, content is impossible without form, part without the whole, effect without cause, etc. In some cases, opposites converge and even pass into each other, for example, illness and health, material and spiritual, quantity and quality. Thus, the law of the unity and struggle of opposites establishes that internal contradictions are the source of development.
The dialectician pays special attention to the relationship between quantitative and qualitative changes. Any item has a quality that distinguishes it from other items, and quantitative characteristics of its volume, weight, etc. Quantitative changes can accumulate gradually and not affect the quality of the item. But at a certain stage, a change in quantitative characteristics leads to a change in quality. So, an increase in pressure in a steam boiler can lead to an explosion, the constant implementation of unpopular reforms among the people causes discontent, the accumulation of knowledge in any field of science leads to new discoveries, etc.
The development of society takes place progressively, passing through certain stages. Each subsequent stage, as it were, denies the previous one. As development progresses, a new quality appears, a new negation occurs, which in science has received the name denial negation. However, denial cannot be considered the destruction of the old. Along with more complex phenomena, there are always simpler ones. On the other hand, the new, highly developed, arising from the old, retains everything of value that was in it.
Hegel's concept is based on reality, generalizes a huge amount of historical material. However, Hegel put the spiritual processes of social life in the first place, believing that the history of peoples is the embodiment of the development of ideas.
Using Hegel's concept, Marx created materialistic dialectics, which is based on the idea of development not from the spiritual, but from the material. The basis of development, Marx considered the improvement of the tools of labor (productive forces), entailing a change in social relations. Development was considered by Marx, and then by Lenin, as a single natural process, the course of which is carried out not in a straight line, but in a spiral. On a new round, the passed steps are repeated, but at a higher quality level. Movement forward occurs in leaps and bounds, sometimes catastrophically. The transition from quantity to quality, internal contradictions, the clash of various forces and tendencies give impetus to development.
However, the development process cannot be understood as a rigorous movement from the lowest to the highest. Different peoples on Earth differ in their development from each other. Some peoples developed faster, some more slowly. In the development of some, gradual changes prevailed, while in the development of others, they were of an abrupt nature. Depending on this, they distinguish evolutionary and revolutionary development.
Evolution - these are gradual, slow quantitative changes that, over time, lead to a transition to a qualitatively different state. The evolution of life on Earth is the most striking example of such changes. In the development of society, evolutionary changes manifested themselves in the improvement of tools of labor, the emergence of new, more complex forms of interaction between people in different spheres of their lives.
The revolution - these are extremely radical changes that involve a radical breakdown of pre-existing relations, which are of a universal nature and, in some cases, are based on violence. The revolution is spasmodic.
Depending on the duration of the revolution, there are short-term and long-term. The first include social revolutions - fundamental qualitative changes in the entire social life, affecting the foundations of the social system. These were the bourgeois revolutions in England (17th century) and France (18th century), the socialist revolution in Russia (1917). Long-term revolutions have global significance, affect the development process of different peoples. The first such revolution was neolithic revolution. It lasted several thousand years and led to the transition of mankind from an appropriating economy to a producing one, i.e. from hunting and gathering to animal husbandry and agriculture. The most important process that took place in many countries of the world in the 18th-19th centuries was industrial Revolution, as a result of which there was a transition from manual labor to machine labor, the mechanization of production was carried out, which made it possible to significantly increase the volume of output with less labor costs.
In describing the development process in relation to the economy, extensive and intensive development paths are often distinguished. Extensive path is associated with an increase in production by attracting new sources of raw materials, labor resources, increasing the exploitation of labor, expanding the sown area in agriculture. Intensive way associated with the use of new production methods based on the achievements of scientific and technological progress. The extensive development path is not endless. At a certain stage, the limit of its capabilities comes, and development comes to a standstill. An intensive path of development, on the contrary, presupposes a search for something new, which is actively used in practice; society is moving forward at a faster pace.
The development of society is a complex process that continuously continues throughout the entire history of human existence. It began with the separation of man from the animal world and is unlikely to end in the foreseeable future. The development of society can be interrupted only with the death of humanity. If a person himself does not create conditions for self-destruction in the form of a nuclear war or an ecological catastrophe, the limits of human development can only be associated with the end of existence. solar system... But it is likely that by that time science will reach a new qualitative level and a person will be able to move in outer space. The possibility of populating other planets, stellar systems, galaxies can remove the question of the limit of the development of society.
Questions and tasks
1. What is meant by the category "change"? What kinds of changes can you name?
2. How is development different from other types of change?
3. What types of social change do you know?
4. What is dialectics? When and where did it arise?
5. How have ideas about development changed in the history of philosophy?
6. What are the laws of dialectics? Give examples to support them.
7. What is the difference between evolution and revolution? How did these processes manifest themselves in the life of individual peoples, of all mankind?
8. Give examples of extensive and intensive development paths. Why can't they exist one without the other?
9. Read the statement of N.А. Berdyaeva:
“History cannot make sense if it never ends, if there is no end; the meaning of history is movement towards the end, towards the end, towards the end. Religious Consciousness sees in history a tragedy that has a beginning and will have an end. In a historical tragedy there are a number of acts, and in them a final catastrophe is brewing, an all-decisive catastrophe ... ”. Where does he see the meaning of the story? How are his ideas related to the problem of the development of society?
10. Lead a discussion on the topic "Is there a limit to the development of humanity?"
