The era of Hellenism briefly. Hellenistic period. Regulation in Greece
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Introduction
The new frontier in the history of Greece is becoming a trip to the east of Alexander Macedonsky (356-323 BC) - the son of Philip II, who subdued Greece. As a result of the campaign (334-324 BC), a huge power was created, stretching from the Danube to Indea, from Egypt to modern Central Asia. The era of Hellenism begins (323-27 BC) - the era of the spread of Greek culture throughout the territory of Alexander Macedonsky. The mutual enrichment of Greek and local cultures contributed to the creation of a single Hellenistic culture, which remained and after the collapse of the empire for a number of so-called Hellenistic States (Ptolemeevsky Egypt, the State of Seleucidov, Pergamm Kingdom, Bactria, Pontic Kingdom, etc.).
1. Ellinism essence
1.1 The main features of Hellenism
What is Hellenism, what are his characteristic features? Hellenism became violent (i.e. achieved as a result of fierce wars) by the association of ancient Greek and ancient world, previously developed separately, into a single system of states that have a lot in common in their socio-economic structure, political device, culture. As a result of the unification of an ancient Greek and ancient world, within the framework of the same system, a peculiar society and culture was created, which differed from both Greek acts (if we proceed from the features of Greece V-IV centuries. BC), and the actual ancient wardrobe social and culture and culture and The alloy, synthesis of elements of ancient Greek and ancient-growing civilizations, which gave a qualitatively new socio-economic structure, political superstructure and culture.
As the synthesis of Greek and eastern elements, Hellenism grew out of two roots, from historical DevelopmentOn the one hand, an ancient Greek society, and above all, from the crisis of the Greek policy, on the other hand, he crossed out of ancient times, from the decomposition of its conservative, sedentary public structure. Greek policy, which ensured the economic rise of Greece, creating a dynamic social Structure, Mature republican device, including various forms of democracy, creating a wonderful culture, eventually exhausted its internal capabilities and became a brake of historical progress. Against the background of constant tension in relations between classes, the acute social struggle between the oligarchy and the democratic circles of citizenship, which led to tyranny and mutual entry. Smalled for several hundred minor policies, small through the territory of Eldead became the arena of continuous wars between the coalitions of individual cities-states, which were united, then disintegrated. Historically necessary for further fate The Greek World presented the cessation of inland riots, uniting small warring independent policies within the framework of large state education with a solid central government, which would provide internal order, external security and thereby the possibility of further development.
Another basis of Hellenism was the crisis of the Ancient Social and Political Structures. By the middle of the IV century. BC. Ancient world, united (except India and China), as part of the Persian Empire, also experienced a serious socio-political crisis. The congestive conservative economy did not allow to master the extensive spaces of empty lands. The Persian kings did not build new cities, paid faint of trade, in the basements of their palaces lay huge stocks of currency metal, which were not started in turnover. Traditional community structures in the most developed parts of the Persian Persian - Phenicia, Syria, Babylonia, Malaya Asia - decomposed, and private farms as more dynamic production cells received some spread, but this process was slow and painfully. From a political point of view, the Persian monarchy by the middle of the IV century. BC. Represented a loose education, the connection of the central government and local rulers weakened, and the separatism of individual parts was the usual phenomenon.
If Greece is the middle of the IV century. BC. He suffered from excessive activity of internal political life, overcrowding, limited resources, then the Persian monarchy, on the contrary, from stagnation, weak use of huge potential possibilities, disintegration of individual parts. Thus, in the queue of the day there was a task of a certain association, a peculiar synthesis of these various, but those who can complement each other of socio-economic and political systems. And these synthesis were Hellenistic societies and states formed after the collapse of the Power of Alexander Macedonsky.
What areas of life engulfed the synthesis of Greek and eastern elements? On this issue in scientific literature there are different points of view. Some scientists (I. Droisen, V. Tarn, M.I. Rostovtsev) Synthetic of Eastern and Greek began in terms of uniting some elements of culture and religion or, at most, as the interaction of Greek and Eastern began in the field of political institutions, culture and religion . In domestic historiography, Hellenism is understood as a combination and interaction of Greek and eastern elements in the field of economics, class-social relations, political institutions, culture and religion, i.e. In all areas of life, production and culture. Hellenism has become a new and more progressive stage in the fate of an ancient Greek and ancient and ancient community in the vast region of the Eastern Half of the Mediterranean and Front Asia. The synthesis of ancient Greek and ancient world began in each region of the Hellenistic world, in each Hellenistic state was unequal in the extent of its intensity and the role of elements participating in it. In some states and societies, Greek principles prevail, in others - the eastern, in the third, their ratio was more or less uniform. In addition, this synthesis in some countries covered more alone elements, such as public structures, in others - political institutions, in the third - cultural or religion. The different degree of combination of Greek and Eastern began depended on the specific historical features of the existence of certain Hellenistic societies and states.
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Geographicframes of Hellenistylish world
It includes small and large-scale state formations from Sicily and South Italy in the West to the North-West Indies in the East, from the southern shores of the Aral Sea to the first thresholds of the Nile in the south. In other words, the territory of classical Greece entered the Hellenistic world (including Great Greece and Black Sea) and the so-called classic east, i.e. Egypt, Front and Central Asia (without India and China). As part of this extensive geographical area, four regions can be distinguished with a number of common features of both geographic and historical order, a well-known community and cultural development: i) Egypt and the Middle East (East Mediterranean, Syria, Armenia, Babylonia, most of Malaya Asia ), 2) Middle East (Iran, Central Asia, North west Side India), 3) Balkan Greece, Macedonia and the western part of Malaya Asia (Pergam), 4) Great Greece and the Black Sea region (Fig. 1). The most characteristic features of Hellenism as the synthesis of Greek and Eastern began in all areas of life, production and culture manifested in Egypt and in the Middle East, so that this region can be considered as a region of classical Hellenism.
In other regions there were more socio-economic, political and cultural differences from the classical Hellenism of the Middle East. In particular, in the last two regions, namely in Balkan Greece and Macedonia, Great Greece and the Black Sea region, i.e. on the territory of itself Ancient GreeceThe synthesis of ancient Greek and ancient lands starts not existed. Historical development in these areas was held on one basis, namely basis ancient Greek civilization as such. Nevertheless, these regions became part of Hellenism for several reasons. First of all, they were part of the overall system of Hellenistic states as a certain socio-economic, political and cultural whole. Ellina and Macedonian and other regions of the Greek world of Eldlands, Macedonia and other regions of the Greek world (they constituted the backbone of the armies of the Hellenistic rulers), as administrators (the state apparatus in the center and partially in the field was completed from them), as citizens of numerous Greek cities based in different parts Hellenistic world, began to play a major role in the lives of new societies and states.
2. Lifting material and spiritual culture
2.1 Development of material K.w.ice
In the era of Hellenism, the gap characteristic of the classical era is significantly disappeared between theory and practice, science and technology. This is characteristic of the work of the famous Archimedes (approx. 287-212 BC). He created the concept of an infinitely large number, introduced the value for calculating the circumference length, opened the hydraulic law called by his name, became the founder theoretical mechanics etc. At the same time, Archimedes made a great contribution to the development of technology, creating a screw pump, constructing a variety of combat lots and defensive guns.
Construction of new cities, the development of navigation, military equipment contributed to the rise of sciences - mathematics, mechanics, astronomy, geography. Euclide (approx. 365-300 BC) created elementary geometry; Eratosthene (approx. 320 -250 BC) quite accurately determined the length of the earth meridian and thus set the true dimensions of the Earth; Aristarh Samos (approx. 320-250 BC) proved the rotation of the earth around the axis and its movement around the Sun; Hipparch Alexandria (190 - 125 BC) set the exact length of the solar year and calculated the distance from the ground to the Moon and the Sun; Geron Alexandria (I B. BC) created a mode of steam turbine.
Successfully developed natural science, especially medicine. Herofil's ancient Greek scientists (Lights of the IV-III centuries. BC) and Erasistratus (approx. 300-240 BC) opened the nervous system, found out the value of the pulse, made a big step forward in the study of the brain and heart. In the Botany region, it should be noted the student of the student of Aristotle - Feofrat (Theofrast) (372-288 BC).
Development scientific knowledge Required systematization and storage of accumulated information. In a number of cities, libraries are created, the most famous of them in Alexandria and Pergama. In Alexandria, Museyon (MUZ), which served as a scientific center was created at the courtyard of Ptolemyev. It contained various cabinets, collections, audiences, as well as free accommodations for scientists.
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Development of philology,
Literature and historiography
A new branch of knowledge is developing in the Hellenistic era, almost completely absent in the classical era, - philology in a broad sense of the word: grammar, criticism of the text, literary criticism, etc. The most important thing was the most importantly, the main merit of which is the critical processing of the text and commenting the classical works of Greek Literature: Homer, Tragikov, Aristophan, etc.
The literature of the era of Hellenism, although it becomes more diverse, significantly inferior to the classic one. Epos, the tragedy continue to exist, but become more rational, in the foreground - erudition, sophistication and virtuosity of the syllable: Apolloony Rhodes (III century BC), Callima (approx. 300 - approx. 240 BC) .
A kind of reaction to the life of cities was the special kind of poetry - Idyll. I idylls of the poet of Foocrita (approx. 310 - approx. 250 BC) became samples for later bucolic, or shepherd poetry.
The realistic household comedy continues to develop in the era of Hellenism, perfectly represented by the work of Athenian Menandra (342/341 - 293/290 BC). The plots of his witty comedies are built on domestic intrigues. A short dramatic scenes from the life of ordinary citizens are widespread.
Menandra is attributed to the porch phrase:
"Who loves the gods, dies with young."
Hellenistic historiography is increasingly turning into fiction, the focus is on the exhibition, the harness of the composition, the perfection of the style. It is hardly the only exception to polybium (approx. 200-120 BC), striving to continue the tradition of Fuchidide and the first to try to write a holistic world history.
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Philosophy of the era of Hellenism etc.................
The tragedy dies with Euripid. Dramaturgy dies with Aristophane. The political and moral stability of the policy is undermined.
The period of the Board of Alexander Macedonsky was brief 338-323. On the short term There was a huge empire. Aristotle's strong influence was provided for him. He destroyed only the hair. He understood that the culture of Macedonia could not be a common culture of the world. He wanted to win the whole world and wanted to bring culture captured peoples - Greek as the highest manifestation. Alexander did not destroy the culture of conquered peoples. He wanted to achieve the unification of cultures. For this, he is trying to unite religions and mythology - syncretism. In the conquered territories there were a lot of goddesses of fertility and love - the union into the cult of the Great Unified Mother. It was fruitful. Image of goddess Isis with baby on hands. The second example: God Serapis. Many conquered countries depended on the water. Serapis - Aid, Poseidon, Dionysis, Oziris, Apis. Serapisa read everywhere.
Ellinsky is Greek. Hellenistic - the interaction of Greek and Eastern culture. In the East, the Greeks borrowed the state apparatus - a military-bureaucratic monarchy. They understood the need for a single Hellensky language - a total coin / ring appears. In the era of Hellenism, even the meaning of the word Ellin is changing. Previously, this is a national unit. In the era of Alexander, this is not an ethnic, but an ethical concept. Hellen could be anyone who professes Ellinsky culture and lifestyle.
The presentation of the Greeks of the Motherland is expanding. Previously, a citizen of the policy, now a citizen of the world, a cosmopolitan.
The relationship of Ellini to religion has changed. Religion was a public, state. Now she becomes a private thing, you can choose. But the state did not exist for a long time. Alexander is simply stuck in India. Dies young, at 33 years old.
After the death of Alexander, his associates divide the empire for the Hellenistic states: Egypt is moving towards Ptolemy. Syria, Macedonia with Greece. Egypt becomes the most significant from the cultural point of view. Alexandria Egyptian becomes the center of Greek culture. Ptolemy continues the case of Alexander, it is based on the largest Alexandria library in the world. When Egypt fought with the Romans, the library burned down. Another Ptolemy creates a museumon. This is the Academy of Sciences and University. This idea is relevant so far. The unified complex of a scientific and educational institution - collected the best scientists of different nationalities. There was a mathematician Euclide, historian of Hektei, an artist Apileles. Here for the first time the science of philology is born. She has the beginning in a Homer's question.
The first philologists were Grammar Senadot and Aristarkh Samofraki. But not only Homer occupied their attention. They created an antique literature program that is being studied now.
In the era of Hellenism, a man's view of the world has changed. This is manifested in philosophy. Hellenes stopped creating fundamental philosophical systems. They turned their eyes on a person, for a private question - how to achieve happiness? Development of a system of personal behavior in life, which will ensure spiritual well-being. System of municipal / cynics, stoics and epicuretes. First of all, they define the meaning of happiness and the path to achieve it. A modern understanding of happiness is the sum of positive factors, and then - the lack of negative.
Nogini. Main Representatives - Diogen Sinopsky, Antisphen and Crafts. The name was obtained from the nickname diogen - "Kinikos", biting puppy. It was sharp in the language. It was popular among the lowest layers of society. Representatives of this school sought to work out and check on themselves a certain experimental lifestyle. There are no treatises from them - only anecdotes. The philosophy of ignition is the philosophy of people spent from the life of the policy: runaway slaves, impoverished people. Kiniki are trying to give a feeling of self-sufficiency to such an individual who is not what to rely on in life. The school taught that even with the complete absence of goods it is necessary to find something valuable. They considered the most valuable - personal freedom. A person who does not have anything is free. Nogini offered the state of loneliness to evaluate as a state of spiritual freedom, that is, the ways fortunately. From the point of view of nursery, it is only a means. The goal is to live in kinically. They denied everything: culture, morality, official religion, state. Enter the concept of cosmopoly. They are citizens of the world. Plato called noghin and dioogene with swamped Socrates. The doctrine is directed against all social oblasts of society: slavery, property, religion. All China considered themselves cosmopolitans - everywhere were going to live in their laws. Applied the shape of the curse: "Without a community, without a home, without the fatherland" as a slogan. They tried to prove their complete freedom. It is at nineteen that the genre of diatries appears - a dialogic polemical conversation with a sharp joke, satire. Creator - Menipp, former slave. Issued to freedom, possessed literary abilities. Parods high genres. Dytriaba includes poems, and prose, and aphorisms, and jokes. The genre of Menippova Satira will use even Dostoevsky in his novels. Menippova Satira will affect the development of Roman genres, Roman satire. Francois Rabl will also use it.
Stoics. "Standing" is a portico, the type of roof, where these wise men were going. Stoikov has a certain ideal - this is a sage, independent of its spiritual development from the environment, state. Focused on the intelligent medium, wise men. His homeland is the whole world. The founder of the teachings of Zeno. Stoiki believed in the God of Zeus-Logos, spilled worldwide world mind, so they deified nature, made it reasonable. Soul man particle of global mind. The main stoic was considered the instinct of self-preservation. A person must behave with others as he would like himself with him. Called not to violate laws, not to leave the state. Stoics believed that the laws of society had to respect, went to civil service. But if they believed that they were forced to do not virtue, they answered in protest. For ninets, the goal justifies the means. Stoikov was not important, in his desire for happiness, it was important to them. Happiness is the amount of where there is no negative. Virtue was in Apathy. For the Stoics of Apathy - the highest light in life. The ultimate goal does not achieve a man.
Epicuretes. Founder - Epicur (341-270). He lived in Athens, taught in the form of conversations in beautiful gardens. The wealthy epicurus was very painful, could not participate in public Life, so he creates a doctrine for rich and painful. Ethics of Epicuri is based on the materialistic teaching of the democritus. Epicuric thinks over the essence of happiness. Answer: He must find it not in the outside world, but within himself - in the spiritual peace of mind or soul serenity (atraxia). We were looking for peace of mind. It should not interfere in other people's affairs and politics. How to achieve this: it all depends on the fear of death and fear of the gods. The gods will mark immediately. Death: He believes that while there is a person - there is no death, and when there is no man - it's too late. The main slogan: live life imperceptibly in the circle of your friends, freeing from all passions. Excessive feelings. The word "Epicurez" eventually begins to know otherwise unfastened. It is impossible to live wisely, morally, rightly, without living nice. Golden middle philosophy.
The system of literary genres is completely changed. The value is losing the tragedy and theater, they are irrelevant. Small genres come to the place of these genres. These genres reflect the problems of humanism, family and life, the provisions of a woman, the situation of children. Literature and art turn to a private person. To personality. The subject of the image is also becoming a common person. There is polarization of the literature: literature for elite and fiction (mass literature). So the Greek Roman appears as a story about private life.
Among the high literature, genres of "scientist" of poetry are highlighted. The poets of that time compete with the choice of scenes - unusual, little-known, different options. Literature loses interest in major forms. Instead of epic poems, the spread of Epilia is "Eposik". Epigram, Elegy and Idyllus applies.
Epilia. Master Epilia was a poet Collima - a representative of the scholar of poetry. Epilly "Becale" is dedicated to theses, which goes to the feat, it cares of night, rain, knocks on the old woman's hut. Theses leave, then returns, and the old woman died. Wants to arrange sports games in her honor - in honor of Zeus Gekalian.
Idyll. Title: "Picture". The creator of idyll was the poet of Foocrit. Wrote bucolic idylls - shepherd songs. Foocritus against urban civilization. Comes to natural. His idylls are scenes with wolpas, which compete in the songs, more likely love, but there may be others. Foocritus belongs to them with irony - he is a resident of the city, the nonsense, leads the game with the reader.
Hellenism - The period in the history of the Mediterranean, primarily the Eastern, launched since Alexander Macedonian death (323 BC) to the final establishment of Roman domination in these territories, which is usually dated to the fall of Ptolemeevsky Egypt (30 BC). The term initially denoted the correct use of Greek language, especially by non-tech, but after the publication of the work of Johann Gustav Droisen "History of Hellenism" (1836-1843), the concept was included in historical science.
A feature of the Hellenistic period was the widespread dissemination of Greek and culture in the territories included in the diaraton states, which were formed after the death of Alexander Macedonian on the territories conquered by him, and the interpenetration of Greek and Eastern - primarily the Persian cultures, as well as the occurrence of Classical slavery.
The beginning of the Hellenistic Epoch is characterized by the transition from the polis political organization The hereditary Hellenistic monarchies, the displacement of centers of cultural and economic activity from Greece in Maly Asia and Egypt.
Formation and political structure of Hellenistic states
Sudden death of Alexander Macedonsky in 323 BC. E., served as a signal to the beginning of the collapse of his empire, who found all his ephemerality. Alexander's military leaders, who called the Diarathels began a series of bloody wars and junks for the throne of a single state that lasted 22 years. None of the Diarathes could have been able to win a decisive victory over all the others and in 301 BC. er, after the battle of the IPS, they divided the empire into several independent parts.
Section of the Power of Alexander the Great after the battle of the IPS (301 BC. E.)
So, for example, Cassandra got the throne of Macedonia, Lisimahu - Frace and most of the Malaya Asia, Ptolemy - Egypt, the villager got extensive lands from Syria to Inde. Such division lasted for a long time - already in 285 BC. e. Lysims, along with the king of Epira, conquers Macedonia, but will soon die in the war with Seleovka I Nitator. However, the Empire of Seleucidov soon loses his possession conquered in Malaya Asia, as a result of which the region is divided into several small independent states, of which Pont, Vhynia, Pergam and Rhodes should be very highlighted.
New states are organized according to a special principle that obtained the name of an Hellenistic monarchy based on the synthesis of local despotic and Greek political traditions. Policy, as an independent civil community, retains its independence as a social and political institution even within the Hellenistic monarchy. Such cities like Alexandria enjoy autonomy, and their citizens are special rights and privileges. At the head of the Hellenistic state, there is usually a king with full state power. His main support was a bureaucratic apparatus, which carried out the functions of managing the entire territory of the state, with the exception of cities who have the status of policies that owned a certain autonomy.
Compared to previous periods, the situation in the Greek world has changed seriously: instead of a plurality of hostile polishes with each other, the Greek world has now consisted of several relative to stable large powers. These states were a common cultural and economic space, which is important for understanding the cultural and political aspect of that era. The Greek world was very closely interconnected system, which is confirmed at least the presence of a single financial system as well as the scale of migration flows within the Hellenistic world (the era of Hellenism was the time of relatively large mobility of the Greek population. In particular, continental Greece, at the end of the IV century BC. . Surprising from overpopulation, by the end of the III century BC. er began to feel the shortage of the population).
Culture of an Hellenistic society
Hellenistic society is amazingly different from the society of classical Greece on a variety of factors. The actual departure of the polis system into the background, the development and distribution of political and economic vertical (and not horizontal) connections, the collapse of the suspended social institutionsThe overall change in the cultural background caused serious changes in the Greek social structure. It was a mixture of Greek and eastern elements. The most bright syncretism manifested itself in religion and the official practice of deification of monarchs.
Moscow Institute of Law
Specialty: Psychology
Educational discipline: culturalology
Course work
On the topic: culture of the era of Hellenism
Moscow 2006
Introduction
Hellenistic culture, The term having two semantic meanings: chronological - culture of the era of Hellenism and typological - culture that arose as a result of the interaction of Greek (Hellenic) and local elements. The typological understanding leads to the expansion of the chronological and geographical frameworks until the entire culture of the ancient world from the time of hiking of Alexander the Great (4th century BC) to the fall of the Roman Empire (5th century) to the fall of the Roman Empire (5th century) to inclusion in the concept of "Hellenistic culture" . At the same time, qualitative changes in ideology and culture arising after Roman conquest and especially during the crisis and decline of the ancient slave-ownership society are not taken into account.
Hellenism is a stage in the history of the countries of Eastern Mediterranean since the campaigns of Alexander Macedonsky (334-323 BC) before the conquest of these countries by Rome, which ended in 30 BC. e. subordinate to Egypt.
The terms "Hellenism" introduced in the historiography in the 30s. 19th century German historic I. G. Droisen. Historians of different directions are interpreted in different ways. Some nominate the mutual influence of Greek and local, mostly eastern, cultures, expanding sometimes the chronological framework of the Hellenism stage before the beginning of the Middle Ages. Others focus on the interaction of socio-political structures, emphasize the leading role of Greco-Macedonian, modernize economic relations. In Soviet historiography (S. I. Kovalev, A. B. Rovanovich, K. K. Zelin et al.) Hellenism is interpreted as a specific historical stage in the history of Eastern Mediterranean, characterized by the interaction of Greek and local elements in socio-economic relations, political Organizations and cultural development at the end of 4-1 centners. BC e.
Hellenism is a whole epoch in the history of antiquity. It takes three centuries - from 336g. (Alexander's acceleration year) until 30g. BC e. (The year of conquesting the last major Ellinsky State Egypt). It covers almost the entire current civilized world. It can be said that the history of Hellenism is the world history of that time. It originated in it - scientific, philosophical, ethical, religious flows, which were possessed by the world. There have been significant shifts in the economy, political forms, in the public consciousness, in culture.
For individual Hellenistic countries and on certain problems of Hellenism, extensive serious studies have been written over the past decades, but it does not appear about Ellinism in general. The exception is, perhaps, representing the undoubted interest of the book of Tarn "The Hellelenistic Civilization", published for the first time in 1927.
1. general characteristics Hellenism
Hellenism is the widespread spread of Greek culture, religion, philosophy, art, economics, policies and lifestyle to the East and their close interaction with local public affairs. As a result, a special syncretic culture arose, in which the Greeks were no longer ethnic, but a socio-cultural phenomenon.
The Greek language - Koin ("General"), created on the basis of an attic dialect, who became the language of the New Testament. In parallel, Koine existed another international, but the Eastern language is Aramaic.
A new worldview was born in the Hellenistic era, which was widespread and philosophical design, - cosmopolitanism, awareness of himself by the "citizen of the world." The destruction of civilian thinking of people continued, but on a foreign city of Greeks, even from hostile cities was aware of spiritual unity in the face of other culture; Scattered throughout Okumen, they felt their belonging to the Hellensky world. The decline of the polis ideology led to the rapid development of individualism. Experiences, feelings, thoughts of a separate person were in the center of religion, literature and art. The instability of life, social instability, war, the coup was resulting the widespread distribution of fatalism reflected in philosophical and religious systems . Cosmopolitanism, individualized Fatalismarco characterized by an Hellenistic era in terms of serious spiritual changes. To learn "Hellenism" as a historical era and understand it in all its originality, it is impossible without taking into account that the main fact that "Hellenism" is a stage in the history of ancient slave-ownership society. In the era of "Hellenism" the world has changed and expanded. Greek language could be used from Marseille to India, from the Caspian Sea to the thresholds of the Nile. Nationality retreats to the background; mutual language And general education facilitate the development of common culture. Literature, science and, above all, philosophy is associated with a broader world than Greece. Trade has become international. Ellinism has established other forms of the state instead of an eastern despoty and the Ellinsky policy. But the Hellenistic monarchies in the East, the Macedon Coalition, the Ahasey and Etoli Unions in the Balkans did not eliminate the Greek policy with its narrow interests. Of course, there were no independent cities - states, but their existence associated citizens with the old founders of the policy.
On the other hand, the oriental despotus was not eliminated. Alexander receivers continued to act similarly. Even in the field of culture, where "Hellenism" means a radical coup, the case was not communicated to the end; Eastern cultures were not absorbed, the Ellen's culture of the classic period was not forgotten.
Thus, Hellenism can be regarded as a progressive stage in the history of antiquity, but with a significant reservation. In his initial period, new forms of economic, political and spiritual life were created. But the changes accomplished in all areas of life in the Hellenistic period were not deeply deep, the reasons that led to the crisis of Hellenic states were not overcome.
In all areas of culture, Hellenism means turning worldwide-historical significance. Much was only scheduled, the Hellenistic economy did not create conditions for the final processing of the classical heritage, to create a new one-piece worldview, the integrity of harmonious culture. The contradictions of the slave-owned society after a short period of lifting, they have affected very quickly and led to the fact that the development went with feverish pace with short-term takeoffs and long periods of decline; In some areas - philosophy, literature - decline has become chronic. But in general, elliptical culture is a new stage in the cultural history of mankind, which influenced its entire further move.
The culture was not uniformly prevailing throughout the Hellenistic world. In each region, it was formed by the interaction of local, most stable traditional elements of culture with culture, brought by conquerors and immigrants - Greeks and not Greeks. The synthesis forms were determined by the impact of many concrete circumstances: the numerical ratio of various ethnic groups (local and elongated), the level of their economy and culture, social organization, political situation, etc. Even when comparing large Hellenistic cities, where the Greco-Macedonian population played a leading role, specially visible special, characteristic of the feature of cultural life; They appear more clearly in the inner regions of the Hellenistic states (for example, in Fivide, Babylonia, Frakia). And, however, all local versions of the Hellenistic culture are characterized by some common features due, on the one hand, similar tendencies of socio-economic and political Development Societies throughout the territory of the Hellenistic world, on the other - the obligatory participation in the synthesis of elements of Greek culture. The formation of Hellenistic monarchies in combination with the polis structure of cities contributed to the emergence of new legal relations, a new socio-psychological appearance of a person and society, a new content of his ideology. Stressful political situation, continuous military conflicts between states and social movements within them also imposed a significant imprint on an Hellenistic culture. In Hellenistic culture, there are more convex than in the classical Greek, there are differences in the content and nature of the culture of the Hellenized Upper Layers of Society and the City and Rural Poor, in which local traditions remained stable.
Hellenistic culture should not blame those material basics on which it originated. On the contrary, it is in the aspect of social relations it becomes clear its essence and its historical role. It becomes a clear historical role of Hellenism, as one of the stages on which the socio-economic limitations of the slave-owned society was fell, although not enough, prerequisites for a more progressive socio-economic lift. Hellenistic culture created on this base was fundamentally new, since it, although in an incompletely, broke the framework of the former limitations.
2. Historical essay
As a result of the campaigns, Alexander Macedonsky emerged a power, covering the Balkan Persh, the island of the Aegean Sea. Malny Asia, Egypt, all the front, southern regions of the average and part of Central Asia to the lower flow of Inde. For the first time in history, such a huge territory was within a single political system. In the process of conquests, new cities were founded, new ways of communications and trade between remote areas were laid. However, the transition to the peaceful development of the land did not occur immediately; For half a century, after the death of Alexander the Macedonsky, a fierce struggle was laid between his Diadochemian commander (successors), as they are usually called, for the section of his heritage. In the first half of the decade, the fiction of the unity of the Power under the nominal authorities of Philip Arrida (323-316 BC) and the young Alexander IV (323-310? GG BC), but in reality, already under Agreement 323 BC e. The power in its most important regions was in the hands of the most influential and talented commander: antipatra in Macedonia and Greece, Lisimaha in Frakia, Ptolemy in Egypt, Antigone in the south-west of Malaya Asia. Greece and Macedonia became an important bridgehead, where the royal house was drawn in the fight, and the Macedonian to know, and the Greek policies; In the course of her, Philip Arryda died and other members of the royal family-wax period of the struggle of Diarathes were the time of the formation of a new, Hellenistic society with a complex social structure and a new type of state. The activities of the Diaratov, guided by subjective interests, were ultimately the objective tendencies of the historical development of Eastern Mediterranean and Front Asia- the need to establish close economic relations of deep areas with the sea coast and connections between the individual regions of the Mediterranean and, at the same time, the tendency to preserve ethnic community and the traditional political and cultural unity of individual districts, the need for the development of cities as trading centers and crafts, in the development of new lands to feed the increased population, and, finally, in cultural interaction, etc. There is no doubt that individual features public figures Coming in the struggle for power, their military and organizational talents or their prissthood, political myopia, indomitable energy and non-trimming in the means to achieve goals, cruelty and korestolobiya - all this complicated the course of events, gave him acute dramaticness, often imprint of chance. Nevertheless, you can trace the overall features of the dialors. Each of them sought to unite in its authority internal and seaside areas, to ensure domination over important ways, shopping centers and ports. Everyone stood before the problem of the content of the strong army as a real support of power. The main backbone of the army consisted of Macedonian and Greeks, which were previously in the royal army, and mercenaries, recruited in Greece. Funds for their payment and content partly dropped out of treasures, looted by Alexander or Diagehi themselves, but quite acutely there was a question about the fees of Dani or submissions from the local population, and, consequently, the organization of the management of seized territories and the establishment of economic life. In all areas, except for Macedonia, there was a problem of relationship with the local population. In solving it, two trends are noticeable: the rapprochement of the Greco-Macedonian and local nobility, the use of traditional forms of social and political organization and a more rigid policy towards the indigenous segments of the population as conquered and completely powerless, as well as the introduction of a polis. In relations with Fal-Eastern Satrapia, Diagehi adhered to the pretended practices in Alexander (perhaps ascending to Persian time): the government was provided to local nobility on the terms of recognition of the dependence and payment of monetary and natural supplies. One of the funds of economic and political strengthening of power in the conquered territories was the foundation of new cities. This policy, started by Alexander, was actively continued by Diaghi. Cities were based both as strategic items, and as administrative and economic centers that received the status of the policy. Some of them were erected on the empty lands and settled out of Greece, Macedonia and other places, others arose through a voluntary or compulsory compound in one policy of two or several impoverished cities or rural settlements, the third - by reorganizing the eastern cities replenished by the Greek-Macedonian population. It is characteristic that new policies appear in all areas of the Hellenistic world, but their number, location and method of occurrence reflect and the specifics of time, and historical features Individual areas. During the period of the struggle of the Diaraths, simultaneously with the formation of new, Hellenistic states was the process of a deep change in the material and spiritual culture of the peoples of the Eastern Mediterranean and Front Asia.
Natural scientific views. The largest scientific center of the Hellenistic world was Alexandria with Alexandria Mussan and the Alexandria library, where the outstanding scholars of the Mediterranean worked. Significant development has reached the manufacture of books in Alexandria, which contributed to the Egyptian monopoly to Papyrus. Other important centers of Hellenistic science were Pergami, Antioch in Oronte, about. Rhodes. Most scientists whose activities proceeded in these centers were Greeks. Greek has become an international scientific language of that era.
The highest achievements of mathematics and astronomy, especially the blooming in Alexandria in 3-2 centuries. BC e., related to the names of Euclidea, Archimedes, Apollonia Perga, Aristarha Samos, Hippark from Nicea. In the works of these scientists, Hellenistic science approached a number of problems: a differential and integral calculation, the theory of conical sections, a heliocentric system of the world, etc., which found further development only in a new time. From the mathematicians who worked in Alexandria, Nikomed, Diocl, Zenodor (labor "about Isoperimetric Figures") and the Hypsyl, the author of the XIV book of Euclidean "began" and the treatise "On polygonal numbers" are also known. Selevk from Seleucia (2 V. BC er) performed as a follower of the Heliocentric system of Aristarkha, established the dependence of sea tides and sings from the position of the Moon. The successes of theoretical mechanics were primarily connected with the works of Archimedes; Family also acquired a pseudo-thearistoteleous treatise "Mechanical problems". The development of applied mechanics contributed to the numerous inventions of Ktybia. Achievements of applied mechanics were summed up in the works of Gerona Alexandria.
Hikes Alexander Macedonsky stimulated the expansion of geographical knowledge. The student of Aristotle Diekarchh about 300 BC. e. made a map of all the well-known Okumen and tried to determine the size of the globe; Its results were clarified by Eratosphen of Keene, who fruitfully worked in a wide variety of areas of knowledge. Posident with about. Rhodes wrote in addition to philosophical writings a number of works on geography, astronomy, meteorology, etc. The work of Strabo "Geography" (in 17 kN) summarized the geographical knowledge of the era.
The accumulated knowledge in the Botany region was systematized by Teofras. Great interest was achieved in the field of human anatomy and in medicine.
The activity of Herofila from Chalkecedon and Erasistrate was a stage on the way to creating scientific anatomy. Under the influence of these scientists at the turn of 3 and 2 centuries. BC e. The school of empiricov doctors (Filin Koski, Serapion Alexandria, etc.), who admitted experience as the only source of medical knowledge.
In connection with the development of accurate sciences, military equipment was improved. In the erah of Hellenism, new types of throwing weapons originated: the catapults and the ballists, which shot large arrows and stones, with long-ranges up to 350 m. In their designs, a stretched rope was used, which made from the tendons of animals.
As a heavy machine for the removal of levers of throwing machines, women's hair, clarified by oil, who patriotic wives sacrificed in heavy military situations were considered the best material. Modernized types of siege towers (GELEPOL) appeared. The development of individual types of defensive structures and machines put the hand and great technician of antiquity Archimedes.
Science was still limited to the conditions of time, because there were no convenient Arab designations of numbers, accurate observation tools, etc.
But the flowering of science began at the same time and the limit point of its development, since in this area the Romans did not compare themselves with the Greeks. Europe up to the Renaiss Age will live at the expense of scientific baggage acquired during the period of Hellenism. "The one who understands Archimedia and Apollonia," said Leibniz, - less admires modern scientists. "
3. Historical science
The plots of historical works usually served the events of the recent past and modern authors .. In historical writings, questions were discussed on the role of fate and outstanding personalities in history, about the ideal form of a state arising from the mixing of democracy, aristocracy and monarchy, about merging the history of individual countries to the World Story and etc. According to its form, the work of many historians were on the verge fiction: The presentation of events was skillfully dramatized, rhetorical techniques were used, emotionally impact on a wide audience. In such a style, I wrote the story of Alexander Macedon Callisphen (the end of 4th century) and Clims Alexandria (not earlier than 280-270), the history of the Greeks of the Western Mediterranean - Timey from the Taurusion (shortly after 264), the history of Greece from 280 to 219 - Philharh Athens.
Another direction of historiography adhered to a more strict and dry statement of facts (non-exclusive tendency), for example: the history of Alexander's campaigns, written by Ptolem I after 301; The history of the fighting period of the Diarathov written by Jerome from the cardia (no earlier than 272), and others. The largest historian 2 in. There was a polybium, the author of the World History from 220 to 146. Following Polybiom in 1 V. The world history wrote a posidron from Apamei, Nikolai Damasky, Agatarhid Book, Diodor Sicilian. The history of individual states continued to be developed, chronicles and decrees of Greek policies were studied, an interest in the history of eastern countries increased. Already at the beginning of the 3rd. There were works in the Greek language of local priests-scientists: Manephon (history of the pharaoh Egypt), Beros (history of Babylonia), Apollodore from Artemite (History of Parfyan); Historical writings in local languages \u200b\u200b(for example, McCaveev's books about the uprising of Judea residents against Seleucidov).
The choice of the theme and coverage of events by historians undoubtedly influenced the political struggle, political and philosophical theories of the modern era.
4. Philosophy
The overall rise of the economy in the first period of Hellenism affected the philosophical concepts. Materialistic philosophy, essentially the most vital, reached in the initial period of Hellenism of a brilliant heyday in the teaching of the epicura.
The class of philosophy is increasingly turning into fishery. More prominent philosophers consist at the yards of the rulers
In the era of Hellenism, the Academy of Platonovskaya, Aristotelian Liquek (Peripatetic School), Nogin and Kirenskaya Scholi continue their activities. The school of philosophers, novice, proclaimed as the highest virtue of a man, his ability to enjoy small, be independent of the state, society, even from culture and family.
The famous nineteen was Diogen, according to the legends in general, who quoted the call to the generally accepted order and lived in a barrel. When he was visited by the famous Alexander Macedonian and asked what he wanted, he only answered: "Do not obscure the sun"
At the same time, three new philosophical schools arise, challenging each other influence on the Hellenistic World: skepticism, epicureism and stoicism.
Combines their overall concentration on the issues of mindsetting and behavior of the individual, to achieve internal independence from the world and the associated displacement of ontological issues of ethical. The main thing in the Staicism is ethics, the doctrine of virtue, which was in peace of calm, calmness, in the ability to endure the blows of fate.
School of skeptics founded in the last quarter of 4 V. BC e. Pierron, called for the achievement of the imperturbability of the spirit on the way of refusing to search for the impossible, in their opinion, objective knowledge, abstinence from judgment and following a reasonable probability, traditions and customs. In the future, skepticism merges with the Platonic Academy (since. 2nd and 3rd Academy, based on Arkecilage and Carnead), and in 1 c. BC e. Developed by Enesidem.
Epicurus, creating his teaching on the basis of the atomistic teaching of the democritus and ethics of Kerenaikov, began to teach in 309 BC. e., preaching the achievement of happiness and spiritual bliss (serenity and tranquility of the soul) through moderation in feelings, pleasures, composure, etc. School of Epicur, which existed until the middle of 4 V. n. E., has a significant impact on the worldview of the Hellenistic era. The activities of the founders of Stoicism - Zenona from the kition, Cleanf and Chrysippe - proceeded in 3-2 centuries. BC e.
Resting the concepts of Diskratov philosophy (primarily a heraklite), the stoics represented space with a reasonable fiery breathing, crusing on the diversity of Logos, one of which is a person; The unshakable spirit seems to be fully subordinate to the cosmic mind, for which there is impassive and virtue.
From the middle of the 2nd century. BC Ego begins the process of sacralization, rapprochement of philosophy with the religious and mythological traditions of Greece and the East. Philosophy becomes the path of eclectic association of various systems. The central figure of this process is a position that synthesized the Pythagorean-Platonic and Stoic philosophy into a detailed and extensive system of Platonic Stoicism, which had a huge impact on antique philosophy up to the dam .
5. Religion and mythology
The most characteristic feature of Hellenistic religion and mythology is syncretism in which the eastern legacy has played a huge role. The gods of Greek Pantheon were identified with the ancient eastern deities, endowed with new features. The forms of reverence of deities changed, mysteries acquired more orgiastic character. When maintaining local differences in the pantheon and the forms of the cult, some universal deities that united the similarities of the most revered deities of different peoples were gradually gained. One of the main cults was the cult of zeus gypsist (the highest above all), identified with the Phoenician Waal, Egyptian Amone, Babylonian White, Jewish Yahweh, and others. His numerous epithets - Pantokrator (Almighty), Soter (Savior), Helios (Sun) and others - indicate the extraordinary expansion of its functions. With the cult of Zeus in the prevalence, the cult of Dionysus was rolled with Mysteries, brought him with cults of the Egyptian God of Osiris, the Majoryan gods of Sabaza and Adonis. From female deities, the Egyptian Isis, which embodies the features of many Greek and Asian goddesses became the main and almost universally revered deities. A specific generation of the Hellenistic era was the cult of serapis - a deity, which is obliged to fulfill the religious policy of Ptolemyev, who sought to merge together the anthropomorphic appearance of Zeus Poseidon with the functions of the Egyptian zoomorphic deities of Osiris and APIS. The synokretic cults in the east were penetrated into the polls of Asia Minor, Greece and Macedonia, and then to the Western Mediterranean. Some eastern cults almost in unchanged form were perceived by the Greeks. The importance of the main deities increased the importance of the Goddess of Fate Taikh. Hellenistic kings, using Eastern traditions, had an effigured by the royal cult.
In the field of religious life, there was a gradual extinction of the polis religion: a previously imbued with the spirit of civilian collectivism, now she gained personal character and in this sense prepared the soil for the spread of Christianity.
6. Literature
In the literature, traditional genres have lost leading positions. Tragedy and oratory lost their popularity. There were special relations between the authors and the rulers, based on the patronage of the arts of people (for example, actively engaged in Ptolemy's pathemistry), which was inevitably led to the development of court literature, full of flattery. This hobbies did not even avoid the best poets, such as Foocrit, who made the "praise Ptolemy II". Foocritus acquired fame as a compiler of idylls, praised the rural shepherd life. He received the spread of the lear to the care of reality with the appropriate entourage: "Crystal clear source, streams, suede stones, a carpet of silky grass, shady trees, hills, swords and oliva, bees, collecting honey, birds and cicadas." The source of the bucolic genre was folk poetry. He has popular and poetry travel to exotic countries. For example, a detailed arrangement of the myth on argonauts appeared.
It was a feverish search for a new one, when poetry was released from musical accompaniment and special attention was paid to the metric. "Poetry of small forms" - Eclogs and epigrams. The desire to transfer the feelings of individual people contributed to the development of love poetry, in which various symbolic images were invented: amuras, arrows, hearts, chains, etc., etc., - original in the Hellenistic era, but banal at the next time.
The reading public has changed: Education has spread among the rich and noble sections of society, and therefore there was a sophisticated refective poetry "for a minority", as it is neither paradoxically incurred to taste to many.
There were libraries, the largest in Alexandria, in Museyon (about 700 thousand papyrus scrolls), where scientists were systematized by the works of preceding antique authors. In their processing, many antique manuscripts reached us: Homer, Gesiod, etc. The criticism of the text appeared and its detailed comment required in the presence of a large number of books. It was in Alexandria (approximately II century to R. H.) a first transfer to the Greek language of the Books of the Old Testament - Septuaginta (translation of 70 intercovers) was made. The most important feature of the artistic literature of the Ellinism era was the narrowing of its social horizon compared with the preceding (T. N. Polis) period greek History. The publicity was maintained only the theater, ideas, but in the theater for the change of the social and political and accusatory comedy of Aristophan, the so-called new attic comedy (Menandr, Phileon, Diffil - 2nd half 4 - Start 3 of centuries were reached. BC.) With her interest in private everyday life and family periods. The tragedies of the period of Hellenism have not been preserved, although the productions are witnessed during the entire Hellenistic period both in Athens and almost throughout the territory of the Hellenistic world (up to Armenia and the Black Sea region).
From the beginning of the 3rd. BC e. Literature was developed in new cultural centers, mainly in Alexandria, where artistic creativity was inextricably connected with scientists of the research of philologists who worked in the famous Alexandria library.
The study of the fiction of the past forced the Hellenistic poets to realize both the sustainability of existing literary traditions and the need for their update. Hence intensive experimentation in the area of \u200b\u200bthe long-established genres. Elegy from the means of public and moral edification turns into a narrative with mythological content in the work of the Cilis. Kos (about 320-270), Hermesivanaca from Kolofon (r. About 300) and Callimah from Kyrena. At the same time, Callima replaced the traditional heroic epic with a genre of a small poem ("Epilly"), which put the side episodes of the heroic legend in the domestic colors. In t. N. The idyllies of Foocrites The household situation was often developed in forms borrowed from the folklore contest of singers or the characteristic dramatic scene (mima) from the life of the city family.
The same circle of topics constitutes the content of "Mimyambov" Herondd, found on a papyrus at the end of 19 V. The period of Hellenism was also the heyday of the epigram, in which the first place was made by a love topics: the emergence of passion, a meeting of loved, unsatisfied feeling.
The traditional genre of the heroic epic found a continuation of the Apollonia of Rhodes, but he also experienced the impact of the teaching, mandatory for the poetry of an Hellenistic culture and demanding from the authors of the waller to the main story canvas of any kind of antique certificate, rare words and myths.
Prognise genres, issued in the period of Hellenism, were essential for the subsequent development of antique and medieval literature with the involvement of folklore novels, stories about wonderful countries: a love affair with the participation of the legendary kings and commander ("Roman about Nina"), pseudo-historical descriptions of the perfect public device (Yambul , Eugemer).
The literature of Hellenistic culture has achieved significant success in the image inner world Human, his daily life, while the use of folk tradition expanded the boundaries of literary genres.
7. Art
In art, traditional directions were formed under the influence of the Lisippa School, which is the example of the famous Aphrodite (Venus) Milos. Its sublime-quiet features are the last surge of the final outgoing classics. Statues and bas-reliefs in the Hellenistic era were popular, but an increase in demand for works of art always leads to the emergence of a huge number of things designed for mass consumption - a direct path to decay of the present skill.
In art, as in other areas of spiritual life, there was a search for new forms. The infinite fermentation of Asia has found an expression in pathetic plots. The symbol of Hellenism was the church of the temple in self-policia. Once she rummaged on the cliff, on the seashore, the folds of her developed clothes were punished with salted splashes, Nika Drubila in the horn, arising from a new era, and now, with broken hands and head, she meets the visitors of the Louvre. He received great fame to the altar of Zeus ahead of the 330 meters long. On it is shown the struggle of gigs and giants - Giantaeha. It strikes the complexity of the composition, expression, fear of empty space, Body struggling intertwined into one huge stretching tangle, in which the classic simplicity and clarity disappeared. The horror in the face of barbarism and death expressed the sculpture of Laocoon, according to legend, predicted the deaths of death from a wooden horse created by Odyssem. The sculptural group depicts the Prophet and two of his sons, fighting in the last convulsions at the moment when they are strangled by snakes sent to the punishment by Apollo. Brutally and invisibly stained with blood victory of mind.
For Hellenism, the taste of gloomy, painful, old, ugly, barbaric is characteristic. The statues of a drunk old woman, Galla who killing himself and his wife, Marcia, from whom they were sorted by the skin, - if the Miron previously portrayed only the beginning of the legend, when Athena only threw the flutes, and Marshi picked them up, now the artist attracted the cruel finale. Household sketches appear: a peasant, a plowed field, a boy playing with Gusesh (or twisting it), and others. The essence of the new art is an image of a person with all his earthly sorrows and mourn. However, to real realism as an artistic direction in culture is still far: art is too superficial and ethnographic.
Small plastic develop, decorative and applied art: a huge number of camas are made (a relief convex image on a stone), "Portrait of Ptolemy II and his spouse - Intaliy (concave terna) received great fame. Medalons that did not have practical application and the symbol of the luxury of the highest sections of society. The contradictions of the political and socio-economic development of the Company led to the inconsistency of the Hellenistic art, which combines rationalism and expressiveness, skepticism and emotionality, emeliness and deep drama, archaicization and innovation. Local differences in art schools were strengthened: Alexandrian, Pergamsk, Rhodes, Athenian, Syrian, and others. In the territories east of the Euphrate, the interaction of Greek. and local elements were insignificant; The period of stormy synthesis, as a result of which the art of the Parthian kingdom, Gandhara, the Kushan kingdom arose, began after the fall of the Greco-Macedonian authorities.
Hellenistic architecture is distinguished by the desire to master the huge open spaces, to the effect of grandeur, the desire to hit a person the magnitude and courage of engineering and construction thoughts, the logic of structures, the impressiveness of the forms, accuracy and skill of execution. In the artistic guise of cities (Alexandria in Egypt, dura-Europa, Pergam, Priene, Seleucia on a tiger), built usually on a regular plan, an important role was assigned to large colonnades (along the main streets) and 1-2-tier column porticities, separately worth it ( around the perimeter of Agora) or a part of the building; In the formation of urban centers - the tsarist palaces, houses for assembly (boilers, ecclesiasters), theaters, sanctuations. The feature of the Hellenistic cities is the majestic architectural ensembles, which are characterized by the coherence of buildings with each other and with the surrounding landscape, the regularity of the planning, emphasising horizontals and verticals of the facade planes, the symmetry and the front of the compositions of the buildings as elements of the ensemble calculated for perception from the facade. The architectural types of public, residential and cult buildings were mostly sealed to the epochs of Greek archaic and classics, but interpreted in the spirit of time; New buildings appeared - libraries, Museyon (Alexandrian Museyon), engineering facilities (Farosky Lighthouse in Alexandria). The syncretism of the Hellenistic religion influenced the development of types of temples, sanctuations, altars, memorial buildings, in which the interaction with the art of the East (the Sanctuary of Asclepia on O. Kos, Catacombs of Kom-Eschukafa in Alexandria, Khanum in Northern Afghanistan). Eccentricity of Hellenistic architecture found an expression in the spectacular plastic compositions of Altar Asia Altar (Altar Zeus in Pergamum). The Hellenistic order is distinguished by a free attitude towards the traditional scheme and a tendency to strengthen the decorative-focal function due to constructive. In Eastern Hellenistic Art, Greek orders have undergone local interpretation ("Pseudocorinf" colors of columns in Ai-Khanuma). IN fine art, along with the creative use of the classic heritage, the creation of harmonic images (Melosskaya Aphrodite, 2 V. BC), there was a tendency to mechanical imitation of the classics (Neoattic School), generating internally cold, lzpomatics (statue of Apollo Musaget, beginning 3 V. BC er, Vatican museums). The sculpture ceased to serve as civilian ideals; It raised abstraction, decorativeness, narrativeness, sometimes illustrative (Laocoon) in it.
Characteristic for Hellenistic plastics drama, expression and pathetic passionality, designed to actively influence the viewer, the internal stroke of the images and the external effects of forms built on the interaction with the surrounding space, unexpected angles and dynamic gestures, complex drawing of the composition and bold contrasts of light and shadow are most pronounced In the corneal frieze of the Zeus Altar in Pergamum, the statue of the Nick Samofratsky. Multiplicity and inconsistency of the Hellenistic sculpture manifested itself in the coexistence of idealized portraits of monarchs, extremely monumental statues of the deities ("Colossus Rhodes"), grotesque mythological (silence, satires) or pride of the majestic (Tanagry terracotes) images, acutely characteristic images of old men, dramatic "portraits of philosophers." Widespread development was obtained gardening sculpture, imbued with resting rest. In mosaics there are free, scenic execution manner and more strict, classically. The trends common to the Hellenistic culture can be traced in vasopysis, glipetics, trade, artistic glass vessels.
In the erah of Hellenism, such a holistic and complete artistic concept was created, which was in the era of classics, and this is also one of the essential signs of the extinction of Greek civilization in the era of Hellenism.
8. Wonders of Light
In the Hellenistic period, the first lists of seven wonders of the world appeared. In addition to famous egyptian pyramids, Hanging Gardens of Semiramides, Statues of Zeus, Fididia and Galicarnas Mausoleum, At that time, Artemis Temple in Ephesus, Alexandria, or Faros Lighthouses Statue of Helios on the island of Rhodes were built.
Alexandrian Lighthouse was erected by the architect by the Kddynsky Sostrah about. Faros connected to the Alexandria port of one kilometer in a bulk dam. The lighthouse was a two-story tower with a height of 120 meters: a cube, and on it - an octahedron (in the directions of eight major winds). The lighting lamp occupied the third floor, built in the form of a cylinder, and over him was a dome with the sememeter statue of Poseidon. There was a fire, which reflected by metal mirrors was visible at a distance of 50-60 km. The lower floor tumped up to the XIV century. Now on the Far Fort, the remains of the lighthouse are buried under it.
Rhodes in power rapid development Trade and seaworthy has become a major Hellenistic state. In honor of one of the major military victories at the beginning of the III century. BC e. Rhodians decided to revive the statue of the Sun God, the patron sizes of the island's unprecedented statue. The statue was supposed to cast out of bronze - from a technical point of view, almost impossible operation, which, however, produced a student of Lisippa Harez from Linda. He cast a statue of 35 meters high in parts for twelve years. Colossus stood for a short time, since in 220 BC. e. An earthquake occurred on Rhodes. Gelios debris were still found Arabs in the x century.
Conclusion
The most characteristic feature of the economic development of an Hellenistic society was the growth of commercial production and trade. New major trading and handicraft centers arose - Alexandria in Egypt, Antioch on Oronte, Seleucia on Tiger, etc., handicraft production, which was largely focused on the external market. In the seaside areas of Malaya Asia and Syria, new policies were created, which were also strategic points, and administrative, and economic centers. Regular maritime bonds established between Egypt, Syria, Malaya Asia, Greece and Macedonia; Trading routes were established on the Red Sea, the Persian Bay and further to India. Egypt's trading links were established with the Black Sea, Carthage and Rome. Cash circulation and cash transactions have expanded, which contributed to the discharge in the coin of precious metals stored in the treasures of the Persian kings and temples. The facilities arisen, attracted artisans, merchants and people of other professions.
Hellenistic culture survived the Hellenistic state for a long time and caused illusion historians, as if cultural values \u200b\u200bcreated by Hellenism and his true essence lies. Hellenism meant major changes in the economic, political and social life of society. The changes served as the basis for creating and spreading an Hellenistic culture.
Hellenism was not simple mechanical "mixing" of the East and West. A new type of economic and political association was created.
Hellenism as a new stage in the history of slave-owned society received a distinct expression in the field of culture - in literature and art, in philosophy and religion.
The historical importance of Hellenism and Culture is mainly and consists that during this period a person is broken off "from the umbilical umbilical bonds", which is the process of overcoming ethnic, religious, community, polis closetness, and the class struggle is expandable.
Hellenistic culture spread and preserved even where its socio-economic and political base turned out to be weak and short-lived. She penetrated Central Asia and India. In the distant Black Sea region, in Olvia, Chersonese, in the Bosporus Kingdom of Hellenistic culture reached high development. From here there were famous philosophers of Bion and Spheres, historians Sirisk and Posidochi Olviopolitolitolitol, geographer Dionysius Olvian, Poet Isim. Of course, not everywhere and always, the Hellenistic culture has allowed durable roots, its distribution and development were uneven.
The study of the history of Hellenism not only reveals the pattern of the historical process of the development of an antique slave-ownership society. It allows you to make more general conclusion: when the socio-economic formation is at the stage of decline and decomposition, the attempts of the dominant class to strengthen their power by introducing new forms of economic and political domination are doomed to failure.
But in order not to say, one thing is clear that the era of Hellenism left both historical and cultural heritage. Antique culture influenced the development of European and domestic culture in the following areas:
She laid the foundations of European mentality. Latin and the Greek language entered into parts into all European languages, making the basis of the scientific, musical, political, legal and other vocabulary.
Policy gave samples state Device, principles of democracy, state management forms.
In the right - laid the foundations of the general and private law of all European states
In art, he served as a model for imitation, the school of artistic taste and the aesthetic principles of the development of the world.
In sports, he gave the basis of many sports - struggle, mild athletics, equestrian competitions, etc., laid the principles of competitive activities and the Olympic Games.
Education is the principles of didactics and the education of the younger generation.
In military business - the rules of organization of troops, training of military business, the basics of strategy and tactics. - In science and medicine, gave many basic knowledge, equipped the science and medicine and medicine gave the terminology. - formed the theoretical base of many areas of scientific knowledge, including philosophy, logic, philology, etc.
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13. Fedotov V. V. Historical geography of an ancient world. M., 1996.
(Skepticism, Stoicism, Epicurery)
Hellenism - The period in the history of the Mediterranean, primarily the Eastern, launched since Alexander Macedonian death (323 BC) to the final establishment of Roman domination in these territories, which is usually dated to the fall of Ptolemeevsky Egypt (30 BC). The term originally indicated the correct use of Greek language, especially not Greki, but after the publication of the work of Johann Gustav Droisen "History of Hellenism" (1836-1843), the concept was included in historical science. The feature of the Hellenistic period was the widespread dissemination of Greek and culture in the territories included in the diaraton states, which were formed after the death of Alexander Macedonian on the territories conquered by him, and the interpenetration of Greek and Eastern - primarily the Persian cultures, as well as the emergence of classical slavery. The beginning of the Hellenistic era is characterized by the transition from the political organization to the hereditary Herulinistic monarchies, the displacement of centers of cultural and economic activity from Greece in Maly Asia and Egypt. Sudden death of Alexander Macedonsky in 323 BC. E., served as a signal to the beginning of the collapse of his empire, who found all his ephemerality. Alexander's military leaders, who called the Diarathels began a series of bloody wars and junks for the throne of a single state that lasted 22 years. None of the Diarathes could have been able to win a decisive victory over all the others and in 301 BC. er, after the battle of the IPS, they divided the empire into several independent parts. So, for example, Cassandra got the throne of Macedonia, Lisimahu - Frace and most of the Malaya Asia, Ptolemy - Egypt, the villager got extensive lands from Syria to Inde. Such division lasted for a long time - already in 285 BC. e. Lysims, along with the king of Epira, conquers Macedonia, but will soon die in the war with Seleovka I Nitator. However, the Empire of Seleucidov soon loses his possession conquered in Malaya Asia, as a result of which the region is divided into several small independent states, of which Pont, Vhynia, Pergam and Rhodes should be very highlighted. New states are organized according to a special principle that obtained the name of an Hellenistic monarchy based on the synthesis of local despotic and Greek political traditions. Policy, as an independent civil community, retains its independence as a social and political institution even within the Hellenistic monarchy. Such cities like Alexandria enjoy autonomy, and their citizens are special rights and privileges. At the head of the Hellenistic state, a king is usually worthwhile, which has all the completeness of state power. His main support was a bureaucratic apparatus, which carried out the functions of managing the entire territory of the state, with the exception of cities who have the status of policies that owned a certain autonomy. Compared to previous periods, the situation in the Greek world has changed seriously: instead of a plurality of hostile polishes with each other, the Greek world has now consisted of several relative to stable large powers. These states were a common cultural and economic space, which is important for understanding the cultural and political aspect of that era. The Greek world was very closely interconnected system, which is confirmed at least the presence of a single financial system as well as the scale of migration flows within the Hellenistic world (the era of Hellenism was the time of relatively large mobility of the Greek population. In particular, continental Greece, at the end of the IV century BC. . Surprising from overpopulation, by the end of the III century BC. er began to feel the shortage of the population). Culture of an Hellenistic societyHellenistic society is amazingly different from the society of classical Greece on a variety of factors. The actual departure of the political system into the background, the development and dissemination of political and economic vertical (and not horizontal) connections, the collapse of the silent social institutions, the overall change in the cultural background caused serious changes in the Greek social structure. It was a mixture of Greek and eastern elements. The most bright syncretism manifested itself in religion and the official practice of adventure of monarchs . Hellenization of the EastThroughout the III-I centuries BC e. On the entire space of the Eastern Mediterranean, the Hellenization process was the process, that is, undergoing the local population of Greek, culture, customs and traditions. The mechanism and reasons for such a process were largely in the peculiarities of the political and social structure of the Hellenistic states. The elite of the Hellenistic Society was predominantly representatives of the Greco-Macedonian aristocracy. They brought in the east of Greek customs and actively imposed them around them. Old local one to know, wanting to be closer to the ruler, emphasize your aristocratic status, sought to imitate this elite, the very same people imagined local nobility. As a result, the Hellenization was the fruit of imitation by the country's indigenous residents. This process affected, as a rule, the city, the rural population (which was most) in no hurry to part with their own rather habits. In addition, Hellenization was mainly touched by the higher layers of Eastern Society, which at the above reasons had a desire to enter the Greek Wednesday.
End of work -
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Hellenism - The period in the history of the Mediterranean, primarily the Eastern, launched since Alexander Macedonian death (323 BC) to the final establishment of Roman domination in these territories, which is usually dated to the fall of Ptolemeevsky Egypt (30 BC). The term originally indicated the correct use of Greek language, especially not Greki, but after the publication of the work of Johann Gustav Droisen "History of Hellenism" (1836-1843), the concept was included in historical science. The feature of the Hellenistic period was the widespread dissemination of Greek and culture in the territories included in the diaraton states, which were formed after the death of Alexander Macedonian on the territories conquered by him, and the interpenetration of Greek and Eastern - primarily the Persian cultures, as well as the emergence of classical slavery. The beginning of the Hellenistic era is characterized by the transition from the political organization to the hereditary Herulinistic monarchies, the displacement of centers of cultural and economic activity from Greece in Maly Asia and Egypt. Sudden death of Alexander Macedonsky in 323 BC. E., served as a signal to the beginning of the collapse of his empire, who found all his ephemerality. Alexander's military leaders, who called the Diarathels began a series of bloody wars and junks for the throne of a single state that lasted 22 years. None of the Diarathes could have been able to win a decisive victory over all the others and in 301 BC. er, after the battle of the IPS, they divided the empire into several independent parts. So, for example, Cassandra got the throne of Macedonia, Lisimahu - Frace and most of the Malaya Asia, Ptolemy - Egypt, the villager got extensive lands from Syria to Inde. Such division lasted for a long time - already in 285 BC. e. Lysims, along with the king of Epira, conquers Macedonia, but will soon die in the war with Seleovka I Nitator. However, the Empire of Seleucidov soon loses his possession conquered in Malaya Asia, as a result of which the region is divided into several small independent states, of which Pont, Vhynia, Pergam and Rhodes should be very highlighted. New states are organized according to a special principle that obtained the name of an Hellenistic monarchy based on the synthesis of local despotic and Greek political traditions. Policy, as an independent civil community, retains its independence as a social and political institution even within the Hellenistic monarchy. Such cities like Alexandria enjoy autonomy, and their citizens are special rights and privileges. At the head of the Hellenistic state, a king is usually worthwhile, which has all the completeness of state power. His main support was a bureaucratic apparatus, which carried out the functions of managing the entire territory of the state, with the exception of cities who have the status of policies that owned a certain autonomy. Compared to previous periods, the situation in the Greek world has changed seriously: instead of a plurality of hostile polishes with each other, the Greek world has now consisted of several relative to stable large powers. These states were a common cultural and economic space, which is important for understanding the cultural and political aspect of that era. The Greek world was very closely interconnected system, which is confirmed at least the presence of a single financial system as well as the scale of migration flows within the Hellenistic world (the era of Hellenism was the time of relatively large mobility of the Greek population. In particular, continental Greece, at the end of the IV century BC. . Surprising from overpopulation, by the end of the III century BC. er began to feel the shortage of the population). Culture of an Hellenistic societyHellenistic society is amazingly different from the society of classical Greece on a variety of factors. The actual departure of the political system into the background, the development and dissemination of political and economic vertical (and not horizontal) connections, the collapse of the silent social institutions, the overall change in the cultural background caused serious changes in the Greek social structure. It was a mixture of Greek and eastern elements. The most bright syncretism manifested itself in religion and the official practice of adventure of monarchs . Hellenization of the EastThroughout the III-I centuries BC e. On the entire space of the Eastern Mediterranean, the Hellenization process was the process, that is, undergoing the local population of Greek, culture, customs and traditions. The mechanism and reasons for such a process were largely in the peculiarities of the political and social structure of the Hellenistic states. The elite of the Hellenistic Society was predominantly representatives of the Greco-Macedonian aristocracy. They brought in the east of Greek customs and actively imposed them around them. Old local one to know, wanting to be closer to the ruler, emphasize your aristocratic status, sought to imitate this elite, the very same people imagined local nobility. As a result, the Hellenization was the fruit of imitation by the country's indigenous residents. This process affected, as a rule, the city, the rural population (which was most) in no hurry to part with their own rather habits. In addition, Hellenization was mainly touched by the higher layers of Eastern Society, which at the above reasons had a desire to enter the Greek Wednesday.
