History of Russian diplomacy in quotes. So, under the blows of the global economic crisis, the entire system of post-war payments collapsed.
Safety is what happens between your ears, not what you hold in your hands. - Jeff Cooper
Hunting safety begins ... at home.- Alexey Sitsko
Safety is not the meaning of my life. Great opportunities worth the risk. - Shirley Hafstedler
Safety is the main condition for any individual and even more so for collective hunting. Careful handling of a gun, discipline in shooting, and observance of certain rules during the hunt are essential features of a cultured hunter. - Sergey Naumov
Security is largely a prejudice. In the long run, avoiding danger is no safer than going to meet it. - Helen Keller
Security is the foundation of any political community. - Emmanuel Macron
Be careful if the risk factor depends entirely on the case or is difficult to predict, but remember: choosing guaranteed safety, you will never know the joy of victory. - Richard Branson
In any relationship with Russia, the first place everywhere and always should be the interests of our security. – Margaret Thatcher
There is something encouraging about risk. The air of safety smells musty - danger always clears. - Whitley Strieber
Everywhere, as far as possible, people should feel themselves in the highest degree of security, which is most favorable, in order to calmly think and reason. - Abraham Lincoln
A state that is unable to demonstrate strength cannot play any other role in ensuring security than as a battlefield or launch pad.– Margaret Thatcher "The Art of Government Governance: Strategies for a Changing World"
Palaces cannot be safe where huts are unhappy. - Benjamin Disraeli
If you want to be safe, stop doing evil and you will enjoy great peace. - John Chrysostom
If you invite the president of another country to your office, but at the same time create conditions that threaten his security, then there are clearly problems in your system of power. - Recep Erdogan
If we want peace, we must not prepare for war, if we want security, we must not threaten, and if we want cooperation, we must make compromises.– Margaret Thatcher "The Art of Government Governance: Strategies for a Changing World"
The life of a nation is safe only when that nation is honest, truthful, and virtuous. - Frederick Douglas
Do you know why I am alive? Because I always take care of my safety personally. - Fidel Castro
Everyone has the right to feel safe. - Evgeny Kaspersky
Once we cut costs to the detriment of our safety, we will no longer have homes, hospitals, and schools. We will only have a pile of ash. - Denise Healy
When the satisfaction, safety and development of another person becomes as important to you as your own satisfaction, safety and development, then you can say that it is love. - Harry Sullivan
The ship is safer in port, but it wasn't built for that. - Grace Hopper
The world of the 21st century has become neither more stable nor more secure. - Vladimir Putin
The world is indivisible. There is no security only in one's own peace and tranquility, if the peace of neighbors - near and far - is not ensured. - Maxim Litvinov
My number one priority is to keep America safe. - Donald Trump
We want the French to be able to live in safety. - Charles de Gaulle
We [France] cannot abandon our nuclear forces, because today our security depends on them, and tomorrow, perhaps, the security of all of Europe. - Francois Leotard
It is impossible to achieve prosperity of the state without sufficient security measures. - Tony Abbott
There is no such thing as security when you talk about investment. - Jim Rogers
None of us can be safe if most of society is poor. - Nelson Mandela
America's commitment to global security is so broad and the sacrifice it makes so significant that its allies should not complain about American families' reluctance to take casualties in other people's wars. However, American leaders must recognize that such a reputation, however unfounded, plays into the hands of America's enemies.– Margaret Thatcher "The Art of Government Governance: Strategies for a Changing World"
1935 was marked by the beginning of aggressive actions in Europe. Italy was the first to start them. Mussolini has long matured a plan to seize land in East Africa. He dreamed of uniting Eritrea and Somalia into one large colony, including Abyssinia (Ethiopia). Since the end of 1934, Italy began to send troops and military supplies to Eritrea.
To get support for his aggressive plans and agree on other issues of interest to Italy, Mussolini invited the new French Foreign Minister Laval to Rome. On January 7, 1935, they agreed to define the Franco-Italian border in Africa. As a result, Italy received a good foothold for the implementation of their plans, Laval and Mussolini also agreed to conclude the Danube Pact.
In the same month, Mussolini tried to find mutual language on the question of Ethiopia and with England, but the Italians did not succeed in getting any answer from her at the conference in Stresa. The British were worried about the strengthening of Italy in North Africa on the roads to India.
England and Italy returned to this issue in June, when the English Minister for the League of Nations A. Eden, who had arrived in Rome, proposed a plan according to which Abyssinia would cede a part of the province of Ogaden to Italy, and England agreed to compensate Abyssinia for its losses at the expense of the lands of the British Union.
Mussolini rejected this proposal, saying that Italy needed all of Abyssinia, and England later made concessions to her. Although Foreign Minister S. Khor, speaking in the House of Commons, called on Italy to refrain from using military force, a few days later the British government decided not to issue a license to export weapons not only to Italy, but also to Ethiopia. By this decision, London put the African country in a difficult position, since it did not produce weapons.
To avoid provocation, Haile Selassie I, a Negus of Ethiopia, withdrew Ethiopian troops 30 km from the border. Despite this, on October 3, 1935, without a declaration of war, Italy launched an invasion. Ethiopia appealed to the League of Nations, and its Council on October 7 recognized Italy as the aggressor. The League Assembly approved the Council's decision. A committee of 18 formed by her proposed not to provide loans to Italy, to impose an embargo on arms exports to Italy, not to import Italian goods, not to import certain types of secondary raw materials into Italy. Later, oil and oil products were included in the number of goods prohibited from import into Italy.
Italian troops continued their offensive. On May 5, 1936, Addis Ababa was occupied, and three days later Mussolini annexed Ethiopia to Italy by his decree.
The Ethiopian people put up heroic resistance to the aggressor. But the forces were not equal. In addition, neither the United States, nor Britain, nor France provided Ethiopia with serious assistance.
Seeing the indifference of these powers, Germany continued to openly build a strong army and navy. At the Nuremberg Trials in 1946, the Minister of Economy of Nazi Germany A. Schacht showed that everything that Germany did not encounter any obstacles from other countries. Everything was perceived quite calmly, only sometimes non-binding notes of protest were directed to anything.
On January 13, 1935, a plebiscite was held in the Saar, in which 539 thousand people took part, of which 477 thousand spoke in favor of the annexation of the Saar to Germany. This outcome of the plebiscite was largely facilitated by the policy of the Western powers. So, on the eve of the plebiscite, Laval said that France is indifferent to the fate of the Saar region and is not interested in its outcome.
At a meeting of the heads of government and foreign ministers of England and France held in early February in London, an agreement was reached on effective cooperation with Germany. For this purpose, it was proposed to conclude an air convention. Danube Pact, Eastern Pact and return Germany to the League of Nations. Germany said it prefers bilateral negotiations. Berlin expressed its readiness to meet with representatives of England, and London's consent to conduct bilateral negotiations was obtained.
Germany, meanwhile, announced on March 16, 1935, the renunciation of the military articles of the Treaty of Versailles. A few days earlier, the White Paper published in London noted that, due to the fact that Germany, bypassing and in violation of the Treaty of Versailles, was arming heavily, the British government had increased its military spending. The publication of the White Paper can be viewed in two ways. On the one hand, England wanted to strengthen its armed forces in order to prevent German superiority. , on the other hand, only accusing Germany and doing nothing to achieve a real reduction in armaments, Britain seemed to push her, or in any case gave her carte blanche in military matters.
Not fearing an unwanted reaction from England, Germany explicitly stated that it no longer reckons with the Treaty of Versailles. After a newspaper skirmish, Anglo-German relations calmed down. All the acuteness of the German campaign was directed against France. The French government introduced to parliament a bill proposing to call youth into the army not from the age of 21, as it was, but from the age of 20, and to determine the term of service for the newly drafted from April 1935 to 1939.
In Germany, a message was published that the government intends to create a military aviation. It would seem that the Western powers, and first of all France, and after her and England, should have opposed this intention, but did nothing, and in return received a Decree on the introduction of universal military service in Germany. London and Paris protested against violations of the Versailles Treaty, but the German government, realizing that things would not go further than statements, rejected the protest.
The United States, adhering to a policy of neutralism, in spite of information coming from Europe about a significant increase in armaments in Germany and aggressive statements by the leaders of the Reich, also did nothing.
The talks between the British Prime Minister and Foreign Minister Simon and Hitler, which took place in Berlin in March 1935 in Berlin, took place, as the official communique put it, "in a spirit of complete frankness and friendliness." However, as can be judged from the press reports and from the statement of Simon himself in the House of Commons, Hitler said that he would not participate in any pacts of mutual assistance, and even more so in those in which Russia will participate. Germany also opposed a pact that would guarantee the independence of Austria. Hitler demanded equality with Britain and France in military aviation, but immediately made a reservation that an increase in the Soviet armed forces would make it necessary to abandon the agreed norms.
Thus, Germany, with the tacit consent of Britain and France, achieved not only equalization of its armed forces with the two Western countries, but also a significant superiority over them. For example, universal conscription gave Germany a double superiority of the military contingent over the French.
During this period, when alarming news came from all sides, the Soviet Union, in contrast to London and Paris, stepped up its foreign policy activities. In January, the Soviet government called on the Council of the League of Nations to unite the efforts of the member countries of the international organization to combat aggression. People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs of the USSR M. M. Litvinov, speaking on January 17, 1935 in the Council of the League, said the following words: “The world is indivisible, and all paths to it lead onto one large wide road, which must be entered by all countries. It is time to admit that there is no security only in one's own peace and tranquility, if the peace of neighbors, near and far, is not ensured. "
Indeed, then there was a real opportunity to jointly stop Hitler. It is necessary to fight aggression where it occurs. The League Council, however, rejected Abyssinia's requests, first to suspend the preparation of military operations by Italy, and then to suppress Italian aggression.
After Germany renounced the military clauses of the Treaty of Versailles, the Soviet Union, seeking to find and agree on common points of view, invited A. Eden, Lord Guardian of the Seal of England, to Moscow. This politician, proceeding from the real state of affairs, understood the danger approaching Europe. Arriving in Moscow on March 28, 1935, Eden was received by JV Stalin, VM Molotov and MM Litvinov. The parties agreed that it is necessary to continue efforts to create a system of collective security in Europe. The communiqué on the talks noted that "the friendly cooperation of the two countries in the common cause of the collective organization of peace and security is of paramount importance." The Soviet Union expressed its readiness to take an active part in the creation of the Eastern Pact, which would contribute to the unification of all countries in resisting aggression. From Moscow, Eden went to Warsaw and Prague, where he was greeted in different ways. If the Polish leadership did not want to talk about the Eastern Pact, then in Prague this idea was fully understood.
The unfolding events worried France too. Paris spoke in favor of the immediate convening of the Council of the League of Nations. On the eve of the Council session, at the insistence of the French government, a conference of the prime ministers and foreign ministers of England, France and Italy was held in the Italian city of Stresa. It once again showed the inability of some and the unwillingness of others to create a system of collective security. At the extraordinary session of the Council of the League of Nations, which opened on April 15, 1935, the decision of the German government to carry out a series of military measures was recognized as a violation of the Treaty of Versailles. The Council instructed a special committee to work out economic and financial measures to be applied to a country in breach of its international obligations. Hitler immediately informed the member states of the League Council that Germany did not recognize and rejected the resolution they had adopted.
At this time, negotiations were taking place between Berlin and Rome on further joint actions. Not meeting any opposition from England and France, Germany and Italy strengthened the alliance and worked out plans for interaction. The cooperation of the two fascist powers is known in history as the "Berlin-Rome axis", the official design of which took place somewhat later.
Both in England and in France there was a fairly significant opposition to the course of the governments of these countries. The criticism of the official opposition concerned the policy both in relation to the Italian aggression in Ethiopia and in relation to the rapid growth of military preparations in Germany.
In England, the country's foreign policy was criticized by such prominent figures as D. Lloyd George and W. Churchill. They drew attention to the fact that this course weakens the League of Nations and makes it difficult to create a system of collective security. In France, after the assassination of Bart and the arrival of Laval as Foreign Minister, the antifascist and anti-war opposition became more difficult. Nevertheless, the general mood in the country in favor of creating a system of collective security and strengthening peace was growing.
This trend in public opinion, as well as the active foreign policy activity of Soviet diplomacy, forced Laval to agree to conclude treaties with the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia. The Czechoslovak government, realizing the danger that was created on its borders, sought protection both in the West and in the East - both from France and the Soviet Union. Laval visited Moscow, and as a result of contacts between the Soviet Union, France and Czechoslovakia, three agreements were signed.
The agreement on mutual assistance between the USSR and France was concluded in Paris on May 2 for a period of five years with a further extension until one of the parties decides to denounce it. It provided for immediate assistance and support from the other side in the event of an attack on one of the contracting parties.
Two other treaties soon appeared - between the USSR and Czechoslovakia and between France and Czechoslovakia. On May 16, the Soviet-Czechoslovak agreement on mutual assistance was signed in Prague. The parties undertook to immediately begin consultations in the event of a threat or danger of attack from any state. If one of the parties is attacked by any state, the other side must provide immediate assistance and support. At the same time, there was a clause in the protocol drawn up at the time of signing the treaty: both governments recognize that "the obligations of mutual assistance will operate between them only because, subject to the conditions stipulated in this treaty, assistance to the victim of the attack will be provided by France." This reservation was made in order not to leave the Soviet country alone with the aggressor. The Soviet Union undertook to come to the aid and provide all kinds of support to Czechoslovakia, provided that France would help it. Subsequent events showed the validity and necessity of such a clause.
The Soviet-Czechoslovak treaty was quickly ratified, and on June 8, an exchange of instruments of ratification took place in Moscow. As for the Franco-Soviet treaty, its ratification was very delayed by Laval, and it entered into force only on March 27, 1936.
In the spring of 1936, Hitlerite Germany began active aggressive actions. The first of these was the remilitarization of the Rhineland. On March 7, the German government announced its rejection of the Locarno agreements, and on the same day German troops entered the Rhineland. This act of aggression went unpunished and further encouraged the Nazis.
At the meeting of the Council of the League of Nations that opened in March, the Soviet representative Litvinov said that the seizure of the Rhineland was only the first step towards the implementation of the far-reaching plans of conquest of Nazi Germany, and suggested that joint efforts be made to suppress the aggression. However, other members of the Council, in one way or another, condemning the actions of Germany, did not go to the implementation of specific measures. Gradually, one state after another began to abandon even those minor sanctions that were recommended by the League of Nations. In the West, the thesis put forward by British diplomacy that the use of sanctions could eventually lead to a war in Europe was in vogue. On the initiative of England, on July 4, 1936, the League adopted a resolution to lift the sanctions against Italy, which is waging a war in Ethiopia.
In the summer of 1936, the attention of the whole world was riveted on the events in Spain. The elections to the Cortes, held here on February 16, 1936, brought victory to the parties of the Popular Front. Then elections were held in France, in which the Popular Front also won, having received 381 out of 618 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. This gave hope for strengthening the forces of peace. If we add to this the treaties concluded between France and the USSR, as well as the treaties of these two countries with Czechoslovakia, then we can conclude that the basis for the anti-fascist struggle against aggression was secured. It would seem that good prospects were opening up for Europe and the whole world for strengthening the peace-loving forces and creating a system of collective security. However, events developed according to a different scenario developed in Berlin. This happened because in England, the USA and France there were forces that continued to aiding Germany, which in the end led the world to war.
Reactionary circles continued their open struggle against the forces of democracy and peace. On July 18, 1936, at the prearranged signal "Above all Spain, a cloudless sky", a rebellion was raised against the legitimate republican government, and in Spain began Civil War... Its inspirers and organizers were German and Italian fascists. Germany and Italy took a direct part in the war on the side of the rebels.
In essence, the first clash of the progressive and democratic forces of the world with fascism took place in Spain. Thousands of people of various nationalities, professions and political convictions fought on the side of the republican government.
Steamships with weapons and ammunition for the rebels were sent to Spain from Germany and Italy. In fact, two fascist states have intervened.
On November 27, 1936, the Spanish government appealed to the League of Nations with a demand for assistance in the struggle against the interventionists for the country's independence. Spain was a member of the League of Nations and had every reason to count on the support of an international organization. However, the majority in the League of Nations belonged to England and France and the countries following them, which were against the participation of the League of Nations in the Spanish events. The League has set up an international non-intervention committee. Representatives of the Western powers pursued a policy in it, about which it can be said that it discouraged those who wanted to help the Spanish government, and practically contributed to the development of the intervention of Germany and Italy.
Having formed a new cabinet of France after the victory of the Popular Front, L. Blum, together with the right-wing leaders of the socialists, achieved a decision to refrain from supplying arms to the legitimate Spanish government. On the eve of this, Blum visited London, where a common line of conduct regarding the war in Spain was agreed upon.
Now, more than 60 years later, which separate us from those events, analyzing the policies of leading figures Western countries and the role of the League of Nations, you clearly understand the significance of the pre-war lessons for the present and the future. This is facilitated by many documents, including the minutes of the meetings of the League of Nations, stored in the archives of the former League building on the shores of Lake Geneva.
The emotional speeches of the Spanish Foreign Minister Alvarez del Vayo, who called on the League of Nations and its members to help the legitimate government of Spain and the Spanish people in the struggle for their rights and independence, remained unheard by the representatives of England and France. The Soviet representative has repeatedly spoken out in support of the just struggle of the Spanish people. It was proposed to use Art. 16 of the Charter of the League, which provided for collective action against aggressors who attacked one of the members of an international organization. The appeals of the representatives of the USSR were echoed by the speeches of the delegates of a number of other countries, who called on the League to use its rights and decisively oppose the intervention of Germany and Italy in Spain.
In order to divert the League of Nations from criticism, England and France achieved the creation of a committee of 28 to consider proposals for revising Art. 16. The Soviet representative on this committee strongly opposed its revision. Moreover, the USSR in August 1936 proposed to establish a three-day term for convening the Council of the League in the event of a military attack on any of the members of the organization and to envisage the use of military sanctions against the aggressor.
In an atmosphere of actual complicity with the aggression, Germany and Italy established control at sea off the Spanish coast, preventing foreign ships from arriving at ports under government control. Among the sunk ships were two Soviet - "Timiryazev" and "Blagoev".
The Soviet government sharply condemned the pirate actions on the seas and invited Britain and France to take decisive action. But the policy of aiding the aggressors continued, and the USSR was later forced to recall its representative from the non-intervention committee.
Despite the efforts of the interventionists, the Spanish Civil War dragged on. Hitlerite Germany continued to prepare for other aggressive acts in Europe, while Japan expanded the war against China. Economic and military cooperation developed successfully between Germany and Japan, whose views on international issues coincided. In February 1936 g.
As a result of the military-fascist rebellion, the Hirota government came to power in Japan, relying on the support of the fascist officers. The rapprochement between Tokyo and Berlin has accelerated. On November 25, 1936, an agreement between the two countries was signed in Berlin, known as the Anti-Comintern Pact. It contained three articles, the content of which boiled down to the fact that the parties agreed:
- mutually inform each other about the activities of the Comintern and wage a joint struggle against it;
- to recommend "any third state, whose internal security is threatened by the subversive work of the communist" Internationale ", to take defensive measures in the spirit of this agreement or to join this pact";
- to establish a 5-year term of the agreement.
In an additional protocol, Germany and Japan pledged to take "severe measures" against those who, inside or outside the country, act in favor of the Comintern. The parties agreed to intervene in the internal affairs of other states under the pretext of fighting communism. Although this agreement was openly directed against the USSR, the two countries, under the guise of fighting communism, conducted military training against Britain, France, and the United States.
A year later, on November 6, 1937, Italy joined the anti-Comintern pact. Thus, by the end of 1937, the tripartite bloc of Germany, Italy and Japan was formed. Japan recognized the annexation of Abyssinia; Germany and Italy recognized the government of Manchukuo.
In July 1937, Japan made a new intervention in China. The Chinese army offered ever-increasing resistance to aggression. The struggle of the Chinese people was facilitated by the policy of the USSR. On August 21, 1937, the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact with the Republic of China. The USSR and China declared their renunciation of war as a means of settling international disputes and pledged to refrain from attacking each other. The Soviet Union also supported China in the League of Nations, to which the Chinese government turned in September. When discussing this question, the Soviet representative condemned the connivance of the aggressors on the part of the Western powers. The League of Nations, he said, could be of much greater help to both Spain and China than they are asking for.
In the spring of 1938, the situation in Europe continued to deteriorate. Hitler's speech in the Reichstag on February 20, 1938 showed that Germany would soon take "under the protection" of the Germans living in Austria and Czechoslovakia. The governments of England and France did nothing to stop Germany and prevent the liquidation of the Austrian state.
The new British Foreign Minister Halifax, in a conversation with the German Foreign Minister Ribbentrop on March 11, 1938, announced that his country would not interfere in the actions of Germany and Austria. The next day, German troops were already marching on Austrian soil. On March 13, Austria was annexed to Germany. England and France got off with the presentation of protest notes to Berlin, which were not accepted. The policy of encouraging aggressors was doing its job. The League of Nations was missing one more member. Its activities were practically paralyzed by the position of the British and French representatives.
The Soviet Union strongly condemned the aggressive actions of Germany. The speech of the Soviet representative in the League of Nations on March 17 sounded like a call for peace and a warning to the peoples. The recent events in Europe, he said, directly affect the interests of all European countries without exception, and in the current situation there should be no place for international passivity in relation to aggression. The USSR proposed to immediately convene a conference at which practical measures to strengthen peace could be discussed. “Tomorrow it may be too late,” the Soviet spokesman warned. He made proposals for improving the activities of the League of Nations, but London and Paris declared them unacceptable.
Having swallowed Austria, Hitlerite Germany began to prepare for the seizure of Czechoslovakia. It was decided to start with the annexation of the Sudetenland, where 3 million Germans lived. At this difficult time for Czechoslovakia, the Soviet government announced that it would fulfill its obligations under the treaty with Czechoslovakia and will come to her aid if France also fulfills its obligations. But England and France were not thinking about defending Czechoslovakia and not about how to stop the aggression, but only about how to come to an agreement with Hitler and put a good face on a bad game.
When the situation escalated to the limit by the fall, the British Prime Minister Chamberlain, having sat on a plane for the first time in his life, arrived in Berchtesgarden on September 15, 1938 to meet with Hitler to discuss the situation with Czechoslovakia. Hitler informed him of his decision to annex the Sudetenland to Germany. Chamberlain agreed to transfer to Germany not only the Sudetenland, but also other Czechoslovak territories, in which the predominant population was Germans.
The French government was in solidarity with the British. After joint consultations, England and France sent a note to President E. Beneš in Prague, which was practically an ultimatum demanding the consent of Czechoslovakia to transfer the Sudetenland to the Germans. The Czechoslovak government responded with a request to consider the issue in arbitration in accordance with the German-Czechoslovak treaty of 1925. But England immediately sent an even sharper message to Prague.
Benes was forced to agree with this demand, although the Soviet Union confirmed that it would act in accordance with the agreements concluded and would help Czechoslovakia as well as a member of the League of Nations. The people of Czechoslovakia rose to fight.
At the next meeting of Chamberlain with Hitler, the British Prime Minister was told that Germany now has new plans and it demands that Czechoslovakia satisfy the territorial claims of Hungary and Poland. Hitler's claims and Chamberlain's concessions provoked serious protests in England. Hitler openly threatened to launch military action against Czechoslovakia. After an exchange of messages, he agreed to convene a conference of four countries - Germany, England, France and Italy.
On September 29, 1938, Hitler, Chamberlain, Daladier and Mussolini met in Munich. There was practically no conference as such. After short negotiations and speeches by Hitler on the night of September 29-30, one of the most shameful pre-war deals was concluded. The aggressors were in a hurry, already four hours after the meeting in Munich ended, the prime minister of the Czechoslovak government was handed the text of the Munich agreement, according to which a fifth of the territory of Czechoslovakia was ceded to Germany.
On September 30 in Munich, Germany and England signed a declaration of mutual non-aggression and the settlement of all controversial issues. Later, the same declaration was concluded between Germany and France.
Those who thought that by signing the Munich Agreement they saved the world were cruelly mistaken. Munich has become a household word, meaning the betrayal of strangers and their peoples. On September 30, 1938, the world went to war.
In those days and months, only the USSR took all measures to resist aggression and save the world. In the most critical days for the fate of Czechoslovakia, the Soviet government gave its ambassador in Prague the following instructions:
"one. When Benes asked whether the USSR, according to the treaty, would provide immediate and effective assistance to Czechoslovakia, if France remains loyal to her and also renders assistance, you can give an affirmative answer on behalf of the government of the Soviet Union.
2. You can give the same affirmative answer to another question of Beneš - they helped the USSR to Czechoslovakia as a member of the League of Nations on the basis of Art. Art. 16 and 17, if, in the event of an attack by Germany, Beneš appeals to the Council of the League of Nations with a request to apply the aforementioned articles.
3. Inform Benes that we are simultaneously informing the French government about the content of our answer to both of his questions. "
Moreover, when it became clear that France was betraying its ally Czechoslovakia, the Soviet government informed Beneš that the USSR was ready to come to the aid of Czechoslovakia even if France did not fulfill its obligations, and the Polish and Romanian governments refused to let their countries of the Soviet troops. But, in order for such assistance to be provided, the Soviet government considered it necessary that Czechoslovakia itself defend itself against aggression and that its government should turn to the USSR with an official request for assistance. However, the Czechoslovak government did not agree to this. Just as the governments of England and France did not cooperate with the USSR. They rejected, in particular, the proposal of the USSR, made on September 21 at the Assembly of the League of Nations, on joint actions against aggression. In those days, in opposition to the government, W. Churchill wrote: “It is amazing that this public and unconditional declaration by one of the greatest interested powers did not play a role in Mr. Chamberlain's negotiations and in the behavior of the French during the crisis. The Soviet proposal was essentially rejected. The Soviets were not thrown into the balance against Hitler; they were treated indifferently, not to say scornfully ... Events developed as if Soviet Russia did not exist at all. Stalin did not forgive us for this. We paid dearly for this. "
Recently, not only in the West, but also in our country, someone has been trying to accuse the USSR of intractability and blame it on it for the events of the pre-war years. But the documents show that it was the Soviet Union that sought to block the path of aggression and sought joint action to save the world.
The failure to create a united front against aggression was not the fault of the USSR, but the misfortune of all the peoples of Europe, and not only Europe. The West opposed cooperation with our country. Western countries did not want the participation of Soviet representatives in the League of Nations and did so only out of necessity. The English researcher D. Cheever wrote: "Although the Soviet Union was formally accepted into the community of nations, at best it was an undesirable partner."
In the situation that developed in Europe after Munich, the Soviet Union in international affairs had to act on the one hand, carefully, weighing every step, and on the other, it was impossible to hesitate. Winston Churchill gave an assessment of the policies of the Chamberlain and Daladier governments during this period. He wrote: “It is simply amazing that this public and unconditional declaration, by one of the greatest interested powers ( it comes on the official statement on the position of the USSR on the Czechoslovak question made at the Assembly of the League of Nations by M. M. Litvinov on September 21, 1938 - Auth.) played no role in Mr. Chamberlain's negotiations and in the behavior of the French during the crisis. The Soviet proposal was essentially rejected. The Soviets were not thrown into the balance against Hitler, they were treated indifferently, not to say disdainfully. Events developed as if Soviet Russia did not exist at all. We paid dearly for this. "
It is quite understandable that in Moscow, without signing official documents, they could not fully trust the governments of England and France of those days.
Munich became a kind of borderline in the development of events in Europe, and the Soviet Union had to take decisive measures to ensure its security. Of course, it was impossible not to take into account the contradictions and mistrust between Britain, France, the United States, on the one hand, and the Soviet Union, on the other. Under these conditions, it was necessary to be able to rise above ambition and differences for the sake of the main goal - salvation from a military catastrophe.
First half of the 30s marked by the growing crisis of the Versailles-Washington contract system and the creation of new, extremely dangerous hotbeds of international tension.
The first such focus appeared on Far East... On September 18, 1931, Japanese troops invaded Manchuria and occupied it. The Chinese government has asked the leadership of the League of Nations to take measures to stop the aggression. But it was not until December 1931 that the League of Nations formed a commission headed by the English Lord W.R. Lytton. In the spring of 1932, the commission arrived in China. However, Japan's aggression continued. In February 1932, she declared the "independence" of Manchuria, and in March formed the state of "Manchukuo". Instead of condemning the aggressor, the League of Nations appealed to Japan and China to take mutual measures to resolve the conflict. On October 2, 1932, the Lytton Commission published a report in which only the aggressive actions of Japan were recorded. The commission did not call for the formation of Manchukuo. The League of Nations was asked to keep northeastern China under Chinese sovereignty. However, Japanese troops at the beginning of 1933 advanced into the Chinese provinces of Rehe and Hebei. March 27 1933 Japan withdrew from the League of Nations. At the same time, she began to occupy other provinces of northern China.
The second, the main focus of a new world war arose in the center of Europe, in Germany, where on January 30, 1933, the National Socialists came to power, headed by A. Hitler. German Nazism strove for total war and the formation of a new world order based on racial hierarchy. Hitler and his entourage widely advertised plans for the conquest of "living space" in the East, that is, plans for a war against the USSR under the pretext of ridding Europe of the "danger of Bolshevism". At the same time, they resolutely demanded the elimination of the "Versailles diktat". On October 14, 1933, Germany, following Japan, withdrew from the League of Nations. This freed the hands for the unilateral elimination of the military restrictions of the Treaty of Versailles.
The German government also began to push its agents in Austria to advocate joining Germany. In July 1934 Austrian Nazis killed the Austrian Chancellor E. Dollfuss. However, the Nazis' attempt to seize power in Vienna failed. At this time, the fascist dictator of Italy B. Mussolini was still an opponent of the Anschluss and opposed Hitler's plans. Italian troops were moved to the borders of Austria. Germany had to retreat. The dictators of the two countries had a falling out.
13 January 1935, a plebiscite was held in the Saar region, as a result of which the Saar was annexed to Germany.
On March 16, 1935, the Hitlerite government decided to restore universal military service in Germany. The size of the German peacetime army was determined at 500 thousand people. The German government also announced that it did not consider itself more bound by the articles of the Versailles Treaty, which prohibited Germany from having military aircraft and a submarine fleet. The situation in Europe was heating up.
Third hotbed of war created a fascist Italy in East Africa (Ethiopia). October 3, 1935.she began military action against Abyssinia (Ethiopia), which was a member of the League of Nations. Italy's attack on Ethiopia came as no surprise to the international community. Italy began military provocations on the borders of Ethiopia in the fall of 1934. In January 1935, Ethiopia sent an official complaint against Italy to the League of Nations, but no measures were taken to prevent Italy from attacking Ethiopia. Only after the invasion of the 600-thousand-strong Italian army into Abyssinia and the conversion of its negus (ruler) Haile Selassie I to the League of Nations, the Council of the League on October 7 recognized Italy as the aggressor. A committee of 18 formed by the League of Nations made a proposal not to provide loans to Italy, to impose an embargo on arms exports to Italy, not to import Italian goods, and not to import certain types of secondary raw materials into this country. Later, the import of oil and oil products into Italy was banned. However, Italy received strategic goods through third countries.
In the context of the growing threat of war, in December 1933, the Soviet leadership decided to deploy "the struggle to create a system of collective security in Europe." On September 15, 1934, 30 member states of the League of Nations appealed to the Soviet Union with an invitation to join the League of Nations. The Soviet government accepted this invitation. On September 18, 1934, the Assembly of the League of Nations accepted the Soviet into the League and granted him permanent place in her Council. Having joined the League of Nations, the Soviet Union made great efforts to transform this an international organization to the body for maintaining peace and international security. Speaking on January 17, 1935 in the Council of the League, the People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs MM Litvinov said: “The world is indivisible, and all the paths to it lead onto one broad wide road, which all countries must enter. It's time to admit that there is no security only in your own home and tranquility, if the peace of your neighbors, near and far, is not ensured. "
Soviet diplomacy supported L. Bartu's initiative to create "East Locarno"- a contractual complex designed to complement the system of the Rhine Guarantee Pact. The government of the USSR, for its part, came up with a proposal to conclude an East European Regional Pact of Mutual Assistance. Germany, the USSR, Czechoslovakia, Poland, the Baltic countries, as well as France were to become participants in this pact. However, Germany, encouraged by British diplomacy, categorically refused to sign such a pact. The German government announced that it does not need Soviet and French guarantees ... January 26, 1934 in Berlin, the German-Polish agreement on friendship and non-aggression was signed. This document dealt a heavy blow to the efforts of the peace-loving countries to create a system of collective security. For Poland itself, the agreement was truly suicidal, since the Nazis targeted Poland as one of their first victims.
A serious blow to the negotiations on the Eastern Pact was the assassination in October 1934 in Marseille by Croatian nationalists of French Foreign Minister L. Bartou together with the Yugoslav King Alexander who had arrived there for negotiations (Operation Teutonic Sword). The threads of this crime led to Berlin.
After Germany and Poland thwarted the conclusion of the Eastern European Pact, negotiations began between the USSR and France on the signing of a bilateral pact of mutual assistance. The new French Foreign Minister P. Laval was opposed to rapprochement with the Soviet Union, but the pressure of French public opinion, extremely concerned about the restoration of the German army, forced the negotiations with the Soviet government to continue. On May 2, 1935, in Paris, the Soviet plenipotentiary V.P. Potemkin and P. Laval signed a Soviet-French agreement on mutual assistance. Under this treaty, each of the parties pledged to provide immediate assistance to the party that would be the target of an unprovoked attack by any European power.
On May 16, 1935, the Soviet-Czechoslovak agreement on mutual assistance was signed in Prague. In its content, it is similar to the Franco-Soviet pact. In the protocol of the signed Soviet-Czechoslovak treaty, at the insistence of the Czechoslovak government, a reservation was made: the parties to the treaty will help each other only if France also comes to the aid of a state that has become a victim of aggression. The Franco-Soviet and Soviet-Czechoslovak treaties on mutual assistance could become a powerful obstacle to Hitler's aggression. However, part of the French ruling elite, including P. Laval, viewed the pact with the Soviet Union as a diplomatic maneuver and did not intend to fulfill their obligations under this pact, counting on reaching a compromise with Germany through partial revision of the Treaty of Versailles
Hitler said that he would not participate in any pacts of mutual assistance, especially in those in which the USSR would participate. Hitler demanded equality with Britain and France in military aviation, but made a reservation, saying that an increase in the Soviet armed forces would force them to abandon the agreed norms.
The result of Germany's difficult maneuvers was the signing in June 1935 of a naval agreement with Britain. Germany received the right to create a surface fleet in the amount of 35% of the tonnage of the British fleet and submarines in the amount of 45% of the British submarine fleet. This agreement was already a bilateral violation of the Versailles Treaty.
March 7, 1936 Germany officially announced the termination of the Locarno agreements of 1925 and the cancellation of the clause of the Versailles Peace Treaty regarding the creation of the Rhine Demilitarized Zone. On the same day, German troops entered the Rhineland. Because of the position of Britain and France, the Council of the League of Nations limited itself to a resolution stating the fact of violation of the Treaty of Versailles. On March 21, 1936, Hitler, speaking in Hamburg, declared that "the spirit of Versailles has been destroyed."
which was headed by General F. Franco. A large part of the Spanish population rose to defend the legitimate republican government. A long civil war began in the country. Initially, the military situation was unfavorable for the rebels.
However, Hitler and Mussolini came to their aid. Already in August 1936, the Italian-German intervention in Spain began. Italian and German units, including aviation, began to be transferred to Spain.
The appearance in Spain of Italian and German troops created an immediate threat to the security of France and the military-strategic positions of England in the Gibraltar region. However, the ruling circles of England and France were much more afraid that the victory of the Spanish Republicans would ultimately lead to the power of the Communists, and would also contribute to the further rise of the labor movement in Europe.
In agreement with London, the French government, which was then headed by the leader of the socialists L. Blum, appealed at the beginning of August 1936 to other states with a proposal to adhere to the events in Spain "Laissez-faire policy". Many countries, including Germany and Italy, agreed with this proposal.
Since the real non-interference of the great powers in Spanish affairs would be beneficial to the Spanish republicans, the Soviet government also joined the non-interference agreement.
In early September 1936, a Non-Interference Committee was created in London, headed by the British diplomat Lord Plymouth. It was soon discovered that the "policy of non-intervention" had turned against the Spanish republic. The governments of England and France banned the export of weapons to Spain and canceled the orders of the Spanish republican government for weapons previously placed in their countries.
US President F. Roosevelt imposed an embargo on the export of weapons to Spain, and in January 1937 the US Congress adopted an amendment to the "neutrality" law, which prohibited the supply of weapons of military materials to countries in which there was a civil war.
LITVINOV, Maxim Maksimovich
(1876-1951), People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs of the USSR
The world is indivisible.<…>There is no security only in one's own peace and tranquility, if the peace of neighbors - near and far - is not ensured.
Litvinov M.M. In the struggle for peace. - M., 1938, p. 77
“Wherever the peace is broken, peace is threatened everywhere” (R-105); "Freedom is indivisible" (K-103).
From the book Great Soviet Encyclopedia (AM) of the author TSB From the book Great Soviet Encyclopedia (BE) of the author TSBBer Karl Maksimovich Ber Karl Maksimovich, Russian naturalist, founder of embryology. Graduated from Dorpat (Tartu) University (1814). From 1817 he worked at the University of Königsberg. Since 1826
From the book Great Soviet Encyclopedia (GR) of the author TSB From the book Great Soviet Encyclopedia (KA) of the author TSB From the book Great Soviet Encyclopedia (CO) of the author TSB From the book Great Soviet Encyclopedia (LI) of the author TSB From the book Great Soviet Encyclopedia (MA) of the author TSB From the book Great Soviet Encyclopedia (SHT) of the author TSB From the book of 100 great diplomats the author Mussky Igor Anatolievich From the book of Aphorisms the author Ermishin Oleg From the book Dictionary of Modern Quotes the author From the book The Newest Philosophical Dictionary the author Gritsanov Alexander AlekseevichMAXIM MAKSIMOVICH LITVINOV (1876-1951) Soviet diplomat. People's Commissar for foreign affairs USSR (1930-1939, since 1936 - People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs), at the same time the USSR's representative in the League of Nations (1934-1938). Deputy People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs of the USSR (1941-1946) .Maxim Maksimovich Litvinov (present
From the book World History in Sayings and Quotes the author Dushenko Konstantin VasilievichMaxim Gorky (Alexei Maksimovich Peshkov) (1868-1936) writer, literary critic and publicist Everything in a Man - everything for a Man! There are no people who are pure white or completely black; people are all colorful. One, if he is great, is still small. Everything is relative in this world, and
From the author's bookLITVINOV Maksim Maksimovich (1876-1951), People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs of the USSR 272 Peace is indivisible. Speech at the Council of the League of Nations January 17. 1935 on the Saar question “The world is indivisible. (...) There is no security only in one's own peace and tranquility, if the peace of neighbors - neighbors and
From the author's bookKOVALEVSKY Maksim Maksimovich (1851-1916) - Russian sociologist, lawyer, historian. Graduated from the law faculty of Kharkov University. He continued his education in Berlin, Paris and London. Upon his return to Russia, he received a master's degree (1877) and a doctorate (for a dissertation
From the author's bookLITVINOV, Maksim Maksimovich (1876–1951), People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs of the USSR82 The world is indivisible.<…>There is no security only in one's own peace and tranquility, if the peace of neighbors, near and far, is not ensured. Speech at the Council of the League of Nations Jan. 17. 1935 on the Saar question? Litvinov M.M.In the fight
ALL-RUSSIAN OLYMPIAD OF SCHOOLCHILDREN IN HISTORY. SCHOOL STAGE. Tasks. 10-11 CLASSES.
TASKS TO PERFORM IN PRINTED MATERIALS!
The maximum number of points is 75 for assignments and 25 for essays. Only 100 points.
Time to complete the work: 3 academic hours (135 min.)
Task 1. Arrange the events in chronological order. Write down the answers in the table (Maximum score - 6, for each mistake - minus 1 point).
BUT. Transfer of the capital from Novgorod to Kiev;
B. The uprising of the Drevlyans;
IN. Civil strife of the Svyatoslavichs;
G. Creation of "Russian Pravda";
D. Regulation of tribute,
E. The vocation of the Vikings.
Task 2. Give a definition historical concepts: what did it mean? when was it applied in practice? what are the results? (2 points for the complete definition of each term; maximum 8 points for the task).
2.1. Redemption operation - _____________________________________________________
_______
______
2.2. "Narodnaya Volya" - _________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________.
2.3. First militia - ______________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________.
2.4. Latvian arrows - _____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________.
Task 3. Correlate the elements of the right and left columns of the table (1 point for the correct ratio; for a completely correctly completed task; maximum 5 points).
| № | State doer | Statement by this figure |
| 1. | G.Ya. Sokolnikov | A. "Cutting off one head of our Russian eagle, facing the East, you will not turn it into a one-headed eagle, you will only make it bleed." |
| 2. | I.V. Stalin | B. "Emission - Opium for the National Economy." |
| 3. | A.I. Solzhenitsyn | Q. “The world is indivisible.<…>There is no security only in one's own peace and tranquility, if the peace of neighbors, near and far, is not ensured. " |
| 4. | M. M. Litvinov | G. "Beaten Mongol khans... They were beaten by Turkish beks. The Swedish feudal lords beat them. They were beaten by the Polish-Lithuanian lords. The Anglo-French invaders beat them. They were beaten by the Japanese barons. They all beat me for backwardness. " |
| 5. | P. A. Stolypin | D. “The clock of communism has won back. But its concrete building has not collapsed yet. And how could we, instead of being liberated, not flatten ourselves under its ruins ”. |
Task 4. Consider the scheme and complete the tasks (2 points for the correct answer; for a completely correctly completed task, a maximum of 10 points).
4.1. A trade route is marked on the map with a dotted line, write its name _____________
What was the name of the city marked with the number "5"? ______________
4.2. Indicate the name of the city ______________________________, in which the legendary founder of the dynasty began to rule, state the name of this prince ______________________.
4.3. Write the name of the prince who made successful campaigns, indicated by thin black arrows? ____________________________. Which city is marked with the number "3"? _________
4.4. What is the name of the prince who made a successful campaign, indicated by white arrows? ___________________. Which city is marked with the number "4"? ________________.
4.5. Write the name of the city _________________ and the number indicating it on the map ____, the homeland of Princess Olga, according to the Tale of Bygone Years.
Task 5. Images of which rulers are presented below? (up to 2 points for each element of the answer; maximum score - 16)
Name:
Their names and patronymics, nicknames
The time of their sole reign,
Specific results of their activities,
The meaning of their rule.
| 5.1. | 5.2. | ||
 |  |
||
| 1. | 1. | ||
| 2. | 2. | ||
| 3. | 3. | ||
| 4. | 4. | ||
Task 6. Read the texts. Fill the gaps. For each correct element of the answer 1 point. (Maximum score - 10)
From the memoirs of a Soviet and party leader(1)_______________(surname of the Soviet leader, author of memoirs).
“With a different character (2) _______________ ( surname of the Soviet leader) these disagreements, which were brought to such intensity, perhaps would not have become so tragic and fatal. But this is what I say now, and then these questions did not arise; then, as they say, they reasoned like a lumberjack: the forest is being cut down, the chips are flying. There was, I would say, a merciless struggle against the opposition. If you look back at the path traversed by our party and people, and in the light of this traversed path, evaluate the role of that time (2) ______________ ( surname of the Soviet leader), then against the background of those events and the balance of forces in the party, it will be fundamentally positive. I mean such (3) _________________ ( part of the party deviating from the "General line"), as the Trotskyist, Zinovievist, right-leftist bloc of Syrtsov - Lominadze. If you personally assess the role (2) _______________ ( surname of the Soviet leader), then he stood out sharply: his role and his activity in rallying the party, in mobilizing its forces to overcome difficulties, restore industry, Agriculture, for industrialization and construction (4) _____________ ( name of the Soviet armed forces) were decisive. Therefore, it is no coincidence (2) _____________ ( surname of the Soviet leader) took the leading place in the party, and the party supported him. We must also take into account the fact that in the first years of the revolution his name was not popular enough among the broad masses and even within the party itself. More popular were Zinoviev, Kamenev and especially Bukharin. Lenin correctly said: "Bukharchik is the favorite of the Party." According to the "ABC of Communism", written by Bukharin, our cadres studied Marxism-Leninism. Its popularity among the broad masses was very great. But as an organizer, preference was still given to (2) _____________ ( surname of the Soviet leader), while Bukharin occupied a prominent position in the party as a propagandist, as an agitator. He was the editor (5) "___________" (name of the party organ) and it really was the editor that was required for
