The history of the development and settlement of the territory of France is brief. History of France (key dates). History of ancient France
At first, they simply wandered peacefully through these lands with their herds of domestic animals. In 1200-900 BC. celts began to settle mainly in the east of modern France.
At the end of the 8th century BC, after they mastered the processing of iron, stratification began in the Celtic tribes. The luxury items found during the excavations show how wealthy the Celtic aristocracy was. These items were made in different parts of the Mediterranean, including Egypt. Trade was already well developed in that era.
To strengthen their trade influence, the Phocian Greeks founded the city of Massalia (modern Marseille).
In the 6th century BC, during the period of the La Tène culture in the history of France, the Celts began to rapidly conquer and develop new lands. They now had a plow with an iron opener, which made it possible to cultivate the hard soil of central and northern parts of modern France.
At the beginning of the 3rd century BC. The Celts were greatly supplanted by the Belgian tribes, but at the same time, in the history of France, the Celtic civilization is experiencing its highest flowering. Money appears, fortress cities appear, between which there is an active circulation of money. In the III century BC. NS. the Celtic tribe of the Parisians settled on the island of the Seine River. It is from this name of the tribe that the name of the capital of France, Paris, originated. A tour to Paris will allow you to visit this Ile de la Cité - the place where the first inhabitants of Paris - the Celts of Paris - settled.
In the II century BC. in Europe, the Celtic tribe of the Averns dominated. At the same time, the Romans increased their influence in the south of France. It is to Rome that the inhabitants of Massalia (Marseille) are increasingly turning to for protection. The next step on the part of the Romans was the conquest of the lands of present-day France. At this turn of its history, France was called Gaul.
The Romans called Gauls Celts. Between Gauls and the Romans constantly flared up military conflicts. Proverb " Geese saved Rome”Appeared after the Gauls attack on this city in the IV century BC.
According to legend, the Gauls, approaching Rome, scattered the Roman army. Some of the Romans fortified themselves on the Capitol Hill. At night, the Gauls began an assault in complete silence. And no one would have noticed them if it were not for the geese, which made a loud noise.
The Romans for a long time with difficulty resisted the attacks of the Gauls, spreading their influence further and further into their territory.
In the 1st century BC. governor in Gaul was sent Julius Caesar... The main headquarters of Julius Caesar was located on the Ile de la Cité, in the place where Paris later grew up. The Romans named their settlement Lutetia... A trip to Paris necessarily involves a visit to this island, from which the history of Paris begins.
Julius Caesar began action to finally pacify the Gauls. The struggle continued for eight years. Caesar tried to win over the people of Gaul to his side. A third of its inhabitants received the right to be Roman allies or simply free citizens. The duties under Caesar were also rather mild.
It was in Gaul that Julius Caesar gained popularity among the legionnaires, which allowed him to enter the struggle for dominion over Rome. With the words "The die is cast," he crosses the Rubicon, taking the troops to Rome. For a long time Gaul was under the rule of the Romans.
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Gaul was ruled by a Roman governor who declared himself an independent ruler.
In the 5th century, they settled on the left bank of the Rhine francs... Initially, the Franks were not a single people, they were divided into Salic and Ripoire francs. These two large branches, in turn, were subdivided into smaller "kingdoms" ruled by their "kings, who are essentially only military leaders.
The first royal dynasty in the Frankish state is considered Merovingians (late V century - 751)... The dynasty received this name after the semi-legendary founder of the family - Meroveya.
The most famous representative of the first dynasty in French history was Clovis (c. 481 - 511)... Having inherited in 481 rather small possessions of his father, he began active military operations against Gaul. In 486, at the Battle of Soissons, Clovis defeated the troops of the last Roman governor of central Gaul and significantly expanded his possessions. Thus, the rich region of Roman Gaul with Paris fell into the hands of the Franks.
Clovis did Paris the capital of his greatly grown state. He settled on the Isle of Cité, in the palace of the Roman governor. Although tours to Paris include a visit to this place in the program, practically nothing from the time of Clovis has survived to this day. Later, Clovis annexed the south of the country to these territories. The Franks also conquered many Germanic tribes east of the Rhine.
The most important event in the reign of Clovis was his baptism... Under Chlodwig, in his domain, the Franks adopted the Christian religion. This was an important stage in the history of France. Arising under Clovis Frankish state existed for about four centuries and became the immediate predecessor of the future France. In the V-VI centuries. all Gaul became part of the extensive Frankish monarchy.
The second dynasty in French history was Carolingians... They ruled the Frankish state with 751 of the year. The first king of this dynasty was Pepin Short... He bequeathed a huge state to his sons - Karl and Carloman. After the death of the latter, the entire Frankish state was in the hands of King Charles. Its main goal was to create a solid Christian state, which, in addition to the Franks, would also include pagans.
Was a prominent figure in French history... Almost every year he organized military campaigns. The scope of the conquests was so great that the territory of the Frankish state doubled.
At this time, the Roman region was under the rule of Constantinople, and the popes were the governors of the Byzantine emperor. They turned to the ruler of the Franks for help, and Charles supported them. He defeated the king of the Lombards who threatened the Roman region. Having accepted the title of Lombard king, Charles began to introduce the Frankish system in Italy and united Gaul and Italy into one state. V 800 was crowned in Rome by Pope Leo III with the imperial crown.
Charlemagne saw the support of royal power in the Catholic Church - he awarded its representatives with the highest positions, various privileges, encouraged the forced Christianization of the population of the conquered lands.
Karl's extensive activity in the field of education was devoted to the task of Christian education. He issued a decree establishing schools in monasteries and tried to introduce compulsory education for the children of free people. He invited the most enlightened people of Europe to the highest state and church positions. Interest in theology and Latin literature, which flourished at the court of Charlemagne, gives historians the right to name his era Carolingian revival.
The restoration and construction of roads and bridges, the settlement of abandoned lands and the development of new ones, the erection of palaces and churches, the introduction of rational methods of agriculture - all these are the merits of Charlemagne. It was after his name that the dynasty was named the Carolingians. The capital of the Carolingians was a city Aachen... Although the Carolingians moved the capital of their state from Paris, a monument to Charlemagne can now be seen on the Ile de la Cité in Paris. It is located in the square in front of Notre Dame Cathedral in the square named after him. Rest in Paris will allow you to see a monument to this man who left a bright mark in the history of France.
Died Charlemagne in Aachen 28 January 814 of the year. His body was transferred to the Aachen Cathedral built by him, and placed in a gilded copper sarcophagus.
The empire created by Charlemagne collapsed within the next century. By Treaty of Verdun 843 it was divided into three states, two of which - West Frankish and East Frankish - became the predecessors of today's France and Germany. But the union of the state and the church that he carried out largely predetermined the character of European society for centuries to come. Charlemagne's educational and ecclesiastical reforms remained important for a long time.
The image of Charles after his death became legendary. Numerous tales and legends about him have resulted in a cycle of novels about Charlemagne. According to the Latin form of the name of Charles - Carolus - the rulers of individual states began to be called "kings".
Under the successors of Charlemagne, a tendency towards the disintegration of the state immediately manifested itself. Son and successor Charles Louis I the Pious (814-840) did not possess the qualities of a father and could not cope with the heavy burden of running the empire.
After the death of Louis, his three sons began a power struggle. The eldest son - Lothair- was recognized by the emperor and received Italy. Second brother - Louis the German- ruled the East Franks, and the third, Karl the Bald, - Western Francs. The younger brothers contested the imperial crown from Lothair, in the end the three brothers signed the Treaty of Verdun in 843.
Lothair retained his imperial title and received lands stretching from Rome through Alsace and Lorraine to the mouth of the Rhine. Louis took possession of the East Frankish kingdom, and Charles took possession of the West Frankish kingdom. Since then, these three territories have developed independently, becoming the predecessors of France, Germany and Italy. A new stage began in the history of France: it was never again united with Germany in the Middle Ages. Both of these countries were ruled by different royal dynasties and turned into political and military opponents.
The most serious danger in the late 8th - early 10th centuries. were raids Vikings from Scandinavia. Sailing in their long, maneuverable ships along the northern and western coasts of France, the Vikings plundered the inhabitants of the coast, and then began to seize and populate lands in the north of France. In 885-886. the Viking army laid siege to Paris, and only thanks to the heroic defenders, who were led Count Odo and the Bishop of Goslin of Paris, the Vikings managed to be thrown away from the city walls. Charles the Bald, king of the Carolingian dynasty, could not help and lost his throne. New king in 887 became a count Odo Parisian.
The Viking leader Rollon managed to gain a foothold between the Somme and Brittany, and the king Karl Simple from the Carolingian dynasty was forced to recognize his rights to these lands, subject to the recognition of the supreme royal power. The area became known as the Duchy of Normandy, and the Vikings who settled here quickly adopted the Frankish culture and language.
The troubled period between 887 and 987 in the political history of France was marked by the struggle between the Carolingian dynasty and the family of Count Odo. In 987, the great feudal magnates gave preference to the Odo family and elected king Hugo capeta, Count of Paris. By his nickname, the dynasty began to be called Capetian... It was third royal dynasty in French history.
By this time, France was highly fragmented. The counties of Flanders, Toulouse, Champagne, Anjou, and smaller counties were strong enough. Tours, Blois, Chartres and Meaux. The duchies of Aquitaine, Burgundy, Normandy and Brittany were actually independent lands. The only thing that distinguished the Capetian rulers from the rest of the rulers was that they were legally elected kings of France. They ruled only their ancestral lands in the Ile-de-France, stretching from Paris to Orleans. But even here in the Ile-de-France, they could not control their vassals.
Only during the period of 30 years of reign Louis VI Tolstoy (1108-1137) managed to curb rebellious vassals and consolidate royal power.
After that, Louis took up management affairs. He appointed only loyal and capable officials, who were called provosts. The Prevost fulfilled the royal will and were always under the supervision of the king, who constantly traveled around the country.
A critical stage in the history of France and the Capetian dynasty falls on the years 1137-1214. Also in 1066 Duke of Normandy Wilgelm the conqueror defeated the army of the king of the Anglo-Saxons Harold and annexed his rich kingdom to his duchy. He became king of England and at the same time had possessions on the mainland in France. During the reign Louis VII (1137-1180) English kings captured almost half of France. King Henry of England created a vast feudal state that almost surrounded the Ile-de-France.
If Louis VII were succeeded on the throne by another equally indecisive king, France could have suffered catastrophe.
But his son became the heir of Louis Philip II August (1180-1223), one of the greatest kings in the history of medieval France. He began a decisive struggle against Henry II, inciting rebellion against the English king and encouraging his internecine struggle with the sons who ruled the lands on the mainland. Thus, Philip was able to prevent the encroachments on his power. Gradually, he stripped the successors of Henry II of all possessions in France, with the exception of Gascony.
So Philip II Augustus established the hegemony of France in Western Europe for the next century. In Paris, this king is building the Louvre. Then it was just a castle-fortress. For almost all of us, a tour to Paris includes a visit to the Louvre.
Philip's most progressive innovation was the appointment of officials to govern the newly formed judicial districts in the annexed territories. These new officials, receiving salaries from the royal treasury, faithfully carried out the orders of the king and helped to unite the newly conquered territories. Philip himself stimulated the development of cities in France, giving them broad rights of self-government.
Philip cared a lot about the beautification and safety of cities. He fortified the city walls by surrounding them with moats. The king paved roads, paved streets with cobblestones, often at his own expense. Philippe contributed to the founding and development of the University of Paris, attracting renowned professors with awards and privileges. At the same time, the king continued the construction of Notre Dame Cathedral, a visit to which includes almost every tour to Paris. Rest in Paris usually involves a visit to the Louvre, the construction of which began under Philip Augustus.
During the reign of Philip's son Louis VIII (1223-1226) the county of Toulouse was annexed to the kingdom. France now stretched from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea. He was succeeded by a son Louis IX (1226-1270) who was later named Saint Louis... He was able to resolve territorial disputes through negotiations and treaties, while displaying a sense of ethics and tolerance unprecedented in the medieval era. As a result, during the long reign of Louis IX, France almost always lived in peace.
To the board Philip III (1270-1285) an attempt to expand the kingdom ended in failure. A significant achievement of Philippe in the history of France was the agreement on the marriage of his son to the heiress of the County of Champagne, which guaranteed the annexation of these lands to the royal possessions.
Philip IV the Handsome.
Philip IV the Handsome (1285-1314) played a significant role in the history of France, in the transformation of France into a modern state. Philip laid the foundations for an absolute monarchy.
To weaken the power of large feudal lords, he used the norms of Roman law as opposed to church and customary law, which in one way or another limited the sovereignty of the crown to biblical commandments or tradition. It was under Philip that the highest authorities - Paris Parliament, Supreme Court and Court of Auditors (Treasury)- from more or less regular meetings of the highest nobility, they turned into permanent institutions, in which mainly legists served - connoisseurs of Roman law, descendants from the midst of small knights or wealthy townspeople.
Standing guard over the interests of his country, Philip IV the Handsome expanded the territory of the kingdom.
Philip the Fair led a decisive policy to limit the power of the popes over France. The popes sought to free the church from state power and give it a special supranational and supranational status, and Philip IV demanded that all subjects of the kingdom be subject to a single royal court.
The popes also sought the opportunity for the church to not pay taxes to secular authorities. Philip IV believed that all estates, including the clergy, should help their country.
In the fight against such a powerful force as the papacy, Philip decided to rely on the nation and convened in April 1302 the first States General in the history of France - a legislative assembly of representatives of the three estates of the country: the clergy, nobility and the third estate, who supported the king's position in relation to the papacy ... A fierce struggle began between Philip and Pope Boniface VIII. And in this struggle, Philip IV the Handsome won.
In 1305, the Frenchman Bertrand de Gault was elevated to the papal throne, who took the name Clement V. This Pope was obedient to Philip in everything. In 1308, at the request of Philip, Clement V transferred the papal throne from Rome to Avignon. This is how it began " The Avignon Captivity of the Popes”When the Roman high priests became French court bishops. Now Philip felt strong enough to destroy the ancient knightly order of the Templars - a very strong and influential religious organization. Philip decided to appropriate the wealth of the order and thus eliminate the debts of the monarchy. He brought false accusations against the Templars of heresy, unnatural vices, money-grubbing and alliance with Muslims. In the course of rigged trials, brutal torture and persecution, which lasted for seven years, the Templars were completely ruined, and their property went to the crown.
Philip IV the Handsome did a lot for France. But his subjects did not like him. The violence against the Pope aroused the indignation of all Christians, the large feudal lords could not forgive him for the restriction of their rights, in particular, the right to mint their own coins, as well as the preferences given by the king to rootless officials. The taxation class was outraged by the financial policy of the king. Even people close to the king were afraid of the cold, rational cruelty of this man, this unusually beautiful and surprisingly dispassionate person. With all this, his marriage to Jeanne of Navarre was happy. His wife brought him the kingdom of Navarre and the County of Champagne as a dowry. They had four children, all three sons one after another were kings of France: Louis X the Grumpy (1314-1316), Philip V Long (1316-1322), Charles IV (1322-1328)... Daughter Isabel was married to Edward II, King of England from 1307 to 1327.
Philip IV the Handsome left behind a centralized state. After Philip's death, the nobles demanded the return of traditional feudal rights. Although the actions of the feudal lords were suppressed, they contributed to the weakening of the Capetian dynasty. All three sons of Philip the Handsome did not have direct heirs, after the death of Charles IV, the crown passed to his closest male relative, a cousin Philippe Valois- to the founder dynasty of Valois – fourth royal dynasty in French history.
Philip VI of Valois (1328-1350) got the most powerful state in Europe. Almost all of France recognized him as a ruler, the popes obeyed him in Avignon.
Only a few years have passed and the situation has changed.
England sought to reclaim the vast territories in France that had previously belonged to her. King of england Edward III (1327-1377) laid claim to the French throne as the maternal grandson of Philip IV the Fair. But the French feudal lords did not want to see an Englishman as their ruler, even the native grandson of Philip the Fair. Then Edward III changed his coat of arms, on which tender French lilies appeared next to a bared English leopard. This meant that Edward was now subordinate not only to England, but also to France, for which he would now fight.
Edward invaded France with an army that was small in number, but included a mass of skilled archers. In 1337, the British launched a victorious offensive in northern France. This was the beginning Hundred Years War (1337-1453)... In the battle of Crecy v 1346 Edward completely defeated the French.
This victory allowed the British to take an important strategic point - fortress-port of Calais, breaking the eleven-month heroic resistance of his defenders.
In the early 50s, the British launched an offensive from the sea to the south-west of France. They captured Guillain and Gascony without much difficulty. In these areas Edward III appointed his son Prince Edward, named for the color of his armor, as governor Black Prince... The English army, led by the Black Prince, inflicted a brutal defeat on the French in 1356 at the battle of Poitiers... New French king John the Good (1350-1364) was captured and released for a huge ransom.
France was devastated by troops and bands of mercenary bandits, and in 1348-1350 an epidemic of plague began. The discontent of the people resulted in uprisings, which for several years shook the already devastated country. The largest uprising was Jacquerie in 1358... She was brutally suppressed, as well as the uprising of the Parisians, led by the merchant foreman Etienne Marcel.
John the Good was succeeded on the throne by his son Charles V (1364-1380), which changed the course of the war and won back almost all of the lost possessions, except for a small area around Calais.
For 35 years after the death of Charles V, both sides - both French and English - were too weak to conduct major military operations. The next king Charles VI (1380-1422), was insane for most of his life. Taking advantage of the weakness of royalty, the English king Henry V in 1415 inflicted a crushing defeat on the French army in battle of Agincourt and then began to conquer Northern France. Duke of Burgundy, becoming a virtually independent ruler on his lands, entered into an alliance with the British. With the help of the Burgundians, the English king Henry V achieved great success and in 1420 forced France to sign a difficult and shameful peace in the city of Troyes. Under this treaty, the country lost its independence and became part of the united Anglo-French kingdom. But not at once. Under the terms of the treaty, Henry V was supposed to marry the daughter of the French king Catherine and, after the death of Charles VI, become king of France. However, in 1422, death overtook both Henry V and Charles VI, and the one-year-old son of Henry V and Catherine, Henry VI, was proclaimed king of France.
In 1422, the British held most of France north of the Loire River. They launched attacks on the fortified cities that defended the southern lands that still belonged to the son of Charles VI, the Dauphin Charles.
V 1428 British troops besieged Orleans... It was a strategically very important fortress. The capture of Orleans opened the way to the south of France. To aid the besieged Orleans, an army headed by Jeanne d'Arc... Word spread about the girl being guided by God.
Orleans, besieged by the British for six months, was in a difficult situation. The blockade ring was tightening. The townspeople were eager to fight, but the local military garrison showed complete indifference.
In the spring 1429 army led Jeanne d'Arc, managed to drive out the British, and the siege of the city was lifted. Amazingly, after 200 days of siege, Olean was released 9 days after the arrival of Jeanne d'Arc, nicknamed Maid of Orleans.
Peasants, artisans, impoverished knights flocked from all over the country under the banner of the Maid of Orleans. Having liberated the fortresses on the Loire, Jeanne insisted that the Dauphin Charles go to Reims, where the French kings had been crowned from time immemorial. After the solemn coronation Charles VII became the only legitimate ruler of France. During the celebrations, the king wanted to reward Jeanne for the first time. For herself, she did not want anything, only asked Karl to exempt the peasants of her native from taxes the village of Domréme in Lorraine... None of the subsequent rulers of France dared to take this privilege from the inhabitants of Domrémie.
V 1430 Jeanne d'Arc was taken prisoner. In May 1431, nineteen-year-old Jeanne was burned at the stake in the central square of Rouen. The site of the burning is still marked with a white cross on the stones of the square.
In the next 20 years, the French army liberated almost the entire country from the British, and in 1453 after the capture of Bordeaux, only the port of Calais remained under the rule of England. Ended up Hundred Years War and France regained its former greatness. In the second half of the 15th century, France once again in its history became the most powerful state in Western Europe.
This went to France Louis XI (1461-1483)... This king despised the ideals of chivalry, even feudal traditions irritated him. He continued to fight the powerful feudal lords. In this struggle, he relied on the forces of cities and the help of their most prosperous inhabitants, who were attracted to public service. Through years of intrigue and diplomacy, he undermined the power of the Dukes of Burgundy, his most serious rivals in the struggle for political dominance. Louis XI managed to annex Burgundy, Franche-Comte and Artois.
Simultaneously, Louis XI began the transformation of the French army. Cities were exempted from military service, vassals were allowed to pay off military service. The bulk of the infantry were Swiss. The number of troops exceeded 50 thousand. In the early 80s of the 15th century, Provence (with an important trade center on the Mediterranean - Marseille) and Maine were annexed to France. Of the large lands, only Brittany remained unconquered.
Louis XI took a significant step towards absolute monarchy. Under him, the States General met only once and lost their real significance. The prerequisites were created for the rise of the economy and culture of France, the foundations for a relatively peaceful development in the following decades were laid.
In 1483, a 13-year-old prince ascends the throne Charles VIII (1483-1498).
From his father Louis XI, Charles VIII inherited a country in which order was restored, and the royal treasury was significantly replenished.
At this time, the male line of the sovereign house of Brittany ceased, having married the Duchess Anne of Breton, Charles VIII incorporated the previously independent Brittany into France.
Charles VIII organized a triumphal campaign in Italy and reached Naples, declaring it his possession. He could not hold Naples, but this expedition provided an opportunity to get acquainted with the wealth and culture of Renaissance Italy.
Louis XII (1498-1515) also led the French nobles to italian hike, this time claiming Milan and Naples. It was Louis XII who introduced the royal loan, which played a fatal role in the history of France 300 years later. And before the French kings borrowed money. But the royal loan meant the introduction of a regular banking procedure, under which tax proceeds from Paris became the guarantee of the loan. The royal loan system provided investment opportunities for wealthy French citizens and even bankers in Geneva and Northern Italy. It was now possible to have money without resorting to excessive taxation and without resorting to the States General.
Louis XII was succeeded by his cousin and son-in-law, Count of Angoulême, who became king Francis I (1515-1547).
Francis was the embodiment of a new Renaissance spirit in French history. He was one of the main political figures in Europe for over a quarter of a century. During his reign, the country enjoyed peace and prosperity.
His reign began with a lightning invasion of Northern Italy, crowned with a victorious battle at Marignano, in 1516 Francis I concluded a special treaty with the pope (the so-called Bologna Concordat), according to which the king began to partially dispose of the property of the French church. In 1519, Francis's attempt to proclaim himself emperor ended in failure. And in 1525, he undertakes a second campaign in Italy, which ended in the defeat of the French army at the Battle of Pavia. Francis himself was then taken prisoner. After paying a huge ransom, he returned to France and continued to rule the country, abandoning grandiose foreign policy plans.
Civil wars in France. Henry II (1547-1559) who succeeded his father on the throne must have seemed like a strange anachronism in Renaissance France. He recaptured Calais from the British and established control over such dioceses as Metz, Tul and Verdun, previously belonging to the Holy Roman Empire. This king had a long-term love affair with the beauty of the court Diane de Poitiers. In 1559 he died fighting in a tournament with one of the nobles.
Henry's wife, Catherine de Medici, who came from a family of famous Italian bankers, after the death of the king for a quarter of a century, played a decisive role in French politics. At the same time, her three sons, Francis II, Charles IX and Henry III, officially ruled.
The first one, painful Francis II, as a child, was engaged to Mary Stuart (Scottish)... A year after accession to the throne, Francis died, and the throne was taken by his ten-year-old brother Charles IX. This boy-king was completely under the influence of his mother.
At this time, the power of the French monarchy suddenly reeled. Even Francis I began a policy of persecution of non-Protestants. But Calvinism continued to spread widely across France. French Calvinists were called Huguenots... The policy of persecution of the Huguenots, which had intensified under Charles, has ceased to justify itself. The Huguenots were predominantly townspeople and nobles, often wealthy and powerful.
The country has split into two opposing camps.
All the contradictions and conflicts in the country - and disobedience to the king of the local feudal nobility, and the dissatisfaction of the townspeople with the heavy extortion of royal officials, and the protests of the peasants against taxes and church land tenure, and the desire for independence of the bourgeoisie - all this took the usual religious slogans of that time led to the beginning Huguenot Wars... At the same time, the struggle for power and influence in the country intensified between two side branches of the old Capetian dynasty - Gizami(Catholics) and Bourbon(Huguenots).
The Guise family, ardent defenders of the Catholic faith, were opposed by moderate Catholics like Montmorency and Huguenots like Condé and Coligny. The struggle was interspersed with periods of truces and agreements, which gave the Huguenots a limited right to stay in certain localities and create your own fortifications.
The condition of the third agreement between Catholics and Huguenots was the marriage of the king's sister Margaritas with Heinrich Bourbon, the young king of Navarre and the main leader of the Huguenots. Many Huguenot nobles attended the wedding of Heinrich Bourbon and Marguerite in August 1572. On the night of the feast of St. Bartholomew (August 24) Charles IX organized a terrible massacre of his opponents. Initiated Catholics have marked in advance the houses where their future victims were. It is characteristic that among the murderers there were mostly foreign mercenaries. After the first alarm, a terrible massacre began. Many were killed right in their beds. The murders spread to other cities. Henry of Navarre managed to escape, but thousands of his companions were killed
Charles IX died two years later, and was succeeded by a childless brother Henry III... There were other contenders for the royal throne. The greatest chances were with Henry of Navarre, but being the leader of the Huguenots, he did not suit most of the country's population. Catholics sought to enthrone their leader Heinrich of Giese... Fearing for his power, Henry III treacherously killed both Giza and his brother, the Cardinal of Lorraine. This act caused general outrage. Henry III went over to the camp of his other rival, Henry of Navarre, but was soon killed by a fanatical Catholic monk.
Although Henry of Navarre was now the only contender for the throne, in order to become king, he had to convert to Catholicism. Only then did he return to Paris and was crowned at Chartres in 1594 year. He became the first king the Bourbon dynasty - the fifth royal dynasty in French history.
Great merit of Henry IV was the adoption of 1598 year Edict of Nantes- the law on religious tolerance. Catholicism remained the dominant religion, but the Huguenots were officially recognized as a minority with the right to work and self-defense in some areas and cities. This edict stopped the devastation of the country and the flight of the French Huguenots to England and the Netherlands. The Edict of Nantes was drawn up very cunningly: with a change in the balance of power between Catholics and Huguenots, it could be revised (which Richelieu later used).
During the reign Henry IV (1594-1610) order was restored in the country and prosperity was achieved. The king supports high-ranking officials, judges, lawyers, financiers. He allows these people to buy positions for themselves and pass them on to their sons. A powerful apparatus of power is in the hands of the king, allowing him to rule without regard to the whims and whims of the nobles. Henry attracts large traders to himself, he strongly supports the development of large-scale production and trade, founds French colonies in overseas lands. Henry IV was the first of the French kings to begin to be guided in his policy by the national interests of France, and not only by the class interests of the French nobility.
In 1610, the country plunged into deep mourning when it learned that its king had been killed by the Jesuit monk François Ravallac. His death threw France back into a state close to the anarchy of the regency, since the young Louis XIII (1610-1643) was only nine years old.
The central political figure in the history of France at this time was his mother the Queen Maria de Medici, which then enlisted the support of the bishop of Luzon, Armand Jean du Plessis (who is better known to us as Cardinal Richelieu). IN 1 624 Richelieu became a mentor and representative of the king and actually ruled France until the end of his life in 1642 ... The beginning of the triumph of absolutism is associated with the name of Richelieu. In the person of Richelieu, the French crown found not only an outstanding statesman, but also one of the prominent theoreticians of absolute monarchy. In its " Political testament"Richelieu named two main goals that he set for himself at the time of coming to power:" My first goal was the greatness of the king, my second goal was the might of the kingdom". The first minister of Louis XIII directed all his activities towards the implementation of this program. Its main milestones were the attack on the political rights of the Huguenots, who, according to Richelieu, shared power and state with the king. Richelieu considered his task to be the liquidation of the Huguenot state, the deprivation of power from rebellious governors and the strengthening of the institution of general governors-intendants.
Military operations against the Huguenots lasted from 1621 to 1629. In 1628, the Huguenot stronghold of the seaport of La Rochelle was besieged. The fall of La Rochelle and the loss of self-government privileges by the cities weakened the resistance of the Huguenots, in 1629 they capitulated. Adopted in 1629 " Edict of mercy"Confirmed the main text of the Edict of Nantes, concerning the right to freely practice Calvinism. All articles related to the political rights of the Huguenots were abolished. The Huguenots lost their fortresses and the right to keep their garrisons.
Richelieu began to strengthen the state apparatus of the absolute monarchy. The main event in solving this problem was the final approval of the institute of intendants.
On the ground, the king's policy was thwarted by governors and provincial states. Acting as representatives of both royal and local authorities, the governors became virtually independent rulers. The quartermasters became the tool for changing this order. They became plenipotentiary representatives of the royal power in the field. At first, the mission of the quartermasters was of a temporary nature, then gradually it becomes permanent. All the threads of the provincial administration are concentrated in the hands of the intendants. Only the army remains outside their competence.
The first minister is speeding up the economic development of the state. From 1629 to 1642, 22 trading companies were formed in France. The beginning of French colonial policy dates back to Richelieu's reign.
In foreign policy, Richelieu consistently defended the national interests of France. Beginning in 1635, France under his leadership participated in the Thirty Years' War. The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 helped France to acquire a leading role in international relations in Western Europe.
But 1648 was not the end of the war for France. Spain refused to sign peace with the French monarch. The Franco-Spanish war lasted until 1659 ended with the victory of France, which received Roussillon and the province of Artois in the Iberian peace. Thus, the long-standing border dispute between France and Spain was resolved.
Richelieu died in 1642, and Louis XIII died a year later.
To the heir to the throne Louis XIV (1643-1715) then only five years old. The Queen Mother assumed custody Anna of Austria... The administration of the state was concentrated in her hands and in the hands of Richelieu's protégé of the Italian Cardinal Mazarin... Mazarin was an active conductor of the king's policy until his death in 1661. He continued Richelieu's foreign policy until the successful conclusion of the Westphalian (1648) and Pyrenean (1659) peace treaties. He was able to solve the problem of preserving the monarchy, especially during the uprisings of the nobility, known as Fronda (1648-1653)... The name Fronde comes from the French - sling. Tossing from a sling in a figurative sense is to act in defiance of the authorities. In the turbulent events of the Fronde, antifeudal actions of the masses and part of the bourgeoisie, the conflict of the judicial aristocracy with absolutism, and the opposition of the feudal nobility were contradictory intertwined. Having coped with these movements, absolutism emerged stronger from the political crisis of the Fronde period.
Louis XIV.
After Mazarin's death, Louis XIV (1643-1715), who had reached 23 by that time, took control of the state into his own hands. Prolonged for 54 years " century of Louis XIV"Is both the apogee of French absolutism and the beginning of its decline. The king plunged headlong into state affairs. He skillfully selected active and intelligent companions for himself. Among them are the Minister of Finance Jean Baptiste Colbert, the Minister of War, the Marquis de Louvois, the Minister of Defense fortifications Sebastian de Vauban and such brilliant generals as the Viscount de Turenne and the Prince of Condé.
Louis formed a large and well-trained army, which, thanks to Vauban, had the best fortresses. A clear hierarchy of ranks was introduced in the army, a uniform military uniform, and a quartermaster service. The fuse muskets were replaced by a trigger gun with a bayonet. All this increased the discipline and combat capability of the army. The instrument of foreign policy - the army, along with the police created at that time, was widely used as an instrument of "internal order".
With the help of this army, Louis pursued his strategic line during the four wars. The most difficult was the last war - the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714) - a desperate attempt to resist all of Europe. An attempt to win back the Spanish crown for his grandson ended with the invasion of enemy troops into French soil, impoverishment of the people and depletion of the treasury. The country has lost all previous conquests. Only a split among the enemy forces and a few of the most recent victories saved France from complete defeat. At the end of his life, Louis was accused of "being too fond of war." The 32 war years of the 54 years of Louis' reign became a heavy burden for France.
In the economic life of the country, a policy of mercantilism was pursued. It was especially actively pursued by Colbert, Minister of Finance in the years 1665-1683. A major organizer and indefatigable administrator, he tried to put into practice the mercantilist doctrine of "active trade balance". Colbert sought to minimize the import of foreign goods and raise the export of French, thus increasing the amount of taxable monetary wealth in the country. Absolutism introduced protectionist duties, subsidized the creation of large manufactories, and provided them with various privileges ("royal manufactories"). The production of luxury goods (for example, tapestries, i.e., carpets-paintings at the famous royal tapestry manufactory), weapons, equipment, uniforms for the army and navy was especially encouraged.
For active overseas and colonial trade, monopoly trading companies were created with the participation of the state - the East Indies, West Indies, Levantine, the construction of the fleet was subsidized.
In North America, the vast territory of the Mississippi basin, called Louisiana, became the possession of France along with Canada. The importance of the French West Indies (San Domingo, Guadeloupe, Martinique) increased, where plantations of sugar cane, tobacco, cotton, indigo, coffee, based on the labor of black slaves, began to be created. France took possession of a number of trading posts in India.
Louis XIV revoked the Edict of Nantes, which established religious tolerance. Prisons and galleys were filled with Huguenots. Dragonnads fell on Protestant areas (the dragoons were stationed in the houses of the Huguenots, under which dragoons were allowed "necessary atrocities"). As a result, tens of thousands of Protestants fled the country, including many skilled artisans and wealthy merchants.
The king chose the place of his residence Versailles, where a grandiose palace and park ensemble was created. Louis strove to make Versailles the cultural center of all of Europe. The monarchy sought to guide the development of the arts and sciences, to use them to maintain the prestige of absolutism. Under him, an opera house, the Academy of Sciences, the Academy of Painting, the Academy of Architecture, the Academy of Music, and an observatory were founded. Pensions were paid to scientists and artists.
Under him, absolutism in the history of France reached its climax. " The state is me».
By the end of the reign of Louis XIV, France was devastated by exhausting wars, the goals of which exceeded the capabilities of France, the costs of maintaining a huge army at that time (300-500 thousand people at the beginning of the XVIII century against 30 thousand in the middle of the XVII), heavy taxes. Agricultural production fell, industrial production and trade decreased. The population of France has declined significantly.
All these results of the "century of Louis XIV" testified to the fact that French absolutism had exhausted its historical progressive possibilities. The feudal-absolutist system entered the stage of decay and decline.
Decline of the monarchy.
In 1715, Louis XIV, already decrepit and old, died.
His five-year-old great-grandson became the heir to the French throne Louis XV (1715-1774)... While he was a child, the country was ruled by a self-appointed regent, the ambitious Duke of Orleans.
Louis XV tried to imitate his brilliant predecessor, but in almost every respect the reign of Louis XV was a pitiful parody of the reign of the "sun king."
The army fostered by Louvois and Vauban was led by aristocratic officers who sought their posts for the sake of a court career. This negatively affected the morale of the troops, although Louis XV himself paid great attention to the army. French troops fought in Spain, participated in two large campaigns against Prussia: the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) and the Seven Years' War (1756-1763).
The royal administration controlled the sphere of trade and did not consider its own interests in this sphere. After the humiliating Paris Peace (1763), France had to give up most of its colonies and abandon its claims to India and Canada. But even then the port cities of Bordeaux, La Rochelle, Nantes and Le Havre continued to prosper and enrich themselves.
Louis XV belongs to the saying: “ After me - even a flood". He was little concerned with the situation in the country. Louis devoted time to hunting and his favorites, allowing the latter to interfere in the affairs of the country.
After the death of Louis XV in 1774, the French crown went to his twenty-year-old Louis XVI. At this time in French history, the need for reform was obvious to many.
Louis XVI appointed Turgot as Comptroller General of Finance. Extraordinary statesman and a prominent economic theorist, Turgot tried to implement a program of bourgeois reform. In 1774-1776. he abolished the regulation of the grain trade, abolished shop corporations, freed the peasants from the state road corvee and replaced it with a monetary land tax, which fell on all classes. Turgot hatched plans for new reforms, including the abolition of feudal duties for the ransom. But under the onslaught of the reactionary forces, Turgot was dismissed, his reforms were canceled. Reform "from above" within the framework of absolutism was impossible to solve the urgent problems of the country's further development.
In 1787-1789. the commercial and industrial crisis unfolded. Its emergence was facilitated by the treaty concluded by French absolutism 4 in 1786 with England, which opened the French market for cheaper English products. The decline and stagnation of production swept the cities and industrialized rural areas. The national debt increased from 1.5 billion livres in 1774 to 4.5 billion in 1788. The monarchy was on the verge of financial bankruptcy. Bankers refused new loans.
The life of the kingdom seemed peaceful and calm. In search of a way out, the government again turned to attempts at reform, in particular to Turgot's plans to impose part of the taxes on the privileged estates. A draft of a non-estate land direct tax was developed. Hoping to gain the support of the privileged estates themselves, the monarchy convened a meeting in 1787 “ notables"- the eminent representatives of the estates elected by the king. However, the notables categorically refused to approve the proposed reforms. They demanded to convene States general, not assembled since 1614. At the same time, they wanted to preserve the traditional word-by-word order of voting in the states, which made it possible to carry out decisions that were beneficial to them. The privileged leaders hoped to occupy a dominant position in the States-General and to achieve the limitation of royal power in their own interests.
But these calculations did not come true. The slogan of convening the States General was taken up by wide circles of the third estate, led by the bourgeoisie, which came out with its own political program.
The convening of the States General was scheduled for the spring of 1789. The number of deputies of the third estate doubled, but the important question of the voting procedure remained open.
The deputies of the third estate, feeling popular support and being pushed by it, went on the offensive. They rejected the class principle of representation and on June 17 proclaimed themselves The National Assembly, i.e. the plenipotentiary representative of the entire nation. On June 20, gathered in a large ballroom (the usual courtroom was closed by order of the king and was guarded by soldiers), the deputies of the national assembly vowed not to disperse until a constitution was drawn up.
In response to this, on June 23, Louis XVI announced the cancellation of the decisions of the third estate. However, the deputies of the third estate refused to obey the orders of the king. They were joined by some of the deputies of the nobility and clergy. The king was forced to order the rest of the deputies of the privileged estates to join the National Assembly. On July 9, 1789, the Assembly proclaimed itself By the Constituent Assembly.
The court circles and Louis XVI himself decided to suppress the incipient revolution by force. Troops were drawn to Paris.
Alarmed by the introduction of troops, the Parisians understood that the dispersal of the National Assembly was being prepared. On July 13, the alarm was sounded, the city was engulfed in an uprising. By the morning of July 14, the city was in the hands of the rebels. The culmination and final act of the uprising was the assault and taking of the Bastille- a powerful eight-tower fortress with high 30-meter walls. Since the time of Louis XIV, it has served as a political prison and has become a symbol of arbitrariness and despotism.
The capture of the Bastille was the beginning in the history of France French Revolution and her first victory.
The onslaught of peasant uprisings prompted the Constituent Assembly to solve the agrarian problem - the main socio-economic issue of the French Revolution. By decrees of August 4-11, church tithes, the right of senior hunting on peasant lands, etc. were canceled free of charge. The main land-related "real" duties - qualifications, champars, etc. were declared the property of the lords and were subject to redemption. The meeting promised to establish the terms of the ransom later.
On August 26, the Meeting adopted “ Declaration of human and civil rights"- an introduction to the future constitution. The influence of this document on the minds of contemporaries was extremely great. 17 articles of the Declaration in capacious formulas proclaimed the ideas of the Enlightenment as the principles of the revolution. " People are born and remain free and equal in rights"- read her first article. " Natural and inalienable»Security and resistance to oppression were also recognized as human rights. The declaration proclaimed the equality of all before the law and the right to hold any office, freedom of speech and press, religious tolerance.
Immediately after the capture of the Bastille, the emigration of aristocratic counter-revolutionaries began. Louis XVI, announcing his adherence to the revolution, in fact refused to approve the Declaration of Rights, did not approve the decrees of August 4-11. He declared: " Never will I agree to rob my clergy and my nobility».
Military units loyal to the king were gathered in Versailles. Anxiety about the fate of the revolution was growing among the masses of Paris. The continuing economic crisis, food shortages, and high prices increased the discontent of the Parisians. On October 5, about 20 thousand residents of the city moved to Versailles - the seat of the royal family and the National Assembly. Parisians from the working class played an active role - about 6 thousand women, participants in the campaign, were the first to go to Versailles.
The people were followed by the Paris National Guard, capturing their commander, Marshal Lafayette. At Versailles, people broke into the palace, pushed back the royal guards, demanded bread and the king's move to the capital.
On October 6, yielding to popular demand, the royal family moved from Versailles to Paris, where they were under the supervision of the revolutionary capital. The National Assembly also settled in Paris. Louis XVI was forced to unconditionally approve the Declaration of Rights and authorized the decrees on August 4-11, 1789.
Having strengthened its position, the Constituent Assembly energetically continued the bourgeois reconstruction of the country. Following the principle of civil equality, the Assembly abolished class privileges, abolished the institution of hereditary nobility, titles of nobility and coats of arms. By asserting free enterprise, it destroyed government regulations and the shop floor system. The abolition of internal customs, a trade agreement of 1786 with England contributed to the formation of the national market and its protection from foreign competition.
By decree of November 2, 1789, the Constituent Assembly confiscated the church estates. Declared as national property, they were put on sale to cover the national debt.
In September 1791, the Constituent Assembly completed the drafting of a constitution that established a bourgeois constitutional monarchy in France. Legislative power was vested in a unicameral The Legislature, executive - to the hereditary monarch and the ministers appointed by him. The king could temporarily reject the laws approved by the Assembly, having the right of "delaying veto". France was divided into 83 departments in which power was exercised by elected councils and directories, in cities and villages - by elected municipalities. The new unified judicial system was based on the election of judges and the participation of juries.
The electoral system introduced by the Assembly was census and two-tier. “Passive” citizens who did not meet the qualification requirements did not receive political rights. Only "active" citizens - men from 25 years old, paying a direct tax of at least 1.5-3 livres, had the right to vote, were part of the National Guard, created in cities and villages. Their number was just over half of adult men.
At this time, the importance of political clubs was great - in fact, they played the role of political parties that had not yet emerged in France. Created in 1789 had a great influence Jacobin Club, who sat in the hall of the former monastery of St. Jacob. He united supporters of the revolution of different orientations (including Mirabeau, and Robespierre), but in the early years it was dominated by the influence of moderate monarchist constitutionalists.
More democratic was cordelier club... It allowed "passive" citizens, women. Supporters of universal suffrage had a great influence in it. Danton, Desmoulins, Marat, Hebert.
On the night June 21, 1791 Years, the royal family secretly left Paris and moved to the eastern border. Relying on the army stationed here, on the detachments of emigrants and the support of Austria, Louis hoped to disperse the National Assembly and restore his unlimited power. Identified on the way and detained in the town of Varennes, the fugitives were returned to Paris under guard National Guard and many thousands of armed peasants raised by the alarm bell.
Now the democratic movement took on a republican character: the monarchist illusions of the people were dispelled. The center of the republican movement in Paris was the Cordelier Club. However, moderate monarchist constitutionalists strongly opposed these demands. " It's time to end the revolution now, - said one of their leaders in the Assembly Barnav, - she reached her extreme limit».
On July 17, 1791, the National Guard, using the "martial law" law, opened fire on unarmed demonstrators who, at the call of the cordeliers, gathered on the Champ de Mars to adopt a republican petition. 50 of them were killed, several hundred were injured.
The political demarcation in the former third estate also caused a split in the Jacobin Club. More radical bourgeois leaders remained in the club, who wanted to continue the revolution together with the people. From it emerged moderate liberal monarchists, supporters of Lafayette and Barnave, who wanted to end the revolution and consolidate the constitutional monarchy. In the building of the former convent of the Feuillants, they founded their own club.
In September 1791, the Assembly approved the final text of the constitution adopted by Louis XVI. Having exhausted its functions, the Constituent Assembly dispersed. It was replaced by the Legislative Assembly elected on the basis of the census system, the first meeting of which took place on October 1, 1791.
The right wing of the assembly was made up of feuillans, the left was composed mainly of members of the Jacobin Club. Deputies from the department then prevailed among the Jacobins. The gironde... Hence the name of this political group - girondins.
On the basis of hostility to the revolution, the contradictions between France's neighbors in the east, Austria and Prussia, seemed to be smoothed out. On August 27, 1791, the Austrian emperor Leopold II and the Prussian king Friedrich Wilhelm II signed a declaration at the Saxon castle of Pilnitz, in which they declared their readiness to provide military assistance to Louis XVI and called on other monarchs of Europe to do so. On February 7, 1792, Austria and Prussia entered into a military alliance against France. The threat of foreign intervention looms over France.
In France itself, since the end of 1791, the question of war has become one of the main ones. Wars were wanted by Louis XVI and his court - they counted on intervention and the fall of the revolution as a result of the military defeat of France. The Girondins aspired to war - they hoped that the war would consolidate the decisive victory of the bourgeoisie over the nobility and at the same time push aside the social problems posed by the popular movement. Erroneously assessing the strength of France and the situation in the countries of Europe, the Girondins hoped for an easy victory and that the peoples would rise up against their "tyrants" when the French troops appeared.
Robespierre, supported by part of the Jacobins, including Marat, opposed the militant agitation of the Girondins. Realizing the inevitability of a war with European monarchies, he considered it reckless to hasten its start. Robespierre disputed and contention Brissot about an immediate uprising in the countries where French troops will enter; " Nobody likes armed missionaries ».
The majority of the Feuillants were also against the war, fearing that in any case, the war would overturn the regime of the constitutional monarchy they had created.
The influence of the supporters of the war prevailed. On April 20, France declared war on Austria. The start of the war was unfortunate for France. The old army was disorganized, half of the officers emigrated, the soldiers did not trust the commanders. The volunteers who came to the troops were poorly armed and not trained. On July 6, Prussia entered the war. The invasion of enemy troops into the territory of France was inexorably approaching, the enemies of the revolution awaited it, their center was the royal court. Queen Marie Antoinette, who was the sister of the Austrian emperor, sent the French military plans to the Austrians.
Danger looms over France. The revolutionary people were engulfed in patriotic enthusiasm. Volunteer battalions were hastily formed. 15 thousand people signed up in Paris during the week. From the provinces, in spite of the king's veto, detachments of federates arrived. These days, for the first time, it sounded wide Marseillaise- patriotic song of the revolution, written back in April Rouge de Liele m and brought to Paris by the battalion of the Federates of Marseilles.
In Paris, preparations began for an uprising with the aim of removing Louis XVI from power and developing a new constitution. On the night of August 10, 1792, the alarm sounded over Paris - an uprising began. The commissars chosen by the Parisians gathered on their own in the town hall. They formed the Paris Commune, which took over the capital. The rebels took possession of the royal Tuileries palace. The meeting deprived Louis XVI of the throne, the Commune, by its power, imprisoned the royal family in the Temple of the Temple.
The political privileges of the upper bourgeoisie, enshrined in the constitution of 1791, also fell. All men from the age of 21 who were not in personal service were admitted to the elections to the Convention. Lafayette and many other leaders of the Feuillants fled abroad. The Girondins became the leading force in the Assembly and in the new government.
The National Convention began its work on September 20; On September 21, he passed a decree on the abolition of royal power; September 22 France was proclaimed a republic... Its constitution was to be worked out by the Convention. However, from the very first steps of his activity, a fierce political struggle flared up in him.
On the upper benches of the Convention sat the deputies who made up its left wing. They were called the Mountain or Montagnards (from the French montagne - mountain). The most prominent leaders of the Mountain were Robespierre, Marat, Danton, Saint-Just. Most of the Montagnards were members of the Jacobin Club. Many Jacobins adhered to egalitarian ideas and strove for a democratic republic.
The right wing of the Convention was formed by the Girondins deputies. The Girondins opposed the further deepening of the revolution.
About 500 deputies, which made up the center of the Convention, were not part of any group, they were called "plain" or "swamp". During the first months of the Convention, the Plains strongly supported the Gironde.
By the end of 1792, the fate of the king was at the center of the political struggle. Delivered to trial by the Convention, Louis XVI was found "guilty" of treason, connections with emigrants and foreign courts, in an act against the freedom of the nation and the general security of the state. January 21, 1793 year he was guillotined.
In the spring of 1793, the revolution entered a period of a new acute crisis. In March, a peasant revolt broke out in northwestern France, reaching unprecedented strength in the Vendée. The royalists took over the leadership of the uprising. The Vendée revolt, which aroused tens of thousands of peasants, caused bloody excesses and for several years became an unhealed wound of the republic.
In the spring of 1793, the country's martial law deteriorated sharply. After the execution of Louis XVI, France found itself in a state of war not only with Austria and Prussia, but also with Holland, Spain, Portugal, Germanic and Italian states.
The danger looming over the republic again demanded the mobilization of all the forces of the people, for which the Gironde was unable.
May 31 - June 2 an uprising broke out in Paris. Forced to submit to the rebellious people, the Convention decided to arrest Brissot, Vergniot and other leaders of the Gironde. (31 people in total). They came to the political leadership in the republic Jacobins.
On June 24, 1793, the Convention adopted a new constitution for France. It provided for a republic with a unicameral Legislative Assembly, direct elections and universal suffrage for men from the age of 21, and proclaimed democratic rights and freedoms. Article 119 declared non-interference in the internal affairs of other peoples as the principle of French foreign policy. Later, on February 4, 1794, the Convention adopted a decree on the abolition of slavery in the colonies.
The leading wing of the ruling Jacobin party was made up of robespierres. Their ideal was a republic of small and medium-sized producers, in which state-backed strict morality tempered "private interest" and prevented the extremes of inequality in wealth.
In the autumn and winter of 1793, a moderate trend took shape among the Jacobins. Georges Jacques Danton became the leader of this movement, and Camille Desmoulins became his talented publicist. One of the most prominent Montagnards, the tribune of the first years of the revolution, Danton considered it natural to increase wealth and the free use of its benefits, his fortune increased 10 times during the revolution.
On the opposite flank were the "extreme" revolutionaries - Chaumette, Hebert and others. They sought further equalization measures, confiscation and division of property of the enemies of the revolution.
The struggle between the currents became more and more fierce. In March 1794, Ebert and his closest associates were brought before a revolutionary tribunal and were guillotined. Soon their fate was shared by the ardent defender of the poor, the Prosecutor of the Commune Chaumette.
In early April, the blow fell on the leaders of the moderates - Danton, Desmoulins and several of their associates. They all died on the guillotine.
The robespierres saw that the positions of the Jacobin government were weakening, but they could not put forward a program capable of receiving broad public support.
In May-June 1794, the Robespierres tried to unite the people around a civil religion in the spirit of Rousseau. At the insistence of Robespierre, the Convention established a "cult of the Supreme Being", which included the veneration of republican virtues, justice, equality, freedom, love for the fatherland. The new cult was not needed by the bourgeoisie, and the masses of the people remained indifferent to it.
Trying to strengthen their position, the Robespierres passed a law on the tightening of terror on June 10. This multiplied the number of disaffected and accelerated the formation of a conspiracy in the Convention to overthrow Robespierre and his supporters. On July 28 (10 Thermidor) outlawed Robespierre, Saint-Just and their associates (22 people in total) were guillotined. On 11-12 Thermidor their fate was shared by another 83 people, most of them members of the Commune. Jacobin dictatorship fell.
In August 1795, the Thermidorian Convention adopted a new French constitution to replace the Jacobin one, which was never implemented. While preserving the republic, the new constitution introduced a bicameral legislative body ( Council of five hundred and Council of Elders of 250 members at least 40 years old), two-stage elections, age and property qualifications. The executive power was handed over to a directory of five elected by the Legislative Corps. The Constitution confirmed the confiscation of emigrant possessions, guaranteed the ownership of buyers of foreign property.
Four years Directory mode in the history of France were a time of socio-economic and political instability. France was going through a difficult period of adaptation to new conditions (in the long term, deeply favorable for its progress). The war, the British blockade and the decline of the maritime colonial trade that flourished until 1789, the acute financial crisis complicated this process.
The owners wanted stability and order, a strong power that would protect them both from the revolutionary actions of the people and from the claims of the supporters of the Bourbon restoration and the old order.
The most suitable person for carrying out a military coup was Napoleon Bonaparte. Influential financiers supplied him with money.
The coup has taken place 18 Brumaire(November 9, 1799). Power passed to three temporary consuls, in fact, headed by Bonaparte. The coup of 18 Brumaire in French history paved the way for a regime of personal power - military dictatorship of Napoleon Bonaparte.
Consulate (1799-1804)
Already in December 1799 a new French constitution... Formally, France remained a republic with a very complex ramified power structure. The executive power, the rights and powers of which were significantly expanded, was handed over to three consuls. The first consul - and that was Napoleon Bonaparte - was elected for 10 years. He concentrated in his hands virtually all of the executive power. The second and third consuls had an advisory vote. Consuls for the first time were identified by name in the text of the constitution.
All men over the age of 21 enjoyed the right to vote, but they did not elect deputies, but candidates for deputies. From among them, the government selected members of the local administration and the highest legislative bodies. Legislative power was distributed among several bodies - the State Council, the Tribunate, the Legislative Corps - and made dependent on the executive branch. All bills, having passed these instances, went to the Senate, whose members were approved by Napoleon himself, and then went to the first consul for signature.
The government also owned the legislative initiative. In addition, the constitution gave the first consul the right to submit bills directly to the Senate, bypassing the legislature. All ministers were subordinate directly to Napoleon.
In fact, it was the regime of Napoleon's personal power, but it was possible to impose the dictatorship only by preserving the main gains of the revolutionary years: the destruction of feudal relations, the redistribution of land ownership and a change in its nature.
The new constitution in the history of France was approved by a plebiscite (popular vote). The results of the plebiscite were predetermined in advance. The voting took place publicly, in front of the representatives of the new government; many then voted not for the constitution, but for Napoleon, who gained considerable popularity.
Napoleon Bonaparte (1769 -1821)- an outstanding statesman and military leader of the time when the bourgeoisie was still a young, rising class and sought to consolidate its gains. He was a man with an unyielding will and an extraordinary mind. Under Napoleon, a whole galaxy of talented military leaders ( Murat, Lann, Davout,Her and many others).
The new plebiscite of 1802 secured the post of first consul to Napoleon Bonaparte for life. He was given the right to appoint a successor to himself, to dissolve the Legislative Corps, to single-handedly approve peace treaties.
Strengthening the power of Napoleon Bonaparte was facilitated by the incessant, successful wars for France. In 1802, Napoleon's birthday was declared a national holiday, and since 1803 his image has appeared on coins.
First Empire (1804-1814)
The power of the first consul increasingly assumed the character of a one-man dictatorship. The logical result was the proclamation of Napoleon Bonaparte in May 1804 Emperor of France under the name Napoleon I... It was solemnly crowned by the Pope himself.
In 1807, the Tribunate was abolished - the only organ where there was opposition to the Bonapartist regime. A magnificent courtyard was created, court titles were restored, and the title of marshal of the empire was introduced. The furnishings, customs, and everyday life of the French court imitated the old pre-revolutionary royal court. The address "citizen" has disappeared from everyday life, but the words "sovereign", "your imperial majesty" have appeared.
In 1802, an amnesty law for the emigrant nobles was passed. Returning from emigration, the old aristocracy gradually consolidated its positions. More than half of the prefects appointed in Napoleonic times belonged to old nobility.
Along with this, the French emperor, striving to strengthen his regime, created a new elite, she received titles of nobility from him and was obliged to everything to him.
From 1808 to 1814, 3,600 titles of nobility were bestowed; land was distributed both in France and abroad - land ownership was an indicator of wealth and social status.
However, the revival of titles did not mean a return to the old feudal structure of society. Estates' privileges were not restored, Napoleon's legislation enshrined legal equality.
Napoleon made all his brothers kings in the countries of Europe conquered by France. In 1805 he declared himself king of Italy. In the prime of his power in 1810, Napoleon I, due to the childlessness of the Empress Josephine, began searching for a new wife in one of the reigning houses of feudal Europe. He was refused marriage with a Russian princess.
But the Austrian court agreed to the marriage of Napoleon I with the Austrian princess Marie-Louise. With this marriage, Napoleon hoped to join the family of "legitimate" monarchs in Europe and found his own dynasty.
Napoleon sought to solve the most acute internal political problem since the beginning of the revolution - the relationship between the bourgeois state and the church. In 1801, a concordat was concluded with Pope Pius VII. Catholicism was declared the religion of the majority of the French. The separation of the church from the state was destroyed, the state again undertook to provide maintenance for the ministers of the cult, and to restore religious holidays.
The Pope, in turn, recognized the sold-out church lands as the property of the new owners and agreed that the highest church ranks were appointed by the government. The church introduced a special prayer for the health of the consul and then the emperor. Thus, the church became the mainstay of the Bonapartist regime.
During the years of the Consulate and the Empire in the history of France, the democratic gains of the revolution were mostly eliminated. Elections and plebiscites were formal, and declarations of political freedom became a convenient demagogy to cover up the despotic nature of government.
At the time of Napoleon's coming to power, the financial situation of the country was extremely difficult: the treasury was empty, civil servants had not received salaries for a long time. Streamlining finances has become one of the government's top priorities. By increasing indirect taxes, the government managed to stabilize the financial system. Direct taxes (on capital) were cut, which was in the interests of the big bourgeoisie.
Successful wars and protectionist policies have boosted exports. Napoleon imposed on the European states favorable terms of trade for France. All markets in Europe, as a result of the victorious march of the French army, were open to French goods. The protectionist customs policy protected French entrepreneurs from the competition of British goods.
In general, the time of the Consulate and the Empire was favorable for the industrial development of France.
The regime established in France under Napoleon Bonaparte was named “ bonapartism". The dictatorship of Napoleon was a special form of the bourgeois state, in which the bourgeoisie itself was removed from direct participation in political power. Maneuvering between various social forces, relying on the powerful apparatus of state administration, Napoleon's power gained a certain independence in relation to social classes.
In an effort to unite the majority of the nation around the regime, to present himself as an exponent of national interests, Napoleon adopted the idea of the unity of the nation, born of the French Revolution. However, this was no longer the defense of the principles of national sovereignty, but the propaganda of the national exclusivity of the French, the hegemony of France in the international arena. Therefore, in the field of foreign policy, Bonapartism is characterized by a pronounced nationalism. The years of the Consulate and the First Empire were marked by the almost continuous bloody wars that Napoleonic France waged with the states of Europe. In the conquered countries and states vassal from France, Napoleon pursued a policy that was aimed at turning them into a market for French goods and a source of raw materials for French industry. Napoleon said more than once: “ My principle is France first". In the dependent states, in the interests of the French bourgeoisie, economic development was hampered by the imposition of unprofitable trade deals and the establishment of monopoly prices for French goods. Huge contributions were siphoned out of these states.
Already by 1806, Napoleon Bonaparte had formed a huge empire, reminiscent of the times of Charlemagne. In 1806 Austria and Prussia were defeated. At the end of October 1806, Napoleon entered Berlin. Here, on November 21, 1806, he signed a decree on the continental blockade, which played an important role in the fate of European countries.
According to the decree, trade with the British Isles was strictly prohibited throughout the French Empire and its dependent countries. Violation of this decree, smuggling of English goods was punishable by brutal repression up to the death penalty. With this blockade, France sought to crush the economic potential of England, to bring her to her knees.
However, Napoleon did not achieve his goal - the economic destruction of England. Although the economy of England experienced difficulties during these years, they were not catastrophic: England possessed vast colonies, had well-established contact with the American continent and, despite all the prohibitions, widely used the smuggled trade of English goods in Europe.
The blockade for the economies of European countries turned out to be difficult. French industry could not replace the cheaper and better quality goods of British enterprises. The break with England gave rise to economic crises in European countries, which led to restrictions on the marketing of French goods there. The blockade contributed to a certain extent to the growth of French industry, but it soon became clear that French industry could not do without British industrial products and raw materials.
The blockade paralyzed the life of such large port cities of France as Marseille, Le Havre, Nantes, Toulon for a long time. In 1810, a system of licenses for the right to limited trade in English goods was introduced, but the cost of these licenses was high. Napoleon used the blockade as a means of safeguarding the growing French economy and as a source of treasury revenue.
At the end of the first decade of the 19th century, the crisis of the First Empire in France began. Its manifestation was periodic economic recessions, the growing fatigue of the general population from continuous wars. In 1810-1811, a severe economic crisis began in France. Affected by the negative consequences of the continental blockade: there was a shortage of raw materials, industrial products, and high prices were growing. The bourgeoisie went over to opposition to the Bonapartist regime. The last blow to Napoleonic France was inflicted by the military defeats of 1812-1814.
On October 16-19, 1813, near Leipzig, a decisive battle took place between the army of Napoleon and the united army of the allied states of Europe. The Battle of Leipzig was called the Battle of the Nations. Napoleon's army was defeated.
On March 31, 1814, the allied army entered Paris. Napoleon abdicated in favor of his son. However, the Senate, under pressure from the European powers, decided to re-establish the Bourbon dynasty, Count of Provence, brother of the executed Louis XVI, to the French throne. Napoleon was exiled to the island of Elba for life.
On May 30, 1814, a peace treaty was signed in Paris: France was deprived of all territorial acquisitions and returned to the borders of 1792. The treaty provided for the convening of an international congress in Vienna for the final solution of all issues related to the collapse of the Napoleonic empire.
10 months of the Bourbon rule was enough to revive pro-Napoleonic sentiments again. Louis XVIII in May 1814 published a constitutional charter. By " Charters of 1814»The king's power was limited to parliament, which consisted of two chambers. The upper house was appointed by the king, and the lower one was elected on the basis of a high property qualification.
This provided power to the large landowners, the nobles, and partly to the upper strata of the bourgeoisie. However, the old French aristocracy and clergy demanded from the government the complete restoration of feudal rights and privileges, the return of land holdings.
The threat of the restoration of the feudal order, the dismissal of more than 20 thousand Napoleonic officers and officials caused an explosion of discontent with the Bourbons.
Napoleon took advantage of this situation. He also took into account the fact that the negotiations at the Congress of Vienna were progressing with difficulty: acute disagreements between the recent allies in the struggle against Napoleonic France were revealed.
On March 1, 1815, with a thousand guards, Napoleon landed in the south of France and undertook a victorious campaign against Paris. All the way, the French military units went over to his side. On March 20, he entered Paris. The empire was rebuilt. However, Napoleon could not resist the huge forces of England, Russia, Prussia and Austria.
The Allies had a huge superiority of forces, and on June 18, 1815, at the Battle of Waterloo (near Brussels), the Napoleonic army was finally defeated. Napoleon abdicated the throne, surrendered to the British and was soon exiled to the island of St. Helena in the Atlantic Ocean, where he died in 1821.
The defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte's army Battle of Waterloo led to the second restoration of the Bourbon monarchy in France. Louis XVIII was returned to the throne. According to the Paris Peace of 1815, France had to pay an indemnity of 700 million francs, maintain the occupying troops (they were withdrawn in 1818 after the payment of the indemnity).
Restoration marked by a political reaction in the country. Thousands of emigrant nobles who returned with the Bourbons demanded reprisals against political leaders during the revolution and the Napoleonic regime, the restoration of their feudal rights and privileges.
The "white terror" unfolded in the country, especially in the south, where royalist gangs killed and persecuted people who were reputed to be Jacobins and liberals.
However, a full return to the past was no longer possible. The Restoration regime did not encroach on those changes in the distribution of land ownership that occurred as a result of the French Revolution and were consolidated during the years of the First Empire. At the same time, the titles (but not class privileges) of the old nobility were restored, which to a large extent managed to preserve their land ownership. The émigré nobles were returned to the lands confiscated by the revolution, but not sold out in 1815. The titles of nobility given out under Napoleon I were also recognized.
From the beginning of the 1820s, the influence on state policy of the most reactionary part of the nobility and clergy increased, who did not want to adapt to the conditions of post-revolutionary France and thought about the fullest possible return to the old order. In 1820, the heir to the throne, the Duke of Berry, was assassinated by the artisan Louvel. This event was used by the reaction to attack the constitutional principles. Censorship was restored, education was placed under the control of the Catholic Church.
Louis XVIII died in 1824. Under the name Charles X his brother, Count d'Artois, ascended the throne. He was called the king of emigrants. Charles X began to pursue an openly pro-nobility policy and thereby finally upset the balance that had developed in the first years of the Restoration between the top bourgeoisie and the nobility in favor of the latter.
In 1825, a law was issued on monetary compensation to emigrant nobles for the lands they lost during the revolution (25 thousand people, mainly representatives of the old nobility, received compensation in the amount of 1 billion francs). At the same time, a "law of sacrilege" was issued, which provided for severe punishment for actions against religion and the church, up to the death penalty by quartering and wheeling.
In August 1829, the king's personal friend, one of the inspirers of the "white terror" of 1815-1817, became the head of government. Polignac... Polignac's ministry was one of the most reactionary in all the years of the Restoration regime. All its members belonged to ultra-royalists. The very fact of the formation of such a ministry aroused indignation in the country. The Chamber of Deputies demanded the resignation of the ministry. In response, the king interrupted the meeting of the House.
Public discontent was intensified by the industrial depression that followed the economic crisis of 1826 and the high cost of bread.
In such a situation, Charles X decided on a coup d'état. On July 25, 1830, the king signed ordinances (decrees) that were in direct violation of the "Charter of 1814". The Chamber of Deputies was dissolved, the right to vote was now granted only to large landowners. The Ordinances abolished press freedom by introducing a system of prior authorizations for periodicals.
The Restoration regime was clearly going to restore the absolutist system in the country. In the face of such a danger, the bourgeoisie had to decide to fight.
July bourgeois revolution of 1830. "Three Glorious Days".
On July 26, 1830, the ordinances of Charles X were published in the newspapers. Paris responded to them with violent demonstrations. The very next day, an armed uprising began in Paris: the streets of the city were covered with barricades. Almost every tenth resident of Paris took part in the battles. Part of the government forces went over to the side of the rebels. July 29 was taken with a fight Royal Palace Tuileries. The revolution has won. Charles X fled to England.
Power passed into the hands of the Provisional Government, created by the deputies of the liberal bourgeoisie; it was led by the leaders of the liberals - banker Laffitte and General Lafayette... The big bourgeoisie did not want and was afraid of a republic, it stood for the preservation of the monarchy, led by the Orleans dynasty, traditionally close to bourgeois circles. 31 july Louis Philippe d'Orléans was declared the governor of the kingdom, and on August 7 - the king of France.
The July revolution finally resolved the dispute: which social class should belong to political rule in France - the nobility or the bourgeoisie - in favor of the latter. A bourgeois monarchy was established in the country; the new king Louis Philippe, the largest forest owner and financier, was not accidentally called the "bourgeois king."
Unlike the constitution of 1814, which was declared as a royalty, the new constitution - “ Charter of 1830"- was declared the inalienable property of the people. The king, the new charter declared, did not rule by virtue of divine right, but at the invitation of the French people; from now on, he could not abolish or suspend laws, lost the right to initiate legislation, being the head of the executive branch. The members of the House of Peers were to be elected, as were the members of the Lower House.
The "Charter of 1830" proclaimed freedom of the press and assembly. The age and property qualifications were reduced. Under Louis Philippe, the financial bourgeoisie and the big bankers dominated. The financial aristocracy received high positions in the state apparatus. She enjoyed huge government subsidies, various benefits and privileges that were provided to railway and commercial companies. All this exacerbated the budget deficit, which became a chronic phenomenon under the July monarchy. Its consequence was a steady increase in the state debt.
Both were in the interests of the financial bourgeoisie: state loans, which the government went to to cover the deficit, were given at high interest rates and were a sure source of its enrichment. The growth of public debt increased the political influence of the financial aristocracy and the government's dependence on it.
The July monarchy resumed the conquest of Algeria begun under Charles X. The population of Algeria put up stubborn resistance, many "Algerian" generals of the French army, including Cavaignac, "became famous" for their cruelties in this war.
In 1847, Algeria was conquered and became one of the largest colonies in France.
In the same 1847, a cyclical economic crisis broke out in France, which caused a sharp decline in production, a shock to the entire monetary system and an acute financial crisis (the gold reserves of the French Bank fell from 320 million francs in 1845 to 42 million at the beginning of 1848), huge growth government deficits, a wide wave of bankruptcies. The banquet campaign launched by the opposition swept the whole country: in September-October 1847, about 70 banquets were held with 17 thousand participants.
The country was on the eve of the revolution - the third in a row since the end of the 18th century.
The legislative session of the parliament opened on December 28. It took place in an extremely stormy atmosphere. Domestic and foreign policy was sharply criticized by opposition leaders. However, their demands were rejected, and the next banquet of supporters of the electoral reform, scheduled for February 22, 1848, was prohibited.
Nevertheless, on February 22, thousands of Parisians took to the streets and squares of the city, which became the gathering points for a demonstration banned by the government. Clashes with the police began, the first barricades appeared, and their number grew rapidly. On February 24, all of Paris was covered with barricades, all important strategic points were in the hands of the rebels. Louis-Philippe abdicated in favor of his young grandson, Count of Paris, and fled to England. The Tuileries Palace was captured by the rebels, the royal throne was dragged to the Place de la Bastille and burned.
An attempt was made to preserve the monarchy by establishing the regency of the Duchess of Orleans, mother of the Count of Paris. The Chamber of Deputies defended the regency of the Duchess of Orleans. However, these plans were thwarted by the rebels. They burst into the meeting room of the Chamber of Deputies with exclamations: “No regency, no king! Long live the republic! " The deputies were forced to agree to the election of the Provisional Government. The February revolution was victorious.
The actual head of the Provisional Government was a moderate liberal, a famous French romantic poet A. Lamartin, who took the post of Minister of Foreign Affairs. The composition of the Provisional Government was included as ministers without a portfolio of workers Alexander Albert, a member of secret republican societies, and a popular petty bourgeois socialist Louis Blanc... The provisional government was of a coalition nature.
February 25, 1848 year, the Provisional Government proclaimed France a republic. And a few days later, a decree was issued introducing universal suffrage for men over the age of 21.
The Constituent Assembly opened on 4 May. On November 4, 1948, the Constituent Assembly adopted the constitution of the Second Republic. Legislative power was vested in a unicameral Legislature, elected for 3 years on the basis of universal suffrage for men over the age of 21. The executive power represented by the president, who was elected not by parliament, but by popular vote for 4 years (without the right to re-election) and was endowed with tremendous power: he formed the government, appointed and removed officials, led the armed forces of the state. The President was independent from the Legislative Assembly, but he could not dissolve it and cancel the decisions adopted by the Assembly.
The presidential election was scheduled for December 10, 1848. The nephew of Napoleon I won - Louis Napoleon Bonaparte... He had already tried twice before to seize power in the country.
Louis Napoleon waged a frank struggle to transfer from the presidency to the imperial throne. On December 2, 1851, Louis Napoleon staged a coup d'état. The Legislative Assembly was dissolved, a state of siege was introduced in Paris. All power in the country was transferred into the hands of the president, who was elected for 10 years. As a result of the coup d'état of 1851, a Bonapartist dictatorship was established in France. A year after the usurpation of power by Louis Napoleon, on December 2, 1852, he was proclaimed emperor under the name Napoleon III.
The time of the empire is a chain of wars, aggression, seizures and colonial expeditions of French troops in Africa and Europe, Asia, America, Oceania in order to establish French hegemony in Europe and strengthen its colonial power. Hostilities continued in Algeria. The Algerian question played an increasing role in the life of France. In 1853 it became the colony of New Caledonia. Since 1854, military expansion was carried out in Senegal. French troops, together with the British, fought in China. France actively participated in the "opening" in 1858 of Japan for foreign capital. In 1858, the French invasion of South Vietnam began. The French company began construction of the Suez Canal in 1859 (opened in 1869).
Franco-Prussian War.
The ruling court circles of Napoleon III decided to raise the prestige of the dynasty through a victorious war with Prussia. Under the auspices of Prussia, the unification of the German states took place successfully. On the eastern borders of France, a powerful militaristic state arose - the North German Union, whose ruling circles openly sought to seize the rich and strategically important regions of France - Alsace and Lorraine.
Napoleon III, by the war with Prussia, decided to prevent the final creation of a unified German state. O. Bismarck, Chancellor of the North German Union, prepared intensively for the final stage of German reunification. The saber rattling in Paris only made it easier for Bismarck to implement his plan to create a unified German empire through a war with France. Unlike France, where the Bonapartist commanders made a lot of noise, but cared little about the combat capability of the army, in Berlin they secretly, but purposefully prepared for war, rearmed the army and carefully developed strategic plans for upcoming military operations.
On July 19, 1870, France declared war on Prussia. Napoleon III, starting the war, poorly calculated his forces. “We are ready, we are completely ready,” the French Minister of War assured the members of the Legislative Corps. It was bragging. Disorder and confusion reigned everywhere. The army had no general leadership, there was no definite plan for the conduct of the war. Not only soldiers, but also officers needed the bare essentials. The officers were given 60 francs each so that they could purchase revolvers from merchants. There were not even maps of the theater of military operations in France, since it was assumed that the war would be fought on the territory of Prussia.
From the very first days of the war, the overwhelming superiority of Prussia was revealed. She was ahead of the French in mobilizing troops and concentrating them near the border. The Prussians had almost double the numerical superiority. Their command persistently carried out a pre-developed war plan.
The Prussians almost immediately cut the French army into two parts: one part under the command of Marshal Bazin, retreated to the Metz fortress and was besieged there, the other, under the command of Marshal MacMahon and the emperor himself, was thrown back to Sedan under the onslaught of a large Prussian army. Near Sedan, near the Belgian border, a battle took place on September 2, 1870, which decided the outcome of the war. The Prussian army defeated the French. Three thousand Frenchmen fell in the battle of Sedan. MacMahon's 80,000 army and Napoleon III himself were taken prisoner.
The news of the capture of the emperor rocked Paris. On September 4, crowds of people filled the streets of the capital. At their request, France was proclaimed a republic. Power passed to the Provisional National Defense Government, which represented a broad bloc of political forces in opposition to the empire, from monarchists to radical republicans. In response, Prussia made openly aggressive demands.
The Republicans who came to power considered it dishonorable to accept the Prussian terms. After all, the republic had earned the reputation of a patriotic regime even during the revolution of the end of the 18th century, and the republicans feared that the republic would fall under suspicion of betraying national interests. But the scale of the losses suffered by France in this war did not leave hope for a quick victory. On September 16, Prussian troops appeared in the vicinity of Paris. For a short time, they occupied the entire northeast of France. For some time France remained defenseless against the enemy. The government's efforts to rebuild military capabilities did not bring results until the end of 1870, when the Army of Loire was formed south of Paris.
In a similar situation, the revolutionaries of 1792 called on France for a nationwide war of liberation. But the fear of the threat of the national liberation war growing into a civil war kept the government from taking such a step. It came to the conclusion about the inevitability of the conclusion of peace on the conditions that Prussia proposed, but was expecting a favorable moment for this, but for now imitated national defense.
As soon as it became known of a new attempt by the government to enter into negotiations for peace, an uprising broke out in Paris. On October 31, 1870, National Guard soldiers arrested and held the ministers hostage for several hours until they were rescued by troops loyal to the government.
The government was now more concerned with appeasing the restless Parisians than with national defense. The October 31 uprising thwarted Adolphe Thiers's armistice plan. French troops tried unsuccessfully to break the blockade of Paris. By early 1871, the position of the besieged capital seemed hopeless. The government decided that it was impossible to hesitate further with the conclusion of peace.
On January 18, 1871, in the Hall of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles of the French kings, the Prussian king William I was proclaimed German emperor, and on January 28, an armistice was signed between France and the united Germany. Under its terms, the forts of Paris and the army's stocks of weapons were transferred to the Germans. The final peace was signed in Frankfurt on May 10, 1873. Under its terms, France ceded Alsace and Lorraine to Germany, and also had to pay 5 billion francs in indemnity.
The Parisians were extremely indignant at the conditions of peace, but for all the seriousness of the disagreements with the government, no one in Paris thought of an uprising, much less preparing for it. The uprising was provoked by the actions of the authorities. After the lifting of the blockade, the payment of remuneration to the soldiers of the National Guard was stopped. In the city, whose economy has not yet recovered from the effects of the blockade, thousands of residents were left without a livelihood. The pride of the inhabitants of Paris and the decision of the National Assembly to choose Versailles as its place of residence was offended.
Paris Commune
On March 18, 1871, by order of the government, troops attempted to seize the artillery of the National Guard. The soldiers were stopped by the inhabitants and retreated without a fight. But the guards seized Generals Lecomte and Tom, who commanded the government forces, and shot them on the same day.
Thiers ordered the evacuation of government offices to Versailles.
On March 26, elections were held for the Paris Commune (this is how the city government of Paris was traditionally called). Of the 85 members of the Council of the Commune, most were workers or their recognized representatives.
The commune announced its intention to carry out profound reforms in many areas.
First of all, they took a number of measures to alleviate the plight of low-income residents of Paris. But many of the global plans were not implemented. The main concern of the Commune at that moment was war. In early April, clashes began between the federates, as the fighters of the Commune's armed detachments called themselves against the Versailles troops. The forces were obviously not equal.
The opponents seemed to compete in cruelty and atrocities. The streets of Paris were covered in blood. There was unparalleled vandalism by the Communards during street fighting. In Paris, they deliberately set fire to the city hall, the Palais de Justice, the Tuileries Palace, the Ministry of Finance, the Thiers house. Countless cultural and artistic treasures were destroyed in the fire. The arsonists also attempted the Louvre's treasures.
"Bloody week" on May 21-28 completed the short history of the Commune. On May 28, the last barricade fell on Rue Rampono. The Paris Commune lasted only 72 days. Very few Communards managed to escape the ensuing massacre by leaving France. Among the Communard emigrants there was also a French worker, poet, author of the proletarian anthem "Internationale" - Eugene Potier.
A troubled time began in the history of France, when three dynasties claimed the French throne at once: Bourbons, Orleans, Bonaparte... Though September 4, 1870 of the year as a result of a popular uprising in France, a republic was proclaimed, in the National Assembly the majority belonged to the monarchists, the minority were republicans, among whom there were several trends. There was a "republic without republicans" in the country.
However, the plan to restore the monarchy in France failed. The bulk of the French population was in favor of establishing a republic. The question of determining the political system of France was not resolved for a long time. Only in 1875 year, the National Assembly, by a majority of one vote, adopted an amendment to the basic law, which recognized France as a republic. But even after that, France several times was on the verge of a monarchical coup.
May 24, 1873 an ardent monarchist was elected president of the republic McMahon, on whose name the three monarchist parties that hated each other converged when they were looking for a successor to Thiers. Under the auspices of the president, the intrigues of the monarchists were carried out to restore the monarchy.
In November 1873, McMahon's powers were extended for seven years. V 1875 g. McMahon was a staunch opponent of the republican constitution, which was nevertheless passed by the National Assembly.
The Constitution of the Third Republic was a compromise between monarchists and republicans. Forced to recognize the republic, the monarchists tried to give it a conservative, undemocratic character. Legislative power was transferred to Parliament, which consisted of the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. The Senate was elected for 9 years and was renewed in three years by one third. The age limit for senators was set at 40 years. The Chamber of Deputies was elected for a 4-year term only by men who had reached the age of 21 and had lived for at least 6 months in the given community. Women, military personnel, youth, seasonal workers did not receive voting rights.
Executive power was handed over to the president, who was elected by the National Assembly for a 7-year term. He was given the right to declare war, conclude peace, as well as the right to initiate legislation and appoint to senior civil and military posts. Thus, the power of the president was great.
The first parliamentary elections, held on the basis of the new constitution, brought victory to the Republicans. V 1879 year McMahon is forced to resign. Moderate Republicans came to power. The new president was elected Jules Grevy, and the chairman of the Chamber of Deputies Leon Gambetta.
Jules Grevy is the first French president who was a staunch republican and actively opposed the restoration of the monarchy.
The removal of Marshal McMahon was greeted in the country with a sense of relief. With the election of Jules Grevy, the conviction took root that the republic had entered a period of even, calm and fruitful development. Indeed, the years of Grevy's rule were marked by colossal successes in strengthening the republic. December 28th 1885 Mr. he was re-elected president Third republic... The second period of Jules Grevy's presidency was very short. At the end 1887 g. he was forced to resign the title of President of the Republic under the influence of public outrage caused by revelations about the reprehensible actions of Grevy's son-in-law, Deputy Wilson, who traded the highest state award - the Order of the Legion of Honor. Personally, Grevy was not compromised.
From 1887 to 1894 the president of France was Sadi Carnot.
The seven years of Carnot's presidency figured prominently in the history of the Third Republic. This was the period of consolidation of the republican system. His ultimate failure Boulanger and Boulangism (1888-89) made the republic even more popular in the eyes of the population. The strength of the republic was not in the least shaken even by such unfavorable events as Panama scandals (1892-93) and sharp manifestations anarchism (1893).
During the presidencies of Grevy and Carnot, moderate Republicans held the majority in the House of Deputies. On their initiative, France was actively conquering new colonies. V 1881 year was established a protectorate of France over Tunisia, v 1885 year was secured the right of France to Annam and Tonkin. In 1894, the war for Madagascar began. After two years of bloody war, the island became a French colony. At the same time, France was leading the conquest of West and Central Africa. At the end of the 19th century, French possessions in Africa were 17 times larger than the metropolis itself. France became the second (after England) colonial power in the world.
Colonial wars demanded large sums of money, and taxes increased. The authority of the moderate republicans, who expressed the interests of only the big financial and industrial bourgeoisie, was declining.
This led to the strengthening in the ranks of the Republican Party of the radical left wing, led by Georges Clemenceau (1841-1929).
Georges Clemenceau - the son of a doctor, owner of a small estate, Father Clemenceau and he himself opposed the Second Empire, were persecuted. During the Paris Commune, Georges Clemenceau served as one of the Paris mayors, trying to be an intermediary between the Commune and Versailles. Becoming the leader of the radicals, Clemenceau sharply criticized the domestic and foreign policies of moderate Republicans, sought their resignation, having received the nickname "the overthrower of ministers."
In 1881, the radicals broke away from the Republicans and formed an independent party. They demanded the democratization of the state system, the separation of the church from the state, the introduction of a progressive income tax, and the implementation of social transformations. In the parliamentary elections of 1881, the radicals already spoke independently and won 46 seats. However, the majority in the House of Deputies remained with the moderate Republicans.
The political positions of the monarchists, clerics, moderate republicans increasingly converged on a common anti-democratic platform. This was clearly manifested in connection with the so-called Dreyfus case, around which a sharp political struggle unfolded.
The Dreyfus affair.
In 1884 it was discovered that secret documents of a military nature had been sold to the German military attaché in Paris. This could only be done by one of the officers of the General Staff. Suspicion fell on the captain Alfred Dreyfus, a Jew by nationality. Despite the fact that no serious evidence of his guilt was established, Dreyfus was arrested and put on trial. Anti-Semitic sentiments were strong among French officers, mostly from noble families who were educated in Catholic educational institutions. The Dreyfus affair sparked an explosion of anti-Semitism in the country.
The military commanders did their best to support Dreyfus's espionage charges, and he was found guilty and sentenced to life imprisonment.
The movement unfolding in France to reconsider the Dreyfus case was not limited to the protection of an innocent officer, it turned into a struggle of the forces of democracy against reaction. The Dreyfus affair excited the general public and attracted the attention of the press. Supporters of the revision of the sentence included writers Emile Zola, Anatole France, Octave Mirabeau and others. Zola published an open letter entitled “I blame” addressed to President Forum, who opposed the Dreyfus review. The famous writer accused him of trying to save the real criminal by falsifying evidence. Zola was prosecuted for his speech, and only emigration to England saved him from imprisonment.
Zola's letter excited the whole of France, it was read and discussed everywhere. The country has split into two camps: Dreyfusars and Anti-Dreyfusars.
It was clear to the most far-sighted politicians that it was necessary to end the Dreyfus affair as soon as possible - France was on the brink of civil war. The verdict in the Dreyfus case was revised, he was not acquitted, but then the president pardoned him. The government in this way tried to hide the truth: the innocence of Dreyfus and the name of the real spy - Esterhazy. Only in 1906 was Dreyfus pardoned.
At the turn of the century.
The French people could not forget the national humiliation experienced in connection with the defeat of France in the war with Prussia. The country struggled to heal the wounds inflicted by the war. The original French lands of Alsace and Lorraine were incorporated into the territory of Germany. France badly needed an ally for a future war with Germany. Russia could become such an ally, which, in turn, did not want to remain isolated in the face of the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria, Italy), which had a clearly anti-Russian orientation. V 1892 a military convention was signed between France and Russia, and in 1893 a military alliance was concluded.
From 1895 to 1899 President of the Third Republic was Felix Fore.
He introduced in the Elysee Palace the etiquette of almost royal courts, unusual until then in France, and demanded strict adherence to it; he considered himself unworthy to appear at various celebrations next to the prime minister or presidents of the chambers, everywhere trying to emphasize his special importance as head of state.
These features began to manifest themselves especially sharply after the visit to Paris by Emperor Nicholas II and Empress in 1896. This visit was the result of the rapprochement between France and Russia, on which governments worked before and under Faure; he himself was an active advocate of rapprochement. In 1897, the Russian imperial couple paid a second visit.
Industrialization took place in France more slowly than in Germany, the USA, and England. If in terms of concentration of production France lagged significantly behind other capitalist countries, then in terms of concentration of banks it was ahead of others and took first place.
Since the beginning of the 20th century, there has been a general leftward movement in the mood of the French. This was clearly manifested during the parliamentary elections in 1902, when the left parties - socialists and radicals - won the majority of votes. After the elections, the radicals became the masters of the country. The radical government of Komba (1902-1905) launched an attack on the Catholic Church. The government ordered the closure of schools run by priests. The clergy resisted fiercely. Several thousand schools of religious orders were turned into fortresses. The unrest in Brittany was especially strong. But “Papa Komba,” as the new prime minister was called, stubbornly pursued his line. The matter reached the point of breaking off diplomatic relations with the Vatican. Friction intensified with the top army leadership, dissatisfied with the government's attempts to carry out army reform. At the end of 1904, information was leaked to the press that the government was keeping a secret dossier on the highest military ranks. A loud scandal erupted, as a result of which the Komba government was forced to resign.
In 1904, France entered into an agreement with England. Creation of the Anglo-French Union - The Entente- was an event of international importance.
In December 1905, the cabinet of the right-wing radical Rouvier, which replaced Combe's cabinet, passed a law separating church and state. At the same time, the property of the church was not confiscated, and the clergy received the right to state pensions.
By the middle of the first decade of the 20th century, France ranked first in Europe in terms of the number of strikers. The strike of miners in the spring of 1906 caused a great resonance. It was caused by one of the largest mine disasters in French history, which killed 1200 miners. There is a threat of escalation of traditional labor conflicts into street clashes.
The party of radicals took advantage of this, which sought to present itself as the wisest political force, capable of simultaneously carrying out the necessary reforms and ready to manifest cruelty in order to preserve civil peace.
In the parliamentary elections in 1906, the party of the Radicals became even stronger. Georges Clemenceau (1906-1909) became the head of the Council of Ministers. The figure is bright, extraordinary, he initially tried to emphasize that it was his government that would begin to really carry out work on reforming society. It turned out to be much easier to declare this idea than to implement it. True, one of the first steps of the new government was the re-establishment of the Ministry of Labor, the leadership of which was entrusted to the "independent socialist" Viviani. This, however, did not solve the problem of stabilizing labor relations. Throughout the country, acute labor conflicts periodically flared up, more than once escalating into open clashes with the forces of law and order. Unable to cope with the task of normalizing the social situation, Clemenceau resigned in 1909.
The new government was headed by “the independent socialist A. Briand. He passed the law on workers 'and peasants' pensions from the age of 65, but this did not strengthen the position of his government.
A certain instability was observed in the political life of France: none of the parties represented in parliament could single-handedly carry out its political line. Hence the constant search for allies, the formation of various party combinations, which disintegrated at the very first test of strength. This situation continued until 1913, when Raymond Poincaré, marching towards success under the slogan of creating "a great and strong France." He clearly strove to shift the center of political struggle from social problems to foreign policy issues and thus consolidate society.
World War I.
V 191 3 year was elected President of France Raymond Poincaré... Preparing for war has become the main task of the new president. France wanted in this war to return Alsace and Lorraine, taken from her by Germany in 1871, and seize the Saar Basin. The last months before the outbreak of the First World War were filled with an acute internal political struggle, and only France's entry into the war removed from the agenda the question of which course it should take.
World War I began on July 28, 1914. France entered the war on August 3. The German command planned to defeat France as soon as possible, and only then focus on the fight against Russia. German troops launched massive offensives in the West. In the so-called "border battle" they broke through the front and launched an offensive deep into France. In September 1914, a grandiose battle on the marne, on the outcome of which the fate of the entire campaign on the Western Front depended. In the fiercest battles, the Germans were stopped and then driven back from Paris. The plan for a swift defeat of the French army failed. The war on the Western Front became protracted.
In February 1916 the German command launched the largest-scale offensive operation, trying to capture the strategically important French fortress Verdun... However, despite colossal efforts and huge losses, German troops were never able to take Verdun. The Anglo-French command tried to use the current situation, which undertook a major offensive in the summer of 1916. Somme operation, where they first tried to seize the initiative from the Germans.
However, in April 1917, when the United States entered the war on the side of the Entente, the situation became more favorable for Germany's opponents. The involvement of the United States in the military efforts of the Entente guaranteed that troops a reliable advantage in terms of material and technical supplies. Realizing that time was working against them, the Germans in March-July 1918 made several desperate attempts to bring about a turning point in the course of hostilities on the Western Front. At the cost of huge losses that completely depleted the German army, she managed to approach Paris at a distance of about 70 km.
On July 18, 1918, the Allies launched a powerful counteroffensive. November 11, 1918 Germany surrendered. Peace treaty was signed at the Palace of Versailles June 28, 1919... Under the terms of the treaty, France received Alsace, Lorraine, Saar coal basin.
Interwar period.
France was at the height of its power. She completely defeated her mortal enemy, she had no serious opponents on the continent, and in those days hardly anyone could have imagined that after just over two decades the Third Republic would collapse like a house of cards. What happened, why France not only failed to consolidate its very real success, but as a result suffered the largest national catastrophe in the history of France?
Yes, France won a victory in the war, but this success cost the French people dearly. Every fifth inhabitant of the country (8.5 million people) was mobilized into the army, 1 million 300 thousand French were killed, 2.8 million people were injured, of which 600 thousand were disabled.
A third of France, where the fighting took place, was seriously destroyed, and it was there that the main industrial potential of the country was concentrated. The franc has depreciated 5 times, and France itself owes the United States a huge amount - more than $ 4 billion.
There was a fierce debate in society between a wide range of left-wing forces and the nationalists in power, led by Premier Clemenceau, about how and by what means to solve numerous internal problems. The socialists believed that it was necessary to move towards building a more just society, only in this case all the sacrifices that were brought on the altar of victory would be justified. To do this, it is necessary to more evenly distribute the hardships of the recovery period, alleviate the situation of the poor, take control of the state key sectors of the economy so that they work for the whole of society, and not for the enrichment of a narrow clan of the financial oligarchy.
Nationalists of the most varied colors were united by a common idea - Germany must pay for everything! The implementation of this directive does not require reforms, which will inevitably split society, but its consolidation around the idea of a strong France.
In January 1922, the government was headed by Raymond Poincaré, who even before the war had established himself as a fierce enemy of Germany. Poincare said that the main task of the current moment is to collect reparations from Germany in full. However, it was impossible to put this slogan into practice. Poincaré himself became convinced of this a few months later. Then, after some hesitation, he decided to occupy the Ruhr region, which was done in January 1923.
However, the consequences of this step turned out to be very different from what Pankare expected. There was no money coming from Germany - they got used to it, but now coal also stopped coming, which hurt French industry. Inflation has intensified. Under pressure from the United States and Britain, France was forced to withdraw its troops from Germany. The failure of this adventure caused a regrouping of political forces in France.
Parliamentary elections in May 1924 brought success to the Left Bloc. The leader of the radicals became the head of government E. Errio... First of all, he sharply changed the country's foreign policy. France established diplomatic relations with the USSR and began to establish contacts with the country in various fields. But the implementation of the internal political program of the Left Bloc provoked active resistance from conservative forces. An attempt to introduce a progressive income tax was failed, which threatened the entire financial policy of the government. The largest banks in France also entered into confrontation with the prime minister. In the most radical party, he had many opponents. As a result, on April 10, 1925, the Senate condemned the government's financial policy. Herriot resigned.
This was followed by a period of government leapfrog - five governments were replaced in a year. Under such conditions, the implementation of the Left Bloc's program turned out to be impossible. In the summer of 1926, the Left Bloc disintegrated.
The new "government of national unity", which included both representatives of the right-wing parties and radicals, was headed by Raymond Poincaré.
Poincaré declared the fight against inflation as his main task.
Government spending was noticeably reduced by reducing the bureaucratic apparatus, new taxes were introduced and at the same time large benefits were provided to entrepreneurs. From 1926 to 1929 France had a deficit-free budget. The Poincare government managed to bring down inflation, stabilize the franc, and stop the rise in the cost of living. The social activity of the state intensified, benefits for the unemployed were introduced (1926), old-age pensions, as well as benefits for sickness, disability, pregnancy (1928). Not surprisingly, the prestige of Poincaré and the parties supporting him has grown.
In such a situation, the next parliamentary elections were held in 1928. As expected, the right-wing parties won the majority of the seats in the new parliament. The successes of the right were largely based on Poincaré's personal prestige, but in the summer of 1929 he fell seriously ill and was forced to leave his post and politics in general.
The third republic was again seriously feverish: from 1929 to 1932. 8 governments were replaced. All were dominated by right-wing parties, which had new leaders - A. Tardieu and P. Laval. However, none of these governments could stop the slide of the French economy downhill.
In such an environment, France approached the next parliamentary elections in May 1932, which was won by the newly re-established Left Bloc. The government was headed by E. Errio. He immediately faced a complex of problems generated by the world economic crisis... Every day the budget deficit increased, and the government faced the question more and more acutely: where to get the money? Herriot was against the plans of the nationalization of a number of industries and the introduction of additional taxes on big business, advocated by the communists and socialists. In December 1932, the Chamber of Deputies withdrew his proposal to continue paying war debts. Herriot's government fell, and the ministerial leapfrog began again, from which France was not only seriously tired, but also seriously suffered.
The positions of those political forces began to strengthen in the country, which believed that democratic institutions had exhausted their capabilities and should be abandoned. In France, these ideas were promoted by a number of pro-fascist organizations, the largest of which were "Action Francaise" and "Battle Crosses". The influence of these organizations among the masses grew rapidly; they had many adherents in the ruling elite, in the army, and in the police. As the crisis intensified, they declared louder and more decisively about the incapacity of the Third Republic and about their readiness to take power.
By the end of January 1932, the fascist organizations achieved the resignation of the government of K. Shotan. However, the government was headed by the hated socialist radical E. Daladier. One of his first steps was to dismiss Chiappa police prefect, known for his fascist sympathies.
The patience of the latter came to an end. On February 6, 1934, more than 40 thousand fascist activists marched to storm the Bourbon Palace, where parliament sat, intending to disperse it. Clashes began with the police, during which 17 people were killed and more than 2 thousand injured. They could not capture the palace, but the government they disliked fell. Daladier was replaced by the right-wing radical G. Doumergue. There was a serious shift of forces in favor of the right. The threat of the establishment of a fascist regime really looms over the country.
All this forced the anti-fascist forces, forgetting about their differences, to fight against the fascisation of the country. July 1935 year arose Popular Front, which included communists, socialists, radicals, trade unions and a number of anti-fascist organizations of the French intelligentsia. A test of the effectiveness of the new association was the parliamentary elections held in the spring of 1936 - the Popular Front candidates received 57% of all votes. The formation of the government was entrusted to the leader of the parliamentary faction of socialists L. Blum. Under his chairmanship, negotiations began between trade union representatives and the General Confederation of Employers. Under the terms of the agreements reached, wages increased by an average of 7-15%, collective agreements became binding on all enterprises where it was demanded by trade unions, and, finally, the government pledged to introduce a number of laws on the social protection of workers to parliament.
In the summer of 1936, parliament with unprecedented speed passed 133 laws that embodied the main provisions of the Popular Front. Among the most important are the law banning the activities of fascist leagues, as well as a series of socio-economic legislation: on a 40-hour working week, on paid vacations, on an increase in the minimum wage, on the organization of public works, on the deferral of payments on debt obligations for small entrepreneurs and about their preferential lending, about the creation of the National Grain Bureau for the purchase of grain from peasants at fixed prices.
In 1937, a tax reform was carried out and additional loans were allocated for the development of science, education, and culture. The French Bank was put under state control, the National Society was created railways with mixed capital, in which 51% of the shares belonged to the state, and, finally, a number of military factories were nationalized.
These measures have significantly increased the state budget deficit. Large entrepreneurs sabotaged tax payments and transferred capital abroad. The total amount of capital withdrawn from the French economy was, according to some estimates, 60 billion francs.
By law, only the militarized were prohibited, but not political organizations fascist. Supporters of the fascist idea immediately took advantage of this. "Battle Crosses" were renamed into the French Social Party, "Patriotic Youth" began to be called the Republican National and Social Party, and so on.
Using democratic freedoms, the pro-fascist press launched a campaign of persecution against the Minister of the Interior, the socialist Salangro, who was driven to suicide.
In the summer of 1937, Blum presented to parliament a "financial recovery plan" that would increase indirect taxes, taxes on corporate income and introduce government control over foreign exchange transactions.
After the Senate rejected the plan, Blum decided to resign.
The right-wingers managed to establish in the public consciousness the idea that the deterioration of the situation in the country is directly related to the "irresponsible social experiments" of the Popular Front. The rightists argued that the Popular Front was preparing for the "Bolshevization" of France. Only a sharp turn to the right, a reorientation towards Germany, can save the country from this, the rightists argued. Right-wing leader P. Laval said: "Better Hitler than the Popular Front." This slogan was adopted in 1938 by most of the political establishment of the Third Republic. In the end, it killed her.
In the fall of 1938, the Daladier government, together with England, sanctioned the Munich Agreement, which gave Czechoslovakia to be torn apart by Nazi Germany. Anti-communist sentiments outweighed even the traditional fear of Germany in the eyes of a significant part of French society. In essence, the Munich Agreement opened the way for unleashing a new world war.
One of the first victims of this war was the Third Republic itself. June 14, 1940 German troops entered Paris. Today we can safely say: the path of the German army to Paris began in Munich. The Third Republic paid a terrible price for the short-sighted policies of its leaders.
The insight came too late. Hitler had already completed preparations for a decisive strike on the Western Front. On May 10, 1940, the Germans, bypassing the Maginot defensive line built along the Franco-German border, invaded Belgium and Holland, and from there into Northern France. On the very first day of the offensive, German aviation bombarded the most important airfields on the territory of these countries. The main forces of the French aviation were destroyed. In the Dunkirk area, the 400,000-strong Anglo-French group was surrounded. Only with great difficulty and huge losses was it possible to evacuate its remnants to England. The Germans, meanwhile, were rapidly advancing towards Paris. On June 10, the government fled from Paris to Bordeaux. Paris, declared an "open city", was occupied by the Germans on June 14 without a fight. A few days later, the government was headed Marshal Pétain, who immediately turned to Germany with a request for peace.
Only a few representatives of the bourgeoisie and senior officers opposed the capitulatory policy of the government. Among them was General Charles de Gaulle, who was negotiating military cooperation with Britain at that time in London. In response to his radio address to French servicemen outside the metropolis, many patriots united in the Free France movement to fight for the national revival of their homeland.
June 22, 1940 in the Compiegne forest the act of surrender of France was signed. In order to humiliate France, the Nazis forced her delegates to sign this act in the same carriage in which in November 1918 Marshal Foch dictated the terms of the armistice to the German delegation. The third republic fell.
Under the terms of the armistice, Germany occupied 2/3 of the territory of France, including Paris. The southern part of France remained formally independent. The small town of Vichy was chosen as the seat of the government of Pétain, which began to closely cooperate with Germany.
The question arises: why did Hitler decide to at least formally retain a part of France's sovereignty? There was a very pragmatic calculation behind this.
First, in this way he avoided raising the question of the fate of the French colonial empire and the French navy. In the event of the complete elimination of French independence, the Germans would hardly have been able to prevent the sailors from leaving for England and would certainly not have been able to prevent the transfer of the huge French colonial empire and the troops located there under British control.
And so the French Marshal Pétain categorically forbade the fleet and colonial troops to leave their bases.
In addition, the presence of a formally independent France hampered the development of Resistance movement that in the conditions of Hitler's preparation for the jump across the English Channel was very relevant for him.
Petain was proclaimed the sole head of the French state. The French authorities pledged to supply Germany with raw materials, food and labor. The economy of the entire country was brought under German control. The French armed forces were subject to disarmament and demobilization. The Nazis got a huge amount of weapons and military materials.
Hitler later ordered the occupation of southern France, after the French colonial army, at its core, contrary to Pétain's orders, went over to the side of the Allies.
The Resistance movement unfolded on the territory of France. On August 19, 1944, French patriots revolted in Paris. When the allied forces approached Paris on August 25, most of the city had already been liberated.
Four years of occupation, aerial bombardment and hostilities caused great damage to France. The economic situation in the country was extremely difficult. The government was headed by General Charles de Gaulle, whom most of the French considered a national hero. One of the most important demands of the majority of the French was to punish the traitor collaborators. Laval was shot, but Petain's death sentence was commuted to life imprisonment, and many lower-ranking traitors eluded retribution.
In October 1945, elections were held to the Constituent Assembly, which was to draft a new constitution. They brought victory to the left forces: the PCF (French Communist Party) received the largest number of votes, the SFIO (French Socialist Party) was slightly inferior to it.
The government is again headed de Gaulle, became his deputy Maurice Torez... The communists also received portfolios of ministers of economy, industrial production, weapons and labor. On the initiative of the communist ministers in 1944-1945. power plants, gas factories, coal mines, aviation and insurance companies, the largest banks, Renault car factories were nationalized. The owners of these factories received a large material reward, with the exception of Louis Renault, who collaborated with the Nazis, who committed suicide. But while Paris was starving, three quarters of the population was malnourished.
A sharp struggle unfolded in the Constituent Assembly over the nature of the future state system. De Gaulle insisted on concentrating power in the hands of the president of the republic and reducing the prerogatives of parliament; bourgeois parties advocated a simple restoration of the 1875 constitution; the communists believed that the new republic should be truly democratic, with a sovereign parliament that expresses the will of the people.
Convinced that with the existing composition of the Constituent Assembly, the adoption of its constitutional draft was impossible, de Gaulle resigned in January 1946. A new three-party government was formed.
After an intense struggle (the first draft of the constitution was rejected in a referendum), the Constituent Assembly developed a second draft, which was approved by popular vote, and the constitution came into force at the end of 1946. France was declared "a single and indivisible secular democratic and social republic" in which sovereignty belonged to the people.
The preamble contained a number of progressive provisions on the equality of women, on the right of persons persecuted in their homeland for their activities in defense of freedom, to political asylum in France, on the right of all citizens to get work and material security in old age. The Constitution proclaimed the obligation not to wage wars of conquest and not to use force against the freedom of any people, declared the need to nationalize key industries, planning the economy, and participation of workers in the management of enterprises.
Legislative power belonged to the parliament, which consisted of two chambers - the National Assembly and the Council of the Republic. The right to approve the budget, declare war, conclude peace, express confidence or distrust in the government was given to the National Assembly, and the Council of the Republic could only postpone the entry into force of the law.
The President of the Republic was elected for 7 years by both chambers. The president appoints one of the leaders of the party with the largest number of seats in parliament as head of government. The composition and program of the government are approved by the National Assembly.
The Constitution declared the transformation of the French colonial empire into the French Union and proclaimed the equality of all territories included in it.
The Constitution of the Fourth Republic was progressive, its adoption meant the victory of the democratic forces. However, in the future, many of the freedoms and obligations proclaimed in it turned out to be unfulfilled or were violated.
V 1946 year began war in Indochina which lasted almost eight years. The French rightfully dubbed the Vietnam War "the dirty war." A movement of supporters of peace developed, which took on a particularly wide scale in France. Workers refused to load weapons to be sent to Vietnam, and 14 million French people signed up to the Stockholm Appeal demanding the prohibition of atomic weapons.
V 1949 year France joined NATO.
May 1954 France suffered a crushing defeat during Vietnam: surrounded in the area of Dien Bien Phu, the French garrison capitulated. 6 thousand soldiers and officers surrendered. On July 20, 1954, agreements were signed to restore peace in Indochina. The "dirty war" on which France spent an astronomical sum of 3,000 billion francs, having lost several tens of thousands of lives, is over. France also pledged to withdraw its troops from Laos and Cambodia.
On November 1, 1954, France launched a new colonial war - this time against Algeria. Algerians have repeatedly appealed to the French government with a request to grant Algeria at least autonomy, but they invariably received a refusal under the pretext that Algeria was allegedly not a colony, but an organic part of France, its "overseas departments", and therefore could not claim autonomy. Since peaceful methods did not give results, the Algerians rose to an armed struggle.
The uprising grew and soon covered the whole country, the French government was unable to suppress it. Violent rallies and demonstrations that unfolded in Algeria spread to Corsica, the metropolis was under the threat of a civil war or a military coup. June 1, 1958 the National Assembly elected Charles de Gaulle head of government and gave him emergency powers.
De Gaulle began with what he failed to achieve in 1946 - the proclamation of a constitution that would correspond to his political views. The president of the republic gained tremendous power by reducing the prerogatives of parliament. Thus, the president determines the main directions of the country's domestic and foreign policy, is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, appoints to all top positions, starting with the prime minister, can early dissolve the National Assembly and delay the entry into force of laws adopted by parliament. In extraordinary circumstances, the president has the right to take full power into his hands.
Parliament still consists of two chambers - the National Assembly, elected by universal suffrage, and the Senate, which replaced the Council of the Republic. The role of the National Assembly has been greatly reduced: the agenda of its sessions is set by the government, their duration is reduced, and when discussing the budget, deputies cannot make proposals that would reduce revenues or increase government spending.
The expression of no confidence in the government by the National Assembly is hampered by a number of restrictions. The deputy mandate is incompatible with responsible posts in the government, state apparatus, trade unions and other national organizations.
In a referendum held on September 28, 1958, this constitution was adopted. The Fourth Republic was replaced by the Fifth. Most of the participants in the referendum voted not for the constitution, which many did not even read, but for de Gaulle, hoping that he would be able to revive the greatness of France, end the war in Algeria, government leapfrog, financial crisis, dependence on the United States and parliamentary intrigues.
After MPs and a special electoral college were elected president in December 1958 Fifth Republic General de Gaulle, the process of constitution of the Fifth Republic is over.
The pro-fascist elements hoped that de Gaulle would ban the Communist Party, establish a totalitarian regime and, unleashing the military might of France on the Algerian rebels, achieve their pacification on the basis of the slogan: "Algeria was and always will be French!"
However, possessing the qualities of a large-scale political figure and taking into account the existing balance of power, the president chose a different political course and, in particular, did not go to ban the Communist Party. De Gaulle hoped that he would be able to win over all the French to his side.
The Algerian policy of the Fifth Republic went through several stages. At first, the new government tried to achieve a solution to the Algerian problem from a position of strength, but soon became convinced that these attempts would lead nowhere. Algerian resistance is only growing, French troops are suffering defeat after defeat, the campaign for independence for Algeria is growing in the metropolis, and in the international arena, a broad movement of solidarity with the struggle of the Algerian people entails the isolation of France. Since the continuation of the war could only lead to the complete loss of Algeria, and with it the oil, the French monopolies began to advocate the search for an acceptable compromise. A reflection of this turn was the recognition by de Gaulle of the right of Algeria to self-determination, which gave rise to a number of speeches and terrorist acts on the part of ultra-colonists.
And yet, on March 18, 1962, an agreement was signed in the city of Evian to grant independence to Algeria. In order to avoid new wars, the French government had to grant independence to a number of states in Equatorial and West Africa.
In the fall of 1962, de Gaulle put forward to a referendum a proposal to change the procedure for electing the president of the republic. According to this bill, the president would henceforth be elected not by the electoral college, but by universal suffrage. The reform was intended to further understand the authority of the president of the republic and eliminate the last remnants of his dependence on parliament, whose deputies until then had participated in his election.
De Gaulle's proposal was opposed by many parties that had previously supported him. The National Assembly expressed its lack of confidence in the government, which was headed by one of the president's closest associates, Georges Pompidou. In response, de Gaulle dissolved the meeting and called new elections, threatening to resign if his project was rejected.
The referendum supported the president's proposal After the elections, the majority in the National Assembly was retained by the supporters of General de Gaulle. The government was again headed by Georges Pompidou.
In December 1965, elections were held for the president of the republic, who was elected for the first time by universal suffrage. The left-wing forces managed to agree on the nomination of a common candidate. It was the leader of a small left-bourgeois party, François Mitterrand, a member of the Resistance movement, one of the few non-communists who opposed the regime of personal power. In the second round of voting, General de Gaulle, 75, was re-elected as president of the republic for the next seven years by a majority of 55% of the votes, 45% of voters voted for Mitterrand.
In the field of foreign policy, General de Gaulle sought to ensure the growing role of France in modern world, its transformation into an independent great power, capable of withstanding the competition of other powers in world markets. For this, de Gaulle considered it necessary, first of all, to free himself from American tutelage and to unite continental Western Europe under French hegemony, opposing it to the United States.
At first, he staked on cooperation between France and Germany within the framework of the European Economic Community (EEC, Common Market), hoping that in exchange for political support from France, West Germany would agree to give her a leading role in this organization. It was on this perspective that the rapprochement between France and the FRG, which began in 1958 and was called the Bonn-Paris "axis", was based.
Soon, however, it became obvious that the FRG was not going to cede the first violin in the EEC to France and prefers not to spoil relations with the United States, considering their support more significant than from France. The contradictions between the countries intensified. Thus, the FRG advocated the admission of England to the EEC, and de Gaulle vetoed this decision, calling England the "Trojan horse of the United States" (January 1963). There were other contradictions that led to the gradual weakening of the Bonn-Paris axis. Franco-German "friendship", as de Gaulle put it, "faded like a rose," and he began to look for other ways to strengthen France's foreign policy positions. These new paths were expressed in rapprochement with the countries of Eastern Europe, above all with the Soviet Union, and in supporting the course of easing international tension, which de Gaulle had previously disapproved of.
In February 1966, de Gaulle decided to withdraw France from the military organization of the North Atlantic bloc. This meant the withdrawal of French troops from NATO command, the evacuation from French territory of all foreign troops, NATO headquarters, warehouses, air bases, etc., refusal to finance NATO military activities. By April 1, 1967, all these measures were implemented, despite protests and pressure from the United States, France remained only a member of the political union.
In the internal life of the country, contradictions were brewing for many years, which resulted in May-June 1968 in one of the most massive popular movements in the entire history of the country.
The first to speak were students demanding a radical restructuring of the higher education system. The fact is that during the 1950s and 1960s there was a rapid growth in the number of students, but higher education turned out to be unprepared for such an increase. There was a shortage of teachers, classrooms, dormitories, libraries, funds for higher education were scanty, only a fifth of the students received scholarships, so about half of university students were forced to work.
The teaching system has hardly changed since the 19th century - often professors read not what life and the level of science demanded, but what they knew.
On May 3, 1968, the police summoned by the rector of the Sorbonne broke up a student rally and arrested a large group of its participants. In response, the students went on strike. On May 7, a massive demonstration demanding the immediate release of those arrested, the removal of the police from the university and the resumption of classes was attacked by large police forces - on that day more than 800 people were injured and about 500 were arrested. The Sorbonne was closed, in protest, students began to erect barricades in the Latin Quarter. On May 11, there was a new skirmish with the police. Students barricaded themselves in the university building.
The massacre of students sparked outrage throughout the country. On May 13, a general strike of solidarity with the student movement began. From that day on, although student unrest continued for a long time, the initiative of the movement passed into the hands of the workers. The one-day strike developed into a long strike lasting almost four weeks that spread throughout the country. Solidarity with the students was only a pretext for the action of the workers, who had long-standing and much more serious grievances against the regime. The strike movement included engineers, technicians, office workers; radio and television workers, employees of some ministries, department store sellers, communications workers, and bank officials were on strike. The total number of strikers has reached 10 million.
As a result, by mid-June, the strikers had achieved almost all of their demands: the minimum wage was doubled, the working week was reduced, benefits and pensions were increased, collective agreements with employers were revised in the interests of workers, the rights of trade unions at enterprises were recognized, and student self-government was introduced. in higher educational institutions, etc.
Contrary to the hopes of the government and businessmen, the 1968 concessions did not diminish the class struggle. From May 1968 to March 1969, the cost of living increased by 6%, which greatly depreciated the gains of the working people. In this regard, workers continued to fight for tax cuts, wage increases, and the introduction of a flexible wage scale that would automatically increase as prices rose. On March 11, 1969, a mass general strike took place, and anti-government demonstrations took place in Paris and other cities.
In this situation, Chal de Gaulle called for a referendum on April 27 on two bills - on the reform of the administrative structure of France and the reorganization of the Senate. The government had the opportunity to put them into effect without a referendum, through a parliamentary majority obedient to his will, but de Gaulle decided to test the strength of his power, threatening that in the event of a negative outcome of the referendum, he would resign.
As a result, 52.4% of the referendum participants spoke out against the draft laws. On the same day, General Charles de Gaulle resigned, no longer took any part in political life, and on November 9, 1970, he died at the age of 80.
General de Gaulle was undoubtedly an outstanding political figure and had many services to France. He played an important role in the fight against fascism during the Second World War, contributed to the revival of France in the first post-war years, and after his second coming to power in 1958, he strengthened the country's independence and increased its international prestige.
But over the years the number of the French supporting him steadily fell, de Gaulle could not come to terms with this. He understood that the results of the April 1969 referendum were a direct consequence of the May-June events of 1968, and he had the courage to step down as President of the French Republic, in which he had the right to remain until December 1972.
The election of a new president was set for July 1. During the second round, won Georges Pompidou, candidate from the parties of the government coalition.
The new president of the republic basically kept de Gaulle's course. Foreign policy has hardly changed. Pompidou rejected US attempts to return France to NATO and actively opposed many aspects of American policy. However, Pompidou removed his objections to the admission of England to the Common Market.
In April 1974, the president of the republic, Georges Pompidou, suddenly died, and early presidential elections were held in May. The leader of the government party "Federation of Independent Republicans" won the second round Valerie Giscard d'Estaing... This was the first non-Gaullist president of the Fifth Republic, but since the majority in the National Assembly belonged to the Gaullists, he had to appoint a representative of this party as prime minister. Jacques Chirac.
Valerie Giscard d'Estaing's reforms include: lowering the voting age to 18, decentralizing radio and television management, raising pensions for the elderly, and easing the divorce procedure.
In relation to the United States, the President insistently emphasized that France is a reliable ally of the United States. France stopped opposing the prospect of political unification of Western Europe, agreed to participate in the 1978 elections to the European Parliament, giving it supranational prerogatives. For the sake of rapprochement with the FRG, it was decided to abandon the celebration of Victory Day over Nazi Germany, which caused violent public protests. However, this decision did not weaken the Franco-German contradictions.
The ancestors of the modern French people were the Germanic tribes of the Franks, who lived on the banks of the Rhine in the 3rd century. However, the history of the French territory began much earlier, in the prehistoric period. Studies have shown that Pithecanthropus inhabited the lands of Gaul about 1 million years ago. Over time they were replaced homo sapiens, that is, the ancestors of modern man. There is practically no information about this period.
The Celtic period in France began around the 10th century BC. and stretched over several centuries. In the II century BC. the Roman era began. Since the Romans called the Celts Gauls, the country began to be called Gaul. Gaul covered vast territories, from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea. With the arrival of the Romans, the Latin language and the Roman way of life entered into use, but the Celtic culture and art survived.
In the middle of the 5th century, the power of the Roman governors weakened, the Early Middle Ages began. During this period, France split into dozens of small kingdoms. In the Rhine region, the Burgundians ruled, in the north - the Franks, in the east the dominion of Rome was still preserved. Unity in the country was achieved only under Charles I. This ruler was called the Great during his lifetime. V 800 year he was elected emperor of the Roman Empire. Unfortunately, after his death, his descendants began to fight for the inheritance, which greatly weakened Western Europe.
From the XII century, the Late Middle Ages began - a controversial era for the French people. On the one hand, it was the heyday of art, poetry, architecture, and on the other, there were serious crises. So, in the XIV century, plague epidemics broke out everywhere, the Hundred Years War with England began. However, the strife in the country after this war did not end. During the reign of the Valois dynasty, clashes began between Catholics and Huguenots, ending on St. Bartholomew's Night August 24, 1572... On this night, about 30 thousand people died in the massacre of the Huguenots.
After Valois, the Bourbons came to power. The first king of this dynasty was Henry IV (1589-1610). During his reign, a law on religious tolerance was passed. Cardinal Richelieu, who had de facto power during the time of Louis XIII, did a lot for the good of the country. He managed to raise the prestige of France in Europe. The following rulers significantly weakened the country's economy with wars and thoughtless amusements. As a result, a revolution began in the country, the result of which was a coup 1799 of the year. From this moment began the period of Napoleon's reign. After several successful and then failed military campaigns, he was overthrown.
WITH 1814 year began a period of restoration of the monarchy. First, Louis XVIII came to power, then Charles X, and after him Louis-Philippe of Orleans. In the middle of the 19th century, another revolution took place, after which power passed to the Provisional Government. Such a change of rulers took place until France received the status of a republic for the fifth time and appointed General de Gaulle as president. (1959-1969). It was he who was involved in liberating the country from the German occupiers and restoring the economic balance.
The section consists of separate essays:
History of France
Ancient France (1,800,000 - 2090 BC)
The first inhabitants on the territory of France appeared a little over a million years ago. A number of Neolithic settlements have been found in France. Here was one of the centers of the Cro-Magnon formation. Preserved remarkable monuments of primitive culture - Lascaux cave, Cro-Magnon grotto, etc.Gaul and the Roman Conquest (1200 BC - 379 AD)
In the middle 1 millennium BC NS. the expanses of France, as well as neighboring countries, were settled by the tribes of the Celts, who are better known to us by their Roman name - the Gauls. Ancient Gaul, located between the Rhine, Mediterranean Sea, Alps, Pyrenees and Atlantic Ocean, by the time of its conquest by the Romans, it was distinguished by a certain unity: the Celtic conquerors, merged with the local population, passed on their language and way of life to it. At the same time, the population of Gaul was divided into many independent tribes, there was no unity necessary to resist the Roman conquerors. The Celts founded the cities of Lutetia (Paris), Burdigala (Bordeaux).Conquest of Gaul by the Romans, which was preceded by the Greek colonization of the southern territories of France (near Marseille), took place in two stages: the first - the foundation in the 1st century. BC. the province of Narbonnese, the second - the campaigns of conquest by Julius Caesar (between 58 and 50 BC). Over the next century and a half, the entire territory of present-day France gradually passed to the Romans. The last area conquered by the Romans in 57 BC was Brittany. During the same period, the Latin language and the Roman way of life spread in all social classes. Only art and religion have preserved the remnants of the ancient Celtic civilization.
V late I-II centuries large cities grow here: Narbo-Martius (Narbonne), Lugdunum (Lyon), Nemauzus (Nimes), Arelat (Arles), Burdigala (Bordeaux), agriculture, metallurgy, ceramic and textile production, foreign and domestic trade reach a high level.
When, under Diocletian and Constantine, the Great Empire was divided into four prefectures, with divisions into dioceses and provinces, Gaul formed one of the three dioceses of the Gallic prefecture and was divided into 17 provinces. This device was preserved until the Great Migration.
V 5 c. settled on the territory of Gaul: on the left bank of the Rhine - Franks and Alemanni, of which the first quickly conquered all of northern Gaul and subdued the Alemanni (496); along the Rhone and Seine - the Burgundians, whose state in the middle of the 6th century. was also conquered by the Franks; in the southwestern part of Gaul - the Visigoths, ousted from there by the Franks at the beginning of the 6th century. Thus, in the 5-6 centuries. Gaul became part of the extensive Frankish monarchy, of which in the middle of the 9th century. medieval France stood out.
Frankish kingdom (486-987)
Francs- a group of West Germanic tribes united in a tribal union, first mentioned in the middle of the 3rd century. The beginning of the formation of the Frankish state was the conquest in 486 BC in the battle of Soissons, the Salic Franks (a group of Frankish tribes living along the Baltic Sea coast) led by Clovis 1(c. 466-27 November 511) the last part of the Gallo-Roman possessions (between the Seine and Loire rivers). From the name Clovis, meaning "glorified in battle", the name Louis was later formed. According to legend, Clovis was the grandson of the semi-mythical king Merovey, after whom the dynasty was named Merovingian.OK. 498 BC Clovis influenced by his wife and St. Genevieve converts to Catholicism at the Reims Cathedral, along with 3 thousand Frankish soldiers. From that moment on, Clovis acquired the support of the clergy and power over the Gallo-Roman population. About 508 BC Clovis chooses Paris as his residence. About 507-511 biennium a code of laws is created - "Salic truth".
During many years of wars, the Franks, led by Clovis, also conquered most of the Alemannic possessions on the Rhine (496), the Visigoth lands in Aquitaine (507) and the Franks who lived along the middle reaches of the Rhine. Under the sons of Clovis, the king of the Burgundians, Godomar (534), was defeated, and his kingdom was included in the Frankish state. In 536 the Ostrogothic king Vitigis abandoned Provence in favor of the Franks. In the 530s, the Alpine possessions of the Alemanns and the lands of the Thuringians between the Weser and the Elbe were also conquered, and in the 550s, the Bavarian lands on the Danube.
The Merovingian state was not united. Immediately after the death of Clovis, his 4 sons divided the Frankish state among themselves and only occasionally united for joint campaigns of conquest.
The main parts of the Frankish state were Austrasia, Action and Burgundy... V 6-7 centuries. they waged an incessant struggle among themselves, which was accompanied by the destruction of many members of the warring clans. In the 7th century. the influence of the nobility increased. Its power becomes more significant than the power of kings, who were called lazy kings for their unwillingness and inability to rule. The decision of state affairs passes into the hands of the mayordoms, who were appointed by the king in each kingdom from among the representatives of the most noble families. The last ruler of the Merovingian dynasty was a king Childeric 3(ruled 743 to 751, died 754).
V 612 BC mayordom in Australasia becomes Pipin 1(the Pipinid dynasty is founded). He is seeking recognition as a mayord also in Neustria and Burgundy. His son Karl Martell(Mayord in 715-741), preserving the rights of mayordom in these kingdoms, again subjugated Thuringia, Alemannia and Bavaria, which had fallen away during the weakening of the power of the Merovingians, and restored power over Aquitaine and Provence. His victory over the Arabs at Poitiers in 732 stopped the Arab expansion into Western Europe.
Karl Martell's son Pepin Short with the support of Pope Zechariah, he proclaimed himself king of the Frankish state in 751 BC Under Pepin, Septimania was recaptured from the Arabs (759), and power over Bavaria, Alemannia and Aquitaine was strengthened.
The greatest strength of the Frankish state reached under the son of Pepin Charlemagne(ruled 768-814), after whom the dynasty was named a dynasty Carolingian... Having defeated the Lombards, Charlemagne annexed their possessions in Italy to the Frankish state (774), conquered the lands of the Saxons (772-804), and conquered the area between the Pyrenees and the Ebro River from the Arabs (785-811). Continuing the policy of alliance with the papacy, Charles achieved the coronation of Pope Leo III Emperor (800) of the Western Roman Empire... The capital of Karl was Aachen.
His eldest son became his heir, Louis I(814-840) nicknamed Pious... Thus, the tradition, according to which the kingdom is divided equally among all the heirs, was abolished, and from now on, only the eldest son inherited the father.
A war of succession broke out between the sons of Louis Charles the Bald, Louis and Lothar 1, a war of succession broke out, this war greatly weakened the empire, and ultimately led to its collapse into three parts. Treaty of Verdun in 843 The imperial title was assigned to the western part (future France).
Under the Carolingians, the kingdom was constantly attacked by the Vikings, who fortified in Normandy
The last king of this dynasty was Louis 5... After his death in 987 BC the nobility elected a new king - Hugo nicknamed Kapet (after the name of the priest's mantle that he wore), and this nickname gave the name of the entire dynasty Capetian.
Medieval France
Capetian (987-1328)
Under the last Carolingians, France began to split into feudal possessions, and during the accession to the throne of the Capetian dynasty, there were nine main possessions in the kingdom: 1) the county of Flanders, 2) the duchy of Normandy, 3) the duchy of France, 4) the duchy of Burgundy, 5) the duchy of Aquitaine (Guyenne ), 6) Duchy of Gascony, 7) County of Toulouse, 8) Marquisate of Gothia and 9) County of Barcelona (Spanish mark). With the passage of time, the fragmentation went even further; from the named possessions, new ones emerged, of which the most significant were the counties of Brittany, Blois, Anjou, Troyes, Nevers, Bourbon.The direct possession of the first kings of the Capetian dynasty was a narrow territory stretching north and south of Paris and very slowly expanding in different directions; during the first two centuries (987-118) it only doubled. At the same time, most of what was then France was under the rule of the English kings.
V 1066 BC Duke William of Normandy conquered England, as a result of which Normandy and England united among themselves.
A century after that ( 1154 BC) became kings of England and dukes of Normandy Counts of Anjou (Plantagenets), and the very first king of this dynasty, Henry II, thanks to his marriage with the heiress of Aquitaine, Eleanor, acquired the entire south-west of France.
Under the Capetian, for the first time in history, religious wars acquired an unprecedented scale. First crusade started in 1095 BC The bravest and strongest nobles from all over Europe went to Jerusalem to free the Holy Sepulcher from the Muslims after the ordinary townspeople were defeated by the Turks. Jerusalem was taken on July 15, 1099.
The beginning of the unification of the scattered lands was laid by Philip August 2 (1180-1223), who acquired part of Normandy, Brittany, Anjou, Maine, Touraine, Auvergne and other lands.
Philip's grandson 2, Louis 9 Saint(1226-1270), became king at the age of 12. Until he matured, the country was ruled by his mother, Blanca of Castile. Louis 9 made important acquisitions in the south of France; the counts of Toulouse had to recognize the power of the king of France and ceded to him a significant part of their possessions, and the termination of the Toulouse house in 1272 entailed, under Philip 3, the annexation of the royal lands and the rest of these possessions. Under Louis 9, two crusades took place - the 7th and 8th, both unsuccessful for the French king. During the 8th campaign, he died.
Philip 4 Handsome(1285-1314) acquired Lyon and its region in 1312, and by marriage with John of Navarre created the basis for future claims of the royal house on her inheritance (Champagne and others), which later (1361), under John the Good, was finally attached. Under Philip 4, the Knights Templar was defeated, and the papal throne was transferred to Avignon.
Until 1328 France was ruled by the direct heirs of Hugo Capet. The last direct descendant of Hugo - Charles IV inherits Philip 6 belonging to branch Valois, which also belonged to the Capetian dynasty. The Valois dynasty will rule France until 1589, when Henry IV of the Capetian dynasty of the Bourbon line will ascend the throne.
The Valois dynasty. Hundred Years War (1328-1453)
The successes of royal power in France for a century and a half from the accession to the throne of Philip on August 2 (1180) until the end of the Capetian dynasty (1328) were very significant: the royal domains expanded greatly (with many lands falling into the hands of other members of the royal family), while the possessions the feudal lords and the English king declined. But under the first king from the new dynasty, the Hundred Years War with the British (1328-1453) began. At the same time, the population was severely affected by the plague epidemic and several civil wars.The Hundred Years War was started by the English king Edward III, who was on the maternal side the grandson of the French king Philip IV the Handsome of the Capetian dynasty. After death in 1328 BC Charles 4, the last representative of the direct branch of the Capetian, and the coronation of Philip 6 (Valois) according to the Salic law, Edward claimed his rights to the French throne. In the fall of 1337, the British launched an offensive in Picardy. They were supported by the Flanders cities and feudal lords and cities of the south-west of France.
The first stage of the war was successful for England. Edward won a number of convincing victories, including Battle of Crecy(1346). In 1347 the British conquered the port of Calais. In 1356, the English army under the command of Edward's son the 3rd the Black Prince inflicted a crushing defeat on the French at the Battle of Poitiers, capturing King John II the Good. Military setbacks and economic hardships led to popular indignation - the Paris uprising (1357-1358) and Jacquerie (peasant uprising in 1358). The French were forced to conclude a humiliating peace for France in Bretigny (1360).
Taking advantage of the respite, King Charles 5 of the French reorganized the army, reinforcing it with artillery, and carried out economic reforms. This allowed the French in the second stage of the war, in the 1370s, to achieve significant military successes. In connection with the extreme exhaustion of both sides in 1396, they concluded an armistice.
However, under the next French king, Charles 6 Mad, the British again began to win victories, in particular, defeated the French in battle of Agincourt(1415). King Henry 5, who occupied the English throne at that time, subjugated about half of the territory of France in five years and achieved the conclusion of a treaty in Troyes (1420), providing for the unification of the two countries under the rule of the English crown, after the conclusion of the treaty in Troyes and until 1801. England bore the title of kings of France.
The turning point came in the 1420s, at the fourth stage of the war, after the French army was led by Jeanne d'Arc. Under her leadership, the French liberated Orleans from the British (1429). Even the execution of Jeanne d'Arc in 1431 did not prevent the French from successfully to complete hostilities.In 1435 the Duke of Burgundy concluded an allied treaty with the King of France Karl 7... In 1436 Paris came under French control. In 1450, the French army won a decisive victory in the battle of the Norman city of Caen. In 1453, the surrender of the British garrison in Bordeaux put an end to the Hundred Years War.
Under Charles 7, the unification of the French lands continued, interrupted by the war. When he succeeded him Louis 11(1461-1483) in 1477 the Duchy of Burgundy was annexed. In addition, this king acquired by right of inheritance from the last count of Anjou Provence (1481), conquered Boulogne (1477) and subdued Picardy. Louis 11 is known for his cruelty and intrigue, which allowed him to make the royal power absolute. At the same time, Louis patronized the arts and sciences, especially medicine and surgery, reorganized the medical faculty at the University of Paris, founded a printing house at the Sorbonne, and restored the post office.
Under Charles 8 (1483-1498), the male line of the dominant house of Brittany ceased (1488); the heiress of his rights was the wife of Charles 8, after his death she married Louis 12 (1498-1515), which also prepared the annexation of Brittany. Thus, France enters into a new history almost united, and it remains to expand mainly to the east. Charles 8 and Louis 12 fought wars in Italy.
Renaissance
Louis 12 inherited Francis 1(1515-1547), his cousin's nephew and son-in-law (his wife is Claude of France, daughter of Louis 12). He began his reign with a swift and successful campaign in Italy. Under Francis, the absolute monarchy is strengthened, the opinion of parliament is not taken into account. The economy is developing, at the same time taxes are increasing and the cost of maintaining the yard increases. Francis became interested in the culture of the Italian Renaissance. Its castles are decorated by the best craftsmen from Italy; Leonardo da Vinci spends the last years of his life in Amboise. Since the reign of Francis 1, followers of the Reformation appear in France.Henry 2(1547-1559) succeeded his father on the throne in 1547. With several lightning-fast, well-planned operations, Henry II recaptured Calais from the British and established control over such dioceses as Metz, Tul and Verdun, which had previously belonged to the Holy Roman Empire. His life ended unexpectedly: in 1559, fighting at a tournament with one of the nobles, he fell, pierced by a spear, in front of his wife and mistress.
Henry's wife was Catherine de Medici, a representative of the family of famous Italian bankers. After the untimely death of the king, Catherine played a decisive role in French politics for a quarter of a century, although her three sons, Francis 2, Charles 9 and Henry 3. The first of them, painful Francis II, was under the influence of the powerful Duke of Guise and his brother the Cardinal of Lorraine. They were the uncles of Queen Mary Stuart (Scots), to whom Francis II was engaged as a child. A year after accession to the throne, Francis died, and his ten-year-old brother took the throne. Karl 9(1560-1574), wholly under the influence of his mother.
Religious Wars
While Catherine succeeded in leading the child king, the power of the French monarchy suddenly reeled. The policy of persecution of Protestants, begun by Francis 1 and intensified under Charles, has ceased to justify itself. Calvinism spread widely across France. The Huguenots (as the French Calvinists were called) were predominantly townspeople and nobles, often wealthy and influential.The fall of the king's authority and disturbance of public order were only a partial consequence of religious schism. Deprived of the possibility of waging wars abroad and not constrained by the prohibitions of a strong monarch, the nobles sought to break out of obedience to the weakening monarchy and encroached on the rights of the king. In the ensuing unrest, it was already difficult to resolve religious disputes, and the country split into two opposing camps. The Gizov family took the position of defenders of the Catholic faith. Their rivals were moderate Catholics like Montmorency and Huguenots like Condé and Coligny. In 1562, an open confrontation between the parties began, interspersed with periods of armistice and agreements, according to which the Huguenots were given a limited right to be in certain areas and create their own fortifications.
During the formal preparation of the third agreement, which included the marriage of King's sister Margaret to Henry of Bourbon, the young king of Navarre and the main leader of the Huguenots, Charles 9 organized a terrible massacre of his opponents on the eve of St. Bartholomew on the night of 23-24 August 1572... Henry of Navarre managed to escape, but thousands of his companions were killed.
Charles 9 died two years later and was succeeded by his brother Henry 3(1575-1589). Henry returned to France in the midst of the wars of religion. On February 11, 1575, he was crowned at Reims Cathedral. And two days later he married Louise Vaudemont-Lorraine. Lacking the means to end the war, Henry made concessions to the Huguenots. The latter received freedom of religion and participation in local parliaments. Thus, some cities, inhabited entirely by Huguenots, became completely independent of the royal power. The king's actions provoked strong protests from the Catholic League, led by Heinrich Guise and his brother Louis, Cardinal of Lorraine. The brothers were determined to get rid of Henry III and continue the war with the Huguenots. In 1577, a new, sixth in a row, civil religious war broke out, which lasted three years. At the head of the Protestants was Henry of Navarre, who survived during the night of St. Bartholomew by a hasty conversion to Catholicism.
Since the king had no children, the closest blood relative had to inherit him. Ironically, this relative (in the 21st generation) was the same Henry of Navarre- Bourbon. He was married, among other things, to the king's own sister, Margaret.
Henry of Navarre won confident victories. He was supported by Queen Elizabeth of England and German Protestants. King Henry 3 tried with all his might to end the war. On May 12, 1588, Paris rebelled against the king, who was forced to hastily leave the capital and move his residence to Blois. Heinrich Guise solemnly entered Paris.
In this situation, Henry III could be saved only by the most decisive measures. The king summoned the States General, to which his opponent also arrived. December 23, 1588 Henry of Guise went to the meeting of the States. Suddenly, the king's guards were on his way, who first killed Giza with several dagger blows, and then destroyed all the duke's guards. The next day, by order of the king, the brother of Heinrich Giza, Louis, Cardinal of Lorraine, was also captured and then killed.
The murder of the Gizov brothers shook many Catholic minds. Among them was a 22-year-old Dominican monk, Jacques Clement. Jacques was an ardent fanatic and enemy of the Huguenots. After Pope Sixtus 5 cursed Henry 3, Jacques Clement decided to kill him. His decision was supported by high-ranking opponents of the king. Henry III was killed by Clement during an audience.
Before his death, Henry announced Henry of Navarre as his successor.
Although Henry of Navarre now had military superiority and received the support of a group of moderate Catholics, he returned to Paris only after renouncing the Protestant faith and was crowned at Chartres in 1594. The Edict of Nantes ended the end of the wars of religion in 1598. The Huguenots were officially recognized as to work and self-defense in some areas and cities.
During the reign Henry 4(which began the Bourbon dynasty, a branch of the Capetian dynasty) and his famous minister, the Duke of Sully, order was restored to the country and prosperity was achieved. In 1610, the country plunged into deep mourning when it learned that its king had been killed by the madman François Ravallac while preparing for a military campaign in the Rhineland.
Bourbons. Absolute monarchy. Age of Enlightenment
After the death of Henry 4, a nine-year-old became heir Louis 13(1601-1643). The central political figure at this time was his mother, Queen Maria de Medici, who then enlisted the support of the bishop of Luzon, Armand Jean du Plessis (aka Duke, Cardinal Richelieu), who in 1624 became a mentor and representative of the king and actually ruled France until the end of his life in 1642. Under Richelieu, the Protestants were finally defeated after the siege and capture of La Rochelle. Richelieu based his policy on the implementation of the program of Henry 4: strengthening the state, its centralization, ensuring the supremacy of secular power over the church and the center over the provinces, eliminating the aristocratic opposition, countering the Spanish-Austrian hegemony in Europe. Louis 13 in politics was limited only to support Richelieu in his conflicts with the nobility.After Richelieu's death, under the minor Louis 14, the regent was Anne of Austria, who ruled the country with the help of Richelieu's successor cardinal Mazarin... Mazarin continued Richelieu's foreign policy until the successful conclusion of the Peace Treaties of Westphalia (1648) and the Iberian (1659) Peace Treaties, but could do nothing more significant for France than preserving the monarchy, especially during the uprisings of the nobility known as the Fronde (1648-1653).
Louis 14(1638-1715) differed from his father in active participation in political life. Immediately after the death of Mazarin (1661), Louis began to independently govern the state.
Louis firmly pursued his policy, successfully choosing ministers and military leaders. The reign of Louis - a time of significant strengthening of the unity of France, its military power, political weight and intellectual prestige, the flourishing of culture, went down in history as the Great Age. At the same time, the constant wars waged by Louis and demanding high taxes ruined the country. In the struggle for power, Louis was helped by prominent personalities: Jean Baptiste Colbert, Minister of Finance (1665-1683), Marquis de Louvois, Minister of War (1666-1691), Sebastian de Vauban, Minister of Fortifications, and such brilliant generals as the Viscount de Turenne and the Prince of Condé.
At the end of his life, Louis was accused of "being too fond of war." His last desperate struggle with all of Europe (War of the Spanish Succession, 1701-1714) ended with the invasion of enemy troops into French soil, impoverishment of the people and depletion of the treasury. The country has lost all previous conquests. Only a split among the enemy forces and a few of the most recent victories saved France from complete defeat.
Since all pretenders to the throne died before Louis 14, his young great-grandson succeeded Louis 15(1710-1774). While he was small, the country was ruled by a self-appointed regent, the Duke of Orleans. The reign of Louis 15 was in many ways a pitiful parody of the reign of his predecessor. The royal administration continued to sell the rights to collect taxes, but this mechanism became ineffective as the entire tax collection system became corrupt. The army fostered by Louvois and Vauban was demoralized under the leadership of aristocratic officers who sought appointments to military posts only for the sake of a court career. Nevertheless, Louis 15 paid great attention to the army. French troops first fought in Spain and then participated in two major campaigns against Prussia: the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) and the Seven Years' War (1756-1763). Adding to the economic woes were unfavorable climatic conditions and epidemics.
At the same time, the 18th century is the era of the Enlightenment, the time of Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu, Diderot, and other French encyclopedists.
Louis 16 succeeded his grandfather Louis 15 in 1774. Under him, after the convening of the States General in 1789, the Great French Revolution began. Louis first adopted the constitution of 1791, abandoned absolutism and became a constitutional monarch, but soon began to hesitantly oppose the radical measures of the revolutionaries and even tried to flee the country. On September 21, 1792, he was deposed, brought to trial by the Convention and executed by guillotine. From that moment until the coup of 1799, when Napoleon Bonaparte came to power, many executions took place in France, the country was ruined.
After the coup of the 18th Brumaire, the only power in France was represented by the provisional government, which consisted of three consuls (Bonaparte, Sieyès, Roger-Ducos). The consuls - or rather, the consul Bonaparte, since the other two were no more than his instruments - acted with the decisiveness of autocratic power. A constitution was created that was completely monarchical, but retained the semblance of popular power. For 10 years, the first consul was appointed Bonaparte.
All power was henceforth in the hands of Bonaparte. He formed a ministry, which included Talleyrand as Minister of Foreign Affairs, Lucien Bonaparte (Minister of the Interior), Fouche (Minister of Police). From 1804 France was proclaimed an empire.
The first part of Napoleon's reign was filled with military victories. After that, military happiness betrayed him. Napoleon ruled the country despotically, therefore, after the entry of the allied armies into Paris (March 31, 1814), the senate appointed by him proclaimed his deposition from the throne on April 3, 1814, publishing in his "Act of deposition" a whole indictment against him, in which he was accused of constitutional violations committed with the constant and active support of the Senate.
19th century
6 april 1814 g. the senate, acting on the suggestion of Talleyrand and at the request of the allies, proclaimed the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy, represented by Louis 17, provided, however, that he takes an oath of allegiance to the constitution drawn up by the Senate, much freer than Napoleonic ones. However, after the restoration of the monarchy, a reaction began. The return of Napoleon in 1815 was greeted with joy by the people. However, his army was defeated by the British at Waterloo. Napoleon had to sign the abdication of the throne. Louis 17 returned to Paris again. He was succeeded by Karl 10, trying to restore the social order that existed before the revolution. This resulted in July Revolution of 1830The July Revolution marked the final overthrow of the Bourbons. Charles abdicated the throne, like his eldest son, and went into exile in Britain. Louis Philippe took the throne.
Although the constitutional regime of the first half of the 19th century. did not meet the contradictory requirements of various political parties, this period went down in history as a period of modernization of the enocomics: manufactory, steam engine, railway, telegraph - all this contributed to the economic rise of France and the emergence of a new big capital with all its advantages and disadvantages - a decrease in agriculture and growth urban population, as well as the formation of the proletariat
On December 2, 1852, as a result of a plebiscite, a constitutional monarchy was established, headed by Napoleon 1's nephew Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, who took the name Napoleon 3... Previously, Louis Napoleon was president of the Second Republic (1848-1852). This was the beginning of the Second Empire. At first (until 1860) Napoleon 3 was an almost autocratic monarch. Senate, state council, ministers, officials, even mayors of communes (the latter - on the basis of the laws of 1852 and 1855, which restored the centralization of the first empire) were appointed by the emperor.
The main business of the government was economic development: the encouragement of the construction of railways, the establishment of joint-stock companies, the organization of all kinds of large enterprises, etc. Paris was almost completely rebuilt by Baron Haussmann.
From 1860, Napoleon III began to pursue a more liberal policy in order to restore his authority, which had been shaken by the war with Austria.
After Napoleon III, during the Franco-Prussian war, fell into German captivity at Sedan (September 1870), the National Assembly gathered in Bordeaux deposed him, and the Second Empire ceased to exist.
In 1871 the French were forced to make peace with Prussia. The form of government was changed in the country - from 1870 to 1940 it was the Third Republic headed by the President.
After the adoption of the constitution of 1875, the republican system was finally established in the country. The authorities are making great strides in education and in providing citizens with fundamental freedoms. A state is gradually emerging in which the main values are secularism and democracy. At the same time, France is conquering new territories in Africa and Asia. But the republican system remains weak due to the instability of political parties.
France in the 20th century
The defeat in the Franco-Prussian War and the desire for revenge led France to participate in the First World War. France emerged victorious from the First World War, but suffered huge losses. But these losses were overshadowed by the euphoria of triumph: the "crazy" 20s make one forget about the economic difficulties in the country and the political instability caused by the international crisis. The fear generated by the victory of the Bolsheviks in Russia provokes a conservative reaction from the National Bloc, which after its defeat was replaced in 1924 by the Cartel of the Left. The republican system is shaken by scandals and manifestations similar to the one that took place on February 6, 1934.To counter the extremism of the right-wing forces, the left-wing parties decide to unite. The national front, formed in the context of the beginning of the global crisis, wins the elections in 1936. The government, headed by Leon Blum, carries out radical social reforms, but in 1938 the alliance of the left forces collapses, in particular due to disagreements over the war in Spain.
At the same time, the threat from powerful fascist states in Europe is growing. And although the foreign policy of France was aimed at peace at any cost, the provocations of the Nazis are becoming more and more purposeful. World War II, which the Daladier government tried to avoid in Munich, breaks out on September 3, 1939.
In May 1940, as a result of the German invasion, the French troops were defeated. The defeat of France, secured by a truce, leads to the fall of the Third Republic. It is being replaced by a new regime - the French state ("the Vichy government"). The government, headed by Marshal Petain, governs the southern half of France, not occupied by the Germans, and pursues a policy of national reconstruction. After October 1940, the French state began to actively cooperate with the Nazi regime. But even this policy, accompanied by a dramatic "hunt for Jews" who are imprisoned in camps and handed over to SS forces for deportation, does not provide Pétain with the opportunity to lead the country on his own: on November 11, 1942, German forces also occupy the southern half of France. General de Gaulle appeals from London to the French with an appeal to continue the fight against the occupiers. The Resistance movement is being formed, which played a leading role in the liberation of the country.
After the end of the war, an atmosphere of national optimism was established in the country. With the adoption of the new constitution, Fourth republic... Despite this, General de Gaulle, a prominent participant in the recent war, is concerned about the inability to rule the country under a regime that still gives too much legislative power, and the composition of governments reflects the too volatile conditions of the political majority. Unheard of by anyone, de Gaulle leaves politics. But government instability proves him right. One of the main problems that France faced during this period was the problem of colonies. The heroic role played by the colonies in World War II is forcing the metropolis to change the status of French territories in Africa and other continents. But the concessions made were not enough, and the French authorities are not always able to reach a treaty that ensures a peaceful future. As a result, France is waging dramatic wars in Indochina and Algeria.
As a result, in 1958 a new constitution was adopted - the Fifth Republic arose. The revised constitution restored a strong and lasting presidential power, the legitimacy of which is highlighted by the fact that the president is elected by universal suffrage (since 1962). General de Gaulle was President of France from 1958 to 1969, leading the country alongside a stable right-wing majority. Mass unrest among young people and students (the May 1968 events in France) caused by the aggravation of economic and social contradictions, as well as a general strike, led to an acute state crisis. Charles de Gaulle was forced to resign (1969).
Paris
11-10 millennium BC The first settlements appear.about 250-225 BC. the Gallic tribe of the Parisians settled on the territory of the Cité island and founded their capital here, Lutetia (lat. Lutetia - dwelling among the water).
the beginning of the 2nd century BC. the city is surrounded by a fortress wall, bridges are being built. The city lives off river trade and tolls on and under bridges.
54 BC Revolt of the Gauls against the Romans.
53 BC Julius Caesar strengthens the city's defenses and endows it with religious functions.
52 BC The revolt of the united Gallic tribes against Julius Caesar is defeated. In Caesar's notes, the city of the parisians, Parisiorum, was first mentioned.
end of the 2nd century AD The heyday of Roman Lutetia. The population has reached 6 thousand people. But the administrative and religious center until the 17th century. the city of Sans remains.
250 g Martyrdom of St. Denis in Montmartre. According to the legend of St. Denis went with his head severed to the present Saint-Denis, after which he was canonized.
V the end of the 3rd century. due to the raids of the Germanic tribes, the townspeople move to the island of Cité. The name Parisiorum (the city of the parisians) is assigned to the city.
406 BC the Germans conquer Gaul. Paris manages to avoid the invasion.
422 BC Genevieve, the future saint and patroness of Paris, was born in Nanterre.
451 BC Genevieve persuades the Parisians to confront the leader of the Huns Attila, although they initially intend to flee. Before reaching Paris, the Huns turn to Orleans.
470 BC begins the siege of the city, which lasted more than 10 years, by the Franks under the leadership of Childeric 1. Genevieve provides the city with bread, which is delivered by barges along the Seine.
486 BC Clovis, son of Childeric, defeats the last Roman governor. By agreement with Genevieve, Clovis gains power over the city by peaceful means.
496 BC Under the influence of his wife, Clovis adopted Christianity.
502 BC dies in Paris St. Genevieve.
507 BC Clovis defeats the Germanic tribes, in honor of which he founded the Church of Peter and Paul on the hill of Sainte-Genevieve.
508 BC Paris is the capital of the Merovingian Frankish state.
511 BC After the death of Clovis 1, the Merovingian kingdom was divided between his 4 sons. The kingdoms of Austrasia, Neustria, Burgundy and Aquitaine are formed.
mid 5th - 6th century The population of Paris reaches 20 thousand people.
567 BC Paris passes into the joint possession of all Merovingian kings.
585 BC After a fire, which partially destroyed buildings on the island of Cite, the city gradually fell into decay.
751 BC Pepin 3 the Short is proclaimed king of the Franks. The last king of the Merovingian dynasty, Childeric III, was tonsured a monk. By the name of the son of Pepin the Short Charlemagne, the dynasty receives the name Carolingian.
814-840 biennium The reign of Louis the Pious. Karl II the Bald ascends to the throne behind him. After the partition of Charlemagne's empire, he becomes king of France. The raids of the Normans begin.
856 BC the Normans seize the left bank of the city.
861 BC the abbey of Saint-Germain-des-Prés was plundered.
885 BC The beginning of the two-year siege of the city by the Normans.
888 BC Death of Karl Tolstoy. High nobility elects Count Ed as king. Charles 4 the Rustic refuses to recognize Ed as king.
893 BC Coronation of Charles 4. He gets a real opportunity to govern the state after the death of Ed (898).
987 BC Hugo Capet ascends to the throne.
1031-1060 biennium The reign of Henry 1. Paris is expanding due to the development of the right bank.
1108-1137 The reign of Louis 6 Tolstoy. Under him, the Chatelet fortress was built, at the walls of which the market began to work. The city is governed by a royal provost, an official with judicial, fiscal and military powers.
1141 BC Louis 7 sells the city port to the guild of Parisian river merchants. The guild's emblem with the image of a ship becomes the emblem of the city.
1186 g. Philip 2 August issues a decree to improve urban roads, the main task is to end unsanitary conditions.
1189-1209 Construction of a new city wall.
1190-1202 The Louvre castle is being built.
1253 BC The building of the future Sorbonne was laid.
1381, 1413 Popular riots in Paris.
1420-1436 During the Hundred Years War, the city was occupied by the British.
1436 g. The troops of Charles 7 occupy the city.
1461 g. Coronation of Louis 11, who then transfers his government to Tours.
1469 g. The beginning of the printing business. The first text is printed at the Sorbonne.
1515-1547 The reign of Francis 1. Prevost becomes official with limited powers. The governor of Paris is responsible for public order. Francis reconstructs the Louvre and begins collecting the royal art collection.
1528 g. Paris returns to the status of the main city of the kingdom.
1559 g. The death of Henry II on a knight tour in the courtyard of the Tournelles Palace (Place des Vosges).
August 24, 1572 St. Bartholomew's night (more than 5 thousand people died).
1588 g. Revolt of supporters of the Catholic League in Paris, led by Heinrich Guise.
1590 g. Henry IV Bourbon besieges Paris.
1593 g. Henry 4 utters the famous phrase "Paris is worth the Mass", returns to Catholicism. The people of Paris allow him to enter the city. Under Henry 4, numerous urban development projects were carried out.
1606 g. The New Bridge was built.
1610-1643 The reign of Louis 13. The Botanical Garden appears, the Marais area expands, the Luxembourg Palace is being built, the construction of a new city wall, begun under Francis 1, is nearing completion.
1622 g. Paris becomes an archbishopric.
1629 g. The Palais Royal is being built by order of Richelieu.
1631 g. The first French newspaper was founded.
1635 g. Richelieu founds the French Academy.
1648, 1650 Fronda, the royal court is forced to leave Paris.
1665 g. The first French scientific journal is published.
1666 g. The French Academy of Sciences was founded.
1669 g. Construction of Versailles begins.
1670 g. Large boulevards are being laid, the city is expanding at the expense of the suburbs.
1671 g. The king moves to Versailles.
1686 g. The first Parisian cafe "Prokop" was opened
1702 g. The Royal Ordinance establishes the division of the city into 20 quarters.
1757 g. The beginning of the construction of the church of St. Genevieve (Pantheon)
1774-1792 Closed sewerage construction.
July 14, 1789 The storming and destruction of the Bastille.
1804 g. Coronation of Napoleon in Notre Dame, for which, due to the demolition of buildings, the area in front of the cathedral is cleared. The first iron bridge is being built - the Bridge of Arts. Numbering of houses with division into even and odd sides is introduced.
1808 g. Construction of canals and fountains. The Arc de Triomphe Carousel is opened.
1811 g. Creation of a fire battalion.
1814 g. The entry of the Russian and Prussian troops, led by the Russian Tsar and the Prussian King, into Paris.
1833-1848 Rambuto becomes Prefect of the Seine. He reshaped the city to improve its air supply, improved water supply, increased green space and kept streets clean.
1836 g. Opening of the Arc de Triomphe. Reconstruction of the Concorde Square has been completed.
1840 g. Transfer of the ashes of Napoleon 1 to Paris.
1853 g. Baron Haussmann is appointed prefect of the Seine department.
1853-1868 Restructuring of Paris by Haussmann.
1855 g.
1864 g. The restoration of Notre Dame Cathedral has been completed.
1865 g. Reconstruction of the Island of Cité.
1867 g. World Exhibition in Paris.
1871 g. Capitulation of Paris after the siege by Prussian troops. Fire in the city during the Paris Commune. Defeat of the Paris Commune.
1875 g. Opening of the Paris Opera.
1887-1889 Construction of the Eiffel Tower.
1889 g. World Exhibition in Paris.
1890s-1914 Belle Epoque (Belle Epoque) style
1892 g. The appearance of the first electric tram.
1895 g. The first public film show by the Lumiere brothers.
1896 g. The beginning of work on the construction of the metro.
1914 g. Battle of Paris during World War I. Mobilization of taxis to deliver troops and ammunition to the front. The Louvre's masterpieces are transported to Toulouse.
1920s Parisian bohemia settles in the Montparnasse area. Art Deco style
1935 g. The beginning of television broadcasting.
1940-1944 German occupation.
Biography of Claude Monet
Claude Oscar Monet was born on November 14 1840 g. in Paris, in the family of a grocer. Oscar spent his early years in Le Havre. Young Monet began his creative activity by drawing cartoons, which were exhibited in the showcase of a Le Havre edging, and he received his first painting lessons from the landscape painter E. Boudin, wandering with him along the coast and learning the techniques of working in the open air.V 1859 g. having received the necessary funds from his father, Monet went to Paris to study painting. In 1860 Monet visited the Suisse Academy, where he met Camille Pissarro. In 1861, Claude was drafted into the army, and he went to Algeria, but in 1862 due to illness he returned to France. His father again lets him go to Paris, where the artist enters the studio of Charles Gleyre, popular at that time, where he works until 1864. But the formation of his creative method does not take place in the studio, but in the process of joint work in the open air with those close to him in spirit. Renoir, F. Basil and A. Sisley.
In 1865 and 1866. Monet exhibits at the Salon, and his paintings have modest success. Of the early works of the artist, the most significant are "Breakfast on the Grass", "Terrace at Sainte-Adresse", "Women in the Garden"... This time was very difficult for Monet, who was extremely strapped for funds, constantly pursued by creditors and even tried to commit suicide. The artist has to move all the time from place to place, then to Le Havre, then to Sevres, then to Saint-Adresse, then to Paris, where he paints city landscapes.
In 1868, Monet, who exhibited five paintings at the International Exhibition of Seascapes in Le Havre, received a silver medal, but the paintings were taken as a debt by creditors. In 1869 Monet lives in the village of Saint-Michel, a few kilometers from Paris. O. Renoir often comes here, and the artists work together. A nearby picturesque restaurant with a bath was the motive for a series of landscapes by Monet ( "Paddling pool"). Meanwhile, the jury of the Salon continues to stubbornly reject the work of Monet: in the period 1867-70. only one painting by the artist was accepted.
V 1870 g. Monet married Camille Donsier; the dowry received for the bride for some time saved him from financial problems. The young couple spent their honeymoon in Trouville, where Monet painted several landscapes. The tragic events of 1870-71 force the artist to emigrate to London. In London, he meets Daubigny and Pissarro, with whom he works on the views of the Thames and the fogs of Hyde Park. Daubigny introduces Monet to the French art dealer Durand-Ruel, who had a gallery on Bond Street. Later, Durand-Ruel provided the Impressionists with invaluable assistance in organizing exhibitions and selling paintings. In 1871, Monet learns of the death of his father and a few months later leaves for France. On the way, he visits Holland, where, amazed by the splendor of the landscapes, he stops for a while and paints several paintings. Upon his return to Paris, Monet settled in Argenteuil. The artist finds himself a house with a garden, where he can engage in floriculture, this occupation has turned into a real passion for him over time. In 1872-75. Monet creates some of his best paintings ( "Lady with an umbrella" ("Madame Monet with her son"), "Boulevard des Capuchins", "Impression. Rising sun"). Monet paints the Seine with enthusiasm. Having equipped a studio boat, he floats along the Seine, capturing river landscapes in sketches ( "Regatta at Argenteuil").
V 1874 g. "Anonymous society painters, painters and engravers ", organized by Monet and his Impressionist friends, is holding an exhibition at which, in particular, a painting by Monet was presented "Impression. Rising sun"... Actually, according to the name of this painting, the organizers got the name "impressionists" (from the French impression - impression). The exhibition was criticized in the press, and the public reacted negatively to it. The second exhibition of the group, organized in the workshop of Durand-Ruel in 1876, also did not meet with criticism. After the failure of the exhibition, it became extremely difficult to sell paintings, prices fell, and for Monet a period of financial difficulties began again. Monet had several wealthy patrons who rescued him from creditors, bought and ordered paintings for him. The most significant of these was the financier Ernest Hoschede, whom Monet met in 1876. Soon after meeting Hoschede, he ordered Monet a series of decorative paintings for his mansion in Montgeron. In the late autumn of 1876, Monet came to Paris with the desire to depict the views of the winter city through a veil of fog; he decides to make the Saint-Lazare station his object. With the permission of the director of the railways, he is located at the station and works all day long, resulting in a dozen paintings depicting the largest railway junction in France ( "Gare Saint-Lazare. Arrival of the train"). Seven of them in the same year were exhibited at the third exhibition of the Impressionists. Already in these years, the artist showed interest in depicting the same motif from different angles. In 1877, the third exhibition of the Impressionists took place, in 1879 - the fourth. The public is still hostile to this direction, and the financial situation of Monet, again besieged by creditors, seems hopeless. As a result, he transports the family from Argenteuil to Vétheuil, where he lives with the Hoschede couple and paints several magnificent landscapes with views of the surrounding area ( "Artist's Garden at Vetheuil"). In 1879 Camilla dies after a long illness. Monet is left alone with two children. V 1880 g. An exhibition of eighteen paintings by Monet opens in the hall of the Vie Modern magazine, owned by the publisher and collector Georges Charpentier. She brings the artist a long-awaited success. The sale of paintings from this exhibition allows Monet to improve her financial situation. In the 1880s. Monet often travels to Normandy, where he is attracted by nature, the sea and the special atmosphere of this land. There he works, living now in Dieppe, then in Purville, then in Etretat, then in Belle-Ile and creates a number of magnificent landscapes ( "Gate of Mannpor at Etretat"). In 1883, together with the Hoschedé family, Monet moved to Giverny (a place 80 km north of Paris). The following year, the artist travels to Italy, to Bordighera ( "Bordighera. Italy"). In 1888 Monet worked in Antibes.
V 1889 g. Monet finally achieves real and lasting success: in the gallery of the art dealer Georges Petit, simultaneously with the exhibition of works by the sculptor O. Rodin, a retrospective exhibition of Monet is organized, at which one hundred and forty-five of his works are exhibited, from 1864 to 1889.
Monet becomes a famous and respected painter. Monet lived in Giverny for 43 years, until his death. The artist rented a house from a certain Norman landowner, bought a neighboring plot of land with a pond and laid out two gardens: one in the traditional French style, the other exotic, the so-called "Garden on the Water". The garden became Monet's favorite child; motives of the "garden at Giverny" occupy a large place in the artist's work ( "Garden of irises at Giverny", "Path in the garden of Giverny", "Pond with water lilies", "Japanese bridge"). In 1892, Monet married Alice Hosched, with whom he had been in love for many years. In 1888, Monet begins the cycle "Haystacks" ( "Haystack. Sunset") - the first large series of paintings where the artist tries to capture the nuances of lighting that changes depending on the time of day and weather. He works simultaneously on multiple canvases, moving from one to another as the lighting effects change. This series was a great success. Monet returns to the experience of "Stogov" in a new series - "Poplars" ("Poplars on Epte")... This series, exhibited at the Durand-Ruel Gallery in 1892, was also a great success, but the larger series was even more enthusiastic. "Rouen Cathedral" ("Rouen Cathedral. Symphony in gray and red"), on which Monet worked in 1892 and 1893. Consistently displaying the change in lighting from morning dawn to evening twilight, the artist painted fifty views of the majestic Gothic facade. In 1902 in Giverny Monet begins a cycle "Water lilies" ("Water lilies. Clouds"), on which he will work until his death. The beginning of the new century finds Monet in London; the artist again paints the building of the London Parliament ( "Parliament Building. Sunset") and a number of paintings united by one motive - fog. From 1899 to 1901 Monet travels to Great Britain three times and in 1904 exhibits thirty-seven views of London at the Durand-Ruel gallery ( "Waterloo Bridge. Sunset"). In the summer he returns to Water Lilies and in February of the following year participates in a large Impressionist exhibition organized by Durand-Ruel in London, exhibiting 55 of his works. In 1908, Monet embarks on his penultimate journey: he travels with his wife to Venice. The artist spent two months in Venice. Upon his return to France, he continued to work on Venetian landscapes, which he exhibited only in 1912. At the end of his life, Monet suffered heavy losses: in 1911 his wife Alice died, three years later, his eldest son Jean.
Beginning in 1908, Monet suffered from severe vision problems. However, he continued to write until the last days. 5th of December 1926 g. Monet died.
to the "Giverny" page
Chenonceau
History
Chenonceau's possessions on the banks of the Cher River belonged to 1243. the Mark family... In 1512 the family was forced to sell the estate due to debts. It was bought by a Normandy tax collector Boye... The old estate looked more like a castle and was not suitable for high life, so only a tower remained of it, and a square palace in the Renaissance style was built on the water. After the death of the Boye couple, King Francis I, who once visited the palace, decided to take it in his hands. He accused Boye, who by the end of his life became the manager of the finances of the French king in Italy, of large financial expenditures and took the estate from the heir as compensation.The king with the Dauphin Henry II and his retinue, which included the favorites of the king and his heir, the Duchess of Etampes and Diana de Poitiers, came to the palace to hunt. After the death of Francis, Henry presented the estate Diane de Poitiers... Under Diana, the estate was constantly developing - a garden was laid out, a bridge was built that connected the palace with the opposite bank.
Immediately after Henry's death at the tournament, Catherine de Medici took the crown and Chenonceau jewels from Diana. Catherine celebrated her victory over her rival with a big tournament in honor of the son of Francis II in Chenonceau. Catherine laid out her own in front of Diana's garden, built on a bridge, turning it into a covered one. Here, despite the ongoing civil war, she organized holidays.
After the death of Catherine Chenonceau withdrew Queen Louise, wife of Henry III, killed by fanatic Jean Clement. The queen grieving for her husband retired in the palace, changing the interiors to black, and devoted the rest of her life to mourning for her husband, prayers and helping the local poor. Queen Louise wore white robes as a sign of mourning, for which she was named the White Lady.
In the 18th century. the palace passed to the tax-farmer Claude Dupin, whose wife was very fond of surrounding herself with the outstanding minds of that time - Montesquieu, Condillac, Voltaire often visited the estate. Rousseau was Madame's secretary and gave lessons to her daughter.
The revolution, fortunately, did not affect the palace. Since the beginning of the 20th century. the estate belongs to the Meunier family.
Description
A long alley from the entrance leads to Markov Tower- the only thing that has survived from a small fortress built by the first owners. It was rebuilt in the Renaissance style. Now it houses a small souvenir shop.After crossing the bridge, visitors enter the main part palace... The cramped rooms of the palace are not difficult to get around in half an hour. On the ground floor there are (in a circle, clockwise): a guard room (with an oak door and tapestries of the 16th century), a chapel, a room of Diane Poitier (with tapestries of the 16th century, Madonna and Child by Murillo), a green office in which worked by Catherine de Medici (tapestries, Italian cabinets of the 16th century, paintings by Tintoreto, Jordan, Veronese, Poussin, Van Dyck, etc.), Catherine's library. The gallery (essentially a covered bridge) leads to the other side of the river. Going down the stairs, we find ourselves in the kitchen. Climbing back and continuing to walk around the rooms in a circle, we pass through the room of Francis 1 and the room of Louis 14.
Then you need to climb the stairs to the second floor. Here you can see the room of the five queens, in which at different times lived two daughters and three daughters-in-law of Catherine de Medici (there is also a tapestry of the 16th century and the work of Rubens and Mignard in the room), Catherine's bedroom.
On the third floor there is a black bedroom where the widowed Queen Louise spent her time.
To the left of the palace, if you stand with your back to it, garden, defeated by Catherine de Medici, on the right - Diane Poitier. In addition, it is interesting to see a 16th century farm, a vegetable garden, wine cellars, and if there is time, a labyrinth.
travel /
Amboise
History
Initially, this site was a Gallo-Roman camp. In the 9th century. Amboise was granted to the Counts of Anjou, and they erected a fortress on this site. After one of the owners of the castle unsuccessfully took part in a conspiracy against the adviser to King Charles 7, the castle became the property of the king. The first of the kings to really live here was the son of Charles 7 - Louis 11. His main occupation was hunting, so he did not pay much attention to the castle itself, unlike his son Charles 8.Karl 8(late 15th century) loved to surround himself with courtiers, guards, artists and poets. There was not enough space for the entire suite and its staff in the castle, so it was decided to expand the castle. From Italy, where he went to claim the rights to the Naples throne, the king brings many works of Italian art, as well as architects, craftsmen and gardeners. Italian craftsmen brought the features of the Italian Renaissance into the castle's appearance, although the castle itself remained essentially Gothic. Work on the decoration and improvement of the castle continued until the king's absurd death from hitting the jamb in 1498.
For the inheritance Louis 12 divorced Jeanne of France and married Charles 8's widow Anna. Amboise, the creation of Charles 8, did not fit Louis - he chose to move to. However, he continued to work in the palace - by his order, a large gallery and 2 towers were built. From the beginning of the 16th century. Louise of Savoy and her children - Margaret (future Margaret of Navarre) and the heir to the throne Francis of Angoulême settled in the palace.
King Francis 1 he loved entertainment, luxury and art, and besides, he loved to start grandiose projects. Under him, work was completed in Amboise and Blois and the construction of Chambord began. Under Francis, as under Charles 8, Amboise became the center of social and political life. Since 1516, near the palace, in the Clos Luce estate, at the invitation of Francis, Leonardo da Vinci settled. Francis admired da Vinci, often visited him, for which an underground passage was dug from the palace to the da Vinci estate. As an inheritance to the king, the artist left the Mona Lisa and two paintings depicting St. Anna and John the Baptist. After the death of Francis, the children of his successor, Henry II and Catherine de Medici, were brought up here.
During the civil war that began after the death of Henry II, Amboise became the site of a crackdown on the conspiracy. After that, the castles of the Loire were abandoned by the courtyard. Kings come to Amboise to hunt, and there are also noble prisoners.
During the Revolution and after it, Amboise was badly ruined, but then returned to the possession of the French kings.
travel / sightseeing short
Blois
History
In medieval Latin monuments, Blois bears the Latin name Blesum (also Blesis and Blesa), from the 15th century. it changed in Blaiseau. When the ancient county family, to which the English king Stephen (1135-1154) also belonged, died out in the male tribe, the county of Blois passed by a marriage contract to the house of Chatillon, whose last descendant sold his possessions to the son of Charles 5, Duke Louis of Orleans (1391). Louis d'Orléans and his wife, Valentina Visconti from Milan, laid the foundation for a collection of books and documents, which later became the famous palace library, enriched with treasures looted in Milan and Naples. Under the grandson of Louis d'Orléans, King Louis XII, Blois was annexed to the crown in 1498.Louis 12 was the first crowned owner of the palace and began building a new wing in the flaming Gothic style, through the gate in which, decorated with the figure of Louis II, visitors enter the courtyard. Louis often decided the most important state affairs in the castle. On January 15, 1499, an alliance was concluded between France and Venice, and on March 14, 1513, an offensive and defensive alliance against the Pope and the Emperor.
After the death of Louis II Francis 1 often visited the castle and also began to expand it to accommodate a large retinue. Under him, a wing was built to the right of the entrance in the Renaissance style. The corner room connecting these two wings is the oldest part of the palace, a medieval Gothic castle (10th century), where a Gothic hall from the 13th century has been preserved. Under Francis, famous poets, artists and architects, including Benvenuto Cellini, lived in the palace.
During the wars of religion Catherine de Medici, widow of Henry II, continues to lead the same way of life - arranges numerous holidays in the castles on the Loire. Intrigues and conspiracies are woven here. After St. Bartholomew's Night, the Loire castles were abandoned for three years. Henry III was forced to retire to Blois, leaving Paris to the Duke Henri de Guise. There was a conspiracy to eliminate Henry III, but he was warned. The Duke de Guise was invited to Blois, where he was killed. A few days later, Catherine died in the palace, and six months later, Jacques Clement killed Henry 3.
The third wing, which closes the courtyard, in the style of classicism, was built by Gaston d'Orléans, who was here in exile.
From the 17th century. the palace was abandoned, plundered during the Revolution. In December 1870 Blois was occupied by the Prussians and remained in their hands until the conclusion of a preliminary peace treaty. In the 20th century. the palace was restored.
Description
Hall of the States General(13th century). The hall was used for the adjudication of the Counts of Blois. Under Henry III, the States General met here twice (1576 and 1588). The hall has retained its original structure. The painting was made based on medieval motives in the 19th century. From the castle of the 13th century. there is also the tower du Foix, on the terrace overlooking the city.Wing of Louis II(late 15th - early 16th century). The first floor of the royal apartments was in the 19th century. converted into an art museum of Blois. The collection features works from the 16th to 19th centuries, including French and Flemish tapestries.
Chapel of st. Gale was also built by Louis 12.
Francis Wing 1(1515-1524). The wing of Francis I was built on the basis of the 13th century fortress, and its walls, two meters thick, are partially preserved inside.
Ground floor: apartments of Francis 1 and then Catherine de Medici, the royal hall - the hall used for ceremonies, the guard room - here weapons of the 15-17 centuries are presented, the royal bedroom is the bedroom of Catherine de Medici, in which she died in 1589, the study is this the room retains the decoration of the 1520s (the interior is made in the form of carved wooden panels).
Second floor - associated with the murder of the Duke de Guise. Pictures of the Hall of Guise (19th century) tell the story of the wars of religion and the assassination of the Duke de Guise. According to legend, the murder took place in the next room, the so-called king's bedroom.
travel / sightseeing short
Brittany
Some Breton words and roots
| Bihan, vihan Biniou Beg Braz, bras, vraz, vras Castel, kastell Chistr Coat, hoat, c'hoatr, koad Coz, cos, kozh Creis, kreis, kreiz Douar Dour Du Enez, Enes Gwenn, Guen, ven Gwern Hir Huel, huella, Uhel Iliz Izel, izella Kenavo Ker, kkr, guer, quer Krampouezh Lan Lann Lost Maner Maez, mes, mez Men Menez, mene Meur, veur Milin, vilin, meilh, meil, veil Mor, vor Nevez, neve Pell Penn, pen plou (plo, plu, ple) Porzh, porz, pors Run, rhun, reun Stang, stanc Ster Toull, toul Ti, ty tre |
- small - bagpipes - point, top - big - lock - cider - Forest - old - many - Earth - water - night - Island - White - swamp - long - high, raised - church - short - goodbye - village, house, dwelling - pancake - church, monastery - plain - end, tail - house, estate - large field, plain - stone - hill, mountain - big, important - mill - sea - new - far - end, edge, beginning, head - settlement - shelter, shelter, bay, port - hill, elevation - bay, reservoir - Coast - hole, hole - House - habitat |
History
In the prehistoric period, the peninsula looked different - the sea level was almost 100 meters lower than now, so many prehistoric monuments were on the very shore or under water. The water level began to rise in the 10th millennium BC. About 5000 BC people began to cultivate the land and lead a sedentary lifestyle. This period includes the most ancient megaliths... Megalithic burials were built, the oldest of which is the Barnenez pyramid (4600 BC, you can get there by bus from Morlaix), and rows of menirs, presumably for astronomical and religious purposes.Around 500 BC the peninsula was conquered Celts... The peninsula was named Armorica - a country near the sea.
V 57 BC came romans... For 400 years, Armorica was part of the Roman province. A network of roads was built and several cities founded, among them Rennes, Nantes and Van. In 250-300 A.D. The Roman Empire began to lose power, the cities were ravaged by Frankish and Saxon pirates.
V 5-6 c. many representatives of other Celtic people, Britons, from Wales and Cornwall crossed the English Channel and settled in Armorica, which was named Brittany. This resettlement continued for 200 years. Among the settlers were monks who spread Christianity across the peninsula, some were canonized. Monasteries and monasteries were built. Religious customs arose that have survived to this day - penitential processions and pilgrimages. Many settlements received characteristic Breton names.
Seven saints are considered the most important: Samson, Malo, Brieu, Paul Aurelien, Patern, Corentin and Tugdual, in their honor from the 12th century. the pilgrimage route through the seven cities where the saints are buried becomes popular - Tro Breiz. Previously, the pilgrimage lasted a month (600 km). Now every year there are weekly pilgrimages in one of seven stages.
Kingdom of Brittany... From 6th to 10th century the Bretons resisted the attempts of the Frankish kings to subjugate the peninsula. The Carolingians were able to create an intermediate zone - the Marché, stretching from Mont-Saint-Michel to the mouth of the Loire. In 819, Nominoe, who came from a noble Breton family, was appointed by King Louis the Pious Count of Vannes, and then his emissary in Brittany. Until the death of Louis Nominoe, he was loyal to him. In 843 he entered into an alliance with the emperor Lothar (brother of Charles the Bald) and Pepin 2 of Aquitaine and together with them took Nantes. In 845 Nominoe defeated Charles the Bald in the battle of pi Ballone and signed an agreement with Charles, in which he formally recognized himself as a vassal in exchange for the title of duke. Under Nominoe, wars began with the Normans. The son of Nominoe Erispoe once again defeated Karl the Bald in 851 and received the title of king. Erispoe was assassinated in 857 by his cousin Salomon, during which the kingdom reached its heyday. At the end of his life, Salomon enjoyed unlimited power, which caused a conspiracy of feudal lords, as a result of which the king was killed in 874. After his death, a civil war broke out.
The raids of the Normans from Scandinavia to Brittany began at the end of the 8th century. and became more and more frequent, especially during the period of civil strife after the death of Salomon. Some calm reigned under King Alain 1 the Great until his death in 907, but after his death Brittany was again divided into parts, and by 919 it was almost completely captured by the Normans. The Normans were defeated by the grandson of Alain 1, Alain 2 Crooked Beard in 939 with the help of British troops. Alain 2 received the title of Duke of Brittany, he made Nantes the capital of the duchy.
Duchy of Brittany... From the middle of the 10th to the middle of the 14th century. Brittany was a weak duchy with frequent succession of rulers. In the 12th century. she came under the rule of the English king and Count of Anjou Henry II Plantagenet, then - under the direct control of the French crown. As a result, in the 13th century. The Duke of Brittany, who took the oath of allegiance to the French king, was at the same time, like the Earl of Richmond, a vassal of the English king, and within Brittany itself, his power was limited to the feudal nobility - the barons Vitre and Fougeres, the Viscounts of Leon and others.
From 1341 to 1364, a war for the Breton succession was fought between two families - Pentivre and Montfort. The war became part of the Hundred Years War: the first family supported the kings of France, the second - the kings of England. The war ended in favor of the Counts of Montfort. For almost a hundred years after that, Brittany was independent from France. The well-being of the people has increased thanks to the sea trade and the production of textiles in Vitra, Locronan and León. A university was founded in Nantes in 1460.
Independence ended in 1488 when Duke Francis II was defeated by King Louis 11 of France and died shortly thereafter. His daughter and heiress, Anne of Breton, was 11 years old at the time. At the age of 13, she was forced to marry the King of France Charles 8. Brittany became part of the French kingdom, but retained some independence, and Anne ruled her on her own as a duchess. Anne's marriage to Charles 8 remained childless, and to keep Brittany, Charles's heir, Louis 12, married Anne of Breton. Their daughter Claude married the future King Francis 1 of Angoulême. Anna of Breton died in 1514 at the age of 37. Of her 9 children, two survived. Throughout her life, she patronized artists and writers and was very popular with the Bretons. In 1505 she made a great pilgrimage through Brittany in the hope that she would have a male heir.
In 1532, Francis I, using military force, got the Breton parliament to issue an act on the continuity of the union between the French crown and the Duchy of Brittany. Brittany, thus, was actually turned into a French province, but retained internal self-government. In Brittany, the estate-representative body continued to operate - the States of Brittany, which was also in charge of taxation issues.
To the Brittany page.
Strasbourg
The first historical evidence of human settlement in the vicinity of Strasbourg dates back to 6000 BC. Around 1300 BC NS. the ancestors of the Celts settled on this place. By the end of the 3rd century. BC NS. a Celtic settlement called Argentorat was formed, in which there was a market and a place for religious rites. The first mention of Strasbourg dates back to 12 BC, when it became one of the border cities of the Roman Empire under the name Argentorata.Since 406, the Alsaces finally populate Alsace. In 451 the Argentinean was destroyed by the Huns of Attila. In 496, after the first victory of the German Franks over the Alemanni, the Argentorate for the first time falls into the sphere of influence of the Kingdom of the German Franks. Argentorat is renamed Strateburgum (city of roads).
In 842, the grandchildren of Charlemagne, Louis of Germany and Charles the Bald, exchanged the famous Strasbourg letters - the first written evidence of the existence of the Romance and Old High German languages, thus dividing the Carolingian kingdom among themselves. In 870, Louis of Germany receives Alsace, which is now part of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation as Western part Duchy of Swabia (Allemania).
In 974, the city authorities, headed by the bishop who governed the city, received the right to mint their own coins.
In 1482, the last changes were made to the Constitution of Strasbourg, which remained unchanged until the Great French Revolution.
In 1621 the Protestant gymnasium, founded in 1538, received the status of a university.
In 1681, the army of King Louis XIV of France besieges Strasbourg and thus forces the city to recognize the king's authority. Under the terms of the agreement, the townspeople took an oath of allegiance to Louis, but retained a number of their rights and privileges. From that time on, the city became part of France.
In 1870, after the siege, Strasbourg capitulated to Prussia. In 1871, the city became the capital of the imperial state of Alsace-Lorraine. After the abdication of William II in 1918, French troops entered the city.
In 1940, German troops occupied Strasbourg, annexed Alsace. Strasbourg was liberated in 1944.
In 1949 the city was elected the seat of the Council of Europe. In 1979, the first session of the European Parliament takes place in Strasbourg, as well as elections to the European Parliament. In 1992, a decision was made to locate the seat of the European Parliament in Strasbourg, as a result of which construction began on a new building with a meeting room, completed in 1998.
Briefly about France
The history of France began in western Europe. Briefly speaking about its formation, it is worth adding that long before the appearance of the tribes of the Franks, various tribes lived in these territories. The first records of people living here appeared at a time when the ancient Greeks founded the city of Massalia on the site of modern Marseille. Here before 
the Celts lived. Celtic tribes living in the territory of modern France were called Gauls in the Roman Empire. In 220 BC. era, the Romans conquered these lands, and the tribes of the Celts were assimilated.
On the eve of the collapse of the Roman Empire, tribes of Franks, Saxons, Burgundians and Germans came to this land. Together they fought off the invasion of the Huns, and then the Frankish state, formed in 481, was born here. Until the 8th year, it grew, and under the reign of Charlemagne, it completely occupied the entire territory of modern Italy and Germany. However, after the death of the king, the kingdom fell apart. 
By the end of the 11th century, Normandy, which was ruled by the Vikings, was actually part of France, but with the Norman Conquest, the territory of Britain and Normandy broke away from the French crown. In subsequent years, several dynasties of kings changed in France, and conflicts constantly arose between Great Britain and France, one of the most prolonged was the Hundred Years War.
In 1792, the royal power was overthrown and France became a republic. However, shortly thereafter, France for some time became an aggressor country, the military campaigns of Napoleon Bonaparte, who seized power, shook the whole of Europe. 
However, this did not last long, the monarchy was finally destroyed in 1870. France was also actively engaged in colonization, but after the First and Second World War, all colonies got out of control, and France itself was captured by the Germans in 1940.
If we talk briefly about France today, this country is one of the founders of the European Union. Its territory occupies 674.685 thousand square meters. km, and the population is 66 million people. Throughout the history of France, the city of Paris remained the capital, and only sometimes, during transitional moments, the power in the country was concentrated in other cities. Almost every child associates France with the Eiffel Tower, however, a huge number of castles have been built in the country over the centuries, and the most ancient cities seem to bear the imprint of history.
Surely everyone will be interested to know where the origins of the most beautiful and romantic French language came from, who speaks it and why. French kings, princes and conquerors have achieved a lot, subjugating various corners of the world, teaching and forcing the locals to speak their own language, and today all former French colonies either simply speak the language of France, or they have it official in the country.
According to 2013 data, more than 7 billion people live on planet Earth, and more than 200 million people speak French, this is more than the entire population of the Russian Federation, as information for comparison. If we use the data of previous years, then the following distribution of those who speak the language is observed:
- about 70 million speak French imperfectly, the rest fluently.
- Studying French people, that is, those who are strongly interested, have become more than 100 million people.
- In France itself, more than 60 million people speak the state language.
- In the Democratic Republic of the Congo, otherwise known as Zaire, more than 24 million people speak French.
- Algeria is also popular for its French-speaking population - 16 million.
- Côte d'Ivoire has 12.7 million French speakers.
- There are 11.5 million French speakers in Canada, including the French themselves.
- The Moroccan Republic has over 10 million inhabitants speaking the French language.
- In Cameroon, 7.3 million people speak French.
- Tunisia has 6.3 million French-speaking residents.
- Also in Belgium, 6.3 million people speak French.
- And in Romania there are 6 million French speakers.
The history of the emergence of France
North of Languedoc, a country was located that belonged to the ancient barbarian conquerors and was called Francia or France, and its settlers called themselves Franks. It was they who created the knights and cavalry, and a decent amount of European lands was subordinated by Emperor Charles. It was in the 8th century, but Charles's successors did not cope with the freedom-loving knights. The state collapsed, and counties appeared, where everyone tried to call himself the ruler of his little land.
Many castles and serfs appeared, and the rulers fought among themselves constantly, so wooden houses turned into real stone fortresses with towers, on one of which the coat of arms and the flag had to flaunt.
In 987, the king was elected from the Franks - Hugo Capeta, who owned the Ile-de-France, this is the territory from Paris to Orleans. Hugo Capet was not even the master in his own duchy, and his numerous successors had a hard time, because they had to start with the subordination of local barons, and they considered it normal to fight with their king. But they managed to keep the crown, and later it was customary to gather nobles for the coronation in order to personally see the reaction of the public, that is, whether it opposes or not.
By the 12th century, the kingdom already existed peacefully and harmoniously, the rebellious barons were expelled or punished, the church advocated peace and the absence of wars and misunderstandings, the kings hired soldiers to protect them from the warlike barons, the word soldiers came from soldo - the currency, that is, these people were servants for money. Also, crossbowmen and mounted warriors appeared, who were considered top officials.
Thus, the French territory was born, the borders of which changed for some time, but the spread of the French throughout the world began in the 16th century, when the French conquerors expanded their territories by colonizing new territories.
French colonies
The first appropriation of colonies is associated with a period of expansion of horizons, the ability to travel and discover new geographic areas... One of the first to be seized were territories in America, both North - Florida, the basin of the St. Lawrence River, and South - Brazilian Land, but it was not possible to stay there for a long time, since the Latin American confrontation turned out to be stronger. After 100 years, the invasions of America were repeated, which resulted in the lands of Canada, where to this day the French language plays a big role, being the second most popular and official language of the country.
The following lands were in the French possessions: Guadeloupe, Louisiana, Martinique, some part of the island of Haiti. Also in the 17th century, the invasions of the French also affected African lands, then the French reached India, appropriating Pondicherry. The conquered lands were turned into plantations for the cultivation of various crops, on which the local residents worked. The most popular products were: cane sugar, tobacco, spices and condiments, tea and coffee.
Great French revolution caused liberation movements in the occupied territories, some managed to free themselves from the colonialists and become independent.
Often, in the process of land grabbing, France faced another strong adversary - Great Britain, which claimed the French colonies, and in some cases had to yield.
France actively fought for the division of the world and the appropriation of new lands. In 1895, the island of Madagascar began to belong to France, as well as many lands in the basins of the Niger, Congo, Ubangi, Shari rivers, as well as near Lake Chad, after which the advance began to Sudan and the Nile. A struggle was fought for Morocco, which France ceded to Germany.
By the 20th century, the conquest of new lands by France and their transformation into colonies was almost complete. Some states were considered independent, but France still had supremacy over them. These lands include Algeria, Tunisia, Laos, Cambodia. In fact, power belonged to local leaders and rulers, but France dictated its terms. Borders were arbitrary and often changed, regardless of the ethnicity of the people. French West Africa was created, which included Franz. Sudan, Franz. Guinea, Senegal, Bones, and French Equatorial Africa: Gabon, Ubangi Shari, Middle Congo, Chad.
By the First World War, France had 10 million square meters. km and more than 55 million inhabitants in these colonial territories. At the end of the war, the territory of the colonies increased. And the second World War led to the largest crisis in the colonial system, completely collapsing it. Many territories during the war had already gained independence, for example, Lebanon, and some became free at the end of hostilities.
The inhabitants of the colonies rose to the colonial wars, demanding complete independence, as a result of which the territories of colonial France were slowly but surely shrinking.
In 1958, a constitution was adopted under the Fifth French Republic, according to which there was a French community, all members of which were independent and had the right to independently govern the country's internal affairs. Progressing countries demanded full autonomy, continuing anti-colonial actions, and some decided to stay in the community. France soon lost its dominance over these lands, as amendments were introduced to the constitution for the complete independence of the members of the community.
At the present stage, there is no concept of colonies, but the previous influence turned out to be very large, therefore, in all the former colonies of France, the population knows and speaks French.
