Eastern Europe at the beginning of the 21st century. Western European countries in the second half of the 20th century - the beginning of the XXI century. State social spending,% of GDP
The beginning of the construction of socialism.During the Second World War in Eastern Europe, the authority of the left forces, primarily the Communists, significantly increased. In a number of states, they led the anti-fascist uprisings (Bulgaria, Romania), in others they led the partisan struggle. In 1945 - 1946 All countries have adopted new constitutions, eliminated monarchies, the power has passed to national governments, large enterprises were nationalized and agricultural reforms were held. In the elections, the Communists occupied strong positions in parliaments. They called on even more radical changes, against which bourgeois democratic parties were performed. At the same time, the process of the merger of the Communists and Social Democrats was unfolded during the dominance of the first.
Powerful support for the Communists was the presence of Soviet troops in the countries of Eastern Europe. In the context of the "Cold War", a bet on accelerating transformations was made. This largely corresponded to the sentiments of the majority of the population, among which the authority of the Soviet Union was great, and in the construction of socialism, many have seen a way to quickly overcoming post-war difficulties and further creation of a fair society. The USSR provided with these states a huge material assistance.
In the 1947 elections, the Communists received most places in the Sejm Poland. Sejm elected by the President of the Communist B. BERE. In Czechoslovakia in February 1948, the Communists in the course of multi-day mass rallies workers achieved the creation of a new government where they played a leading role. Soon, President E. Benesh resigned, and the new president was elected leader of the Communist Party K. Gotulad.
By 1949, in all countries of the Region, the authorities were in the hands of communist parties. In October 1949, he formed an AGR. In some countries, a multi-party system has been preserved, but it has largely become a formality.
CEV and ATS.
The formation of the global socialist system began with the formation of the "People's Democracy" countries. Economic ties between the USSR and the countries of the People's Democracy were carried out at the first stage in the form of a bilateral foreign trade agreement. At the same time, the USSR strictly controlled the activities of the governments of these countries.
Since 1947, this control carried out the heir to Comintern-Cominform. Of great importance in expanding and strengthening economic connections The Council of Economic Communication (SEA) began to play, created in 1949 by its members were Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania, the USSR and Czechoslovakia, later entered into Albania. The creation of SEA was a certain answer to the creation of NATO. The objectives of the SEV were association and coordination of efforts in the development of the economy of the Commonwealth countries.
In the political area, the creation of the Warsaw (ATS) in 1955 was of great importance. Its creation was the answer to the reception of Germany in NATO. In accordance with the terms of the contract, its participants pledged to be provided in the case of an armed attack on any of them to assign themselves immediate assistance to all means, including the use of armed force. A combined military command was created, joint military exercises were carried out, armament and organization of troops were unified.
The development of countries "People's Democracy" in the 50s - 80s p. XX century.
| Lech Valens | Lech Valens(September 29, Popovo, Gmina Tlukhovo) - Polish politician, activist and advocate of human rights, First Head of the Solidarity Trade Union, Poland President in 1990-1995. https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valensa._Heh. |
By the middle of the 50s. xx in. As a result of accelerated industrialization in the countries of Central and Southeast Europe, a significant economic potential was created. But the course for the predominant development of the heavy industry with minor investments in agriculture and the production of consumer goods led to a decrease in living standards.
The death of Stalin (March 1953) gave rise to hopes for political change. The GDR leadership in June 1953 proclaimed a "new course", which envisaged the strengthening of the rule of law, an increase in the production of consumer goods. But the simultaneous increase in the standards for the development of workers served to the events of June 17, 1953, when manifestations began in Berlin and other major cities, during which economic and political requirements were put forward, including the holding of free elections. With the help of the Soviet troops, the GDR police suppressed these speeches that the country's leadership estimated as an attempt "fascist coup". Nevertheless, after these events, the wider production of consumer goods has begun, prices have decreased.
Decisions of the XX Congress of the CPSU about the need to take into account the national characteristics of each country were formally approved by the management of all the Communist Parties, but a new course began to be made everywhere. In Poland and Hungary, the dogmatic policy leadership ledto the sharp exacerbation of socio-economic contradictions, which led the fall of 1956 to the crisis.
The speeches of the population in Poland led to the abandonment of violent collectivization and some democratization of the political system. In Hungary inside the Communist Party, a reformist wing arose. On October 23, 1956, demonstrations began in support of reformist forces. Their leader I. Nazu headed the government. The rallies occurred across the country, launched the communists began. On November 4, Soviet troops began to restore order in Budapest. 2700 Hungarians died in street battles and 663 Soviet soldiers. After the "cleaning" conducted by Soviet special services, the power was transferred to Ya. Kadar. In the 60-70s. Xx in. Cadar conducted a policy aimed at improving the standard of living of the population by preventing political change.
In the mid-60s. The situation in Czechoslovakia aggravated. Economic difficulties coincided with the invokes of the intelligentsia to improve socialism, give him a "human face". The party approved in 1968. The program of economic transformation and democratization of society. The country was headed by A.Dchek., Supporter of transformations. The leadership of the CPSU and the Communist Party of Eastern European countries to these changes took place sharply.
Five members of the CRC leadership secretly sent a letter to Moscow with a request to intervene in the course of events and prevent "the horses of the counter-revolution". On the night of August 21, 1968, Bulgaria's troops, Hungary, GDR, Poland and the USSR entered Czechoslovakia. Based on the presence of Soviet troops, the opponents of reform switched to the offensive.
Prague. 1968 year |
At the turn of the 70-80s. Xx in. Crisis phenomena marked in Poland, which has quite successfully developed in the previous period. The deterioration of the position of the population caused a strike. In their course, the Solidarity Committee, independent of the authorities, led by L. Valence. In 1981, Poland President General V. Yaruzelsky introduced a martial law, Solidarity leaders were subjected to home arrest. However, the structures of "solidarity" began to act in the underground.
Special path of Yugoslavia.
Josip Broz Tito | Josip Broz Tito(Tito - party pseudonym connected with the surname), in Soviet documents referred to the name of Iosip Fantovich Brozovich (May 7, 1892 (according to the official version of May 25, 1893), Kumrovsky, Kingdom of Croatia and Slavonia, Austria-Hungary - May 4, 1980 , Ljubljana, Socialist Republic of Slovenia, SFRY) - Yugoslav revolutionary and politician. The leader of Yugoslavia since 1945 until his death in the 1980s. From December 1937 he headed KPU. He was the chairman of the Union of Communists of Yugoslavia since 1966 https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/brosis_tito ,_ |
In Yugoslavia, the Communists who managed the anti-fascist struggle in 1945 took power. The president of the country was their leader Croat and Broz Tito. The desire of Tito to independence led in 1948 to the rupture of relations between Yugoslavia and the USSR. Tens of thousands of Moscow supporters were repressed. Stalin deployed antiugoslav propaganda, but did not go to military intervention.
Soviet-Yugoslav relations were normalized after Stalin's death, but Yugoslavia continued to walk on his way. In the enterprises of the management function, labor collectives carried out through election tips of workers. Planning from the center was transferred to the place. Orientation on market relations led to an increase in the issue of widespread consumption goods. In agriculture, almost half of the farms were soles peasants.
The situation in Yugoslavia was complicated by its multinational composition and uneven development of the republics entering into it. General management carried out the Union of Communists of Yugoslavia (SK). Chairman from 1952 was Tito since 1952. He served as presidential posts (life) and chairman of the Federation Council.
Changes in Eastern Europe at the end of the twentieth century.
Perestroika policies in the USSR caused similar processes in Eastern Europe. At the same time, the Soviet leadership by the end of the 80s p. XX century. Refused the policy of preserving the existing regimes in these countries, on the contrary, called them to "democratization". In most ruling parties there were a guide. But attempts by this leadership to carry out reforms like poverty, as in the Soviet Union, were not crowned with success. Worsening economic situation. Mass character acquired the flight of the population to the West. Formed opposition motion authorities. Everywhere there was a demonstration, strikes. As a result of October Manifestations - November 1989, the Government resigned in the GDR, on November 8, the destruction of the Berlin Wall began. In 1990, the Association of GDR and Germany occurred.
In most countries, the Communists were removed from power during the demonstrations of the population. The ruling parties self-disgraced or transformed into Social Democratic. Soon the elections were held, on which the victory was won by the former oppositionists. These events were called "velvet revolutions". Only in Romania, opponents of the head of state N. Ceausescu organized an uprising in December 1989, during which many people died. Ceausescu and his spouse were killed. In 1991, the regime was changed in Albania.
Dramatic events played in Yugoslavia, where in elections in all republics, except Serbia and Montenegro, the victory won opposition communists of the party. Slovenia and Croatia proclaimed independence in 1991. In Croatia, the war immediately began between Serbs and Croats, as the Serbs feared the persecution that took place during the Second World War on the part of the Croatian fascists-tale. Later, the independence of Macedonia and Bosnia and Herzegovina proclaimed. After that, Serbia and Montenegro formed the Union Republic of Yugoslavia. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, a conflict between Serbs, Croats and Muslims began. He continued until 1997
The disintegration of Czechoslovakia occurred. After the referendum, she was peacefully divided in 1993 to the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
After political change in all east european countries There were transformations in the economy and other spheres of society. Everywhere refused OT. planned economy and the command and administrative management system, the restoration of market relations began. Privatization was carried out, a strong position in the economy received foreign capital. The first transformations were called "shock therapy", since they were associated with the crisis of production, mass unemployment, inflation, etc. Especially radical changes in this regard took place in Poland. Everywhere the social bundle intensified, crime, corruption increased. Especially severe atmosphere has multiplied in Albania, where in 1997 there was a popular uprising against the government.
However, by the end of the 90s. Xx in. The situation in most countries has stabilized. Inflation was overcome, then economic growth began. Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland reached the greatest success. Foreign investment played a big role in this. Gradually restored traditional mutually beneficial relations with Russia and other post-Soviet states. In foreign policy, all Eastern European countries are oriented to the West, they took the course to join NATO and the EU. For a domestic political situation in these countries, a shift in the power of the right and left parties is characterized. However, their policies and within the country, and in the international arena largely coincides.
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Chronology of events in Eastern Europe
1940s - in the countries of Eastern Europe, a wave of coups occurred, which led to the power of the Communists; During these years, new states appear on the map of Europe.
1945 - Education of the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia, headed by the Communist Government of Josup Tito Browse. Serbia entered Yugoslavia (as part of Serbia - Albanian autonomy Kosovo and Metokhia, Voevodina), Montenegro, Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia.
1949 - The separation of Germany into two states: the Federal Republic of Germany (included the occupation zones of the United States, Great Britain and France) and the German Democratic Republic (the occupation zone of the USSR).
1955 - Creating a military union of European socialist states (organization of the Warsaw Agreement - ATS), the main role in which belonged to the USSR. It includes the USSR, Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, GDR, Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia.
Mid 1950s. - A wave of folk performances related to the onset of thawed in the USSR.
1953 - the uprising of the working GDR against increasing the standards of development, with the requirements to cancel political censorship and issue political prisoners. By order of the USSR, the rebels were shot, they were arrested.
1956 - uprising in Hungary against the Soviet regime. The uprising was suppressed by Soviet troops during multi-day street fighting. About 3200 people died.
1956 - Rebells of workers in Poland against the prosecutor's depths.
1961 - The construction of the Berlin Wall in order to stop the mass escape of the inhabitants of East Berlin (GDR) in Germany.
1968 - Alexander Dubchek came to power in Czechoslovakia, who began to pursue a policy of expanding civil liberties, the introduction of market elements in the economy. August 20-21 1968 - In Czechoslovakia, the troops of the organization of the Warsaw Agreement were introduced. Dubchek's policy and armed suppression of the peaceful reform program entered the story as "Prague Spring".
1968 - Anti-government speeches of students in Poland.
1980 - a series of strikes in Poland due to price increases. After the victory of the universal strike, an independent organization of solidarity workers led by Lech Valence, which will later play a big role in the history of Poland in the future.
1981 - General Woarsh Yarazhelsky came to power. To counteract the working organization "Solidarity" in the country, a martial law was introduced.
1989 - the weakening of the Soviet support of Eastern European governments, strengthening centrifugal trends in Eastern Europe. The Soviet regimes collapsed very quickly and mostly peacefully (the exception is the regime of Nicolae Ceausescu in Romania resisted in multi-day street fighting). New governments began to transition to a market economy.
1989 - Universal anti-government protest in Czechoslovakia under the leadership of the Union of Opposition "Civil Forum", President Vaclav Gavel came to power, the parliament headed Alexander Dubchek. Changing power in Czechoslovakia entered the story as a "velvet revolution". In 1992, Czechoslovakia broke up to the independent states of the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
1989 - The decision of the GDR government to resolve the unimpeded transition from East Berlin to Western, which led to the elemental dismantling of the Berlin Wall.
1990 - Official cessation of the existence of the GDR, entering it into the FRG.
1991 - Proclamation of Independence of Croatia and Slovenia. The Yugoslav Army, the force of trying to keep the unity of the country, unleashed the war, which led to the breakdown of the state of Yugoslavia.
1992 - the independence of Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, the Union of the Republic of Yugoslavia is recognized (Serbia and Montenegro remained in its composition).
1997-1999 - National military conflict in Kosovo between Serbs and Albanians. NATO supported the course of Albanians to independence, Bombarding Belgrade was carried out by NATO. Kosovo has become an independent state not recognized by Serbia.
2006 - Proclamation of the independence of Montenegro. The final cessation of the existence of Yugoslavia.
Since the 1990s The gradual integration of Eastern Europe countries to the European Union and NATO begins.
According to the decisions of the Yalta and Potsdam Conferences of the Heads of the Great Power (1945) on the post-war device of Europe, the countries of Eastern and South-Eastern Europe were included in the sphere of interests of the USSR. Most of them were popular Communities, since they were the organizers of anti-fascist resistance. Until 1948, the Soviet leadership avoided gross interference in the affairs of the "People's Democracy" countries. However, with the deployment of the Cold War, especially, after the creation of the NATO block, such an intervention was apparent. This led to a conflict with Yugoslavia, the leadership of which was focused on the construction of socialism, but showed great independence. After the death of Stalin, the "ideological chauvinism" of the Soviet leadership did not disappear, but rather intensified. Although there was a relative reconciliation with Yugoslavia, but the Soviet leadership (N.S. Khrushchev, L.I. Brezhnev) constantly conflicted with independent course leaders of Albania, PRC, DPRK, Cuba, Romania. Especially sharp, up to armed clashes in 1969, there was a conflict with China.
In Europe, at the beginning of the period we studied, there was a block of socialist countries, the organizational structures of which were the organization of the Warsaw Treaty (ATS) and the Council of Economic Mutual Assistance (CEV). The weight of the socialist system in the world economy was sufficiently weight: in the USSR in 1980 there were 25% of the world industrial production, Czech Republic, GDR and Romania were among the top ten industrial powers of the world.
However, the degree of rooted of state socialism of the Soviet type was not too high, it was the less, the more obedient leaders of the countries followed by Soviet recipes. Political regimes European Socratic to the 1980s. Recognized Soviet liberal-bureaucratic regime (1953-1991), with a political and ideological monopoly of the ruling party, implemented by relatively soft methods. Throughout the post-war period, the Western Block sought out the Socialistra from the USSR, which was the most important task of the special services.
In the Polish People's Republic (Poland) at the turn of the 1970-80s. The real socialism of the Soviet sample entered the state of the crisis. Then the independent trade union "Solidarity" originated, whose supervisor was L. Valens, electrician local shipyard. Most opposition force. Soon "solidarity" has become a massively organized socio-political movement (up to 10 million members) and began an attempt to intercept power from the Polish United Workers' Party (PPP). In December 1981, the new president of Poland General V. Yaruzelsky, popular in the country, introduced a martial law and arrested about 5 thousand trade union activists, a martial law was introduced in the country, "solidarity" is prohibited, but its influence has been preserved.
In the second half of the 1980s. In a controlled USSR, the part of Europe was noticed that the Gorbachev Perestroika has an antsocialist and proof of the direction. It inspired the political opposition that existed and sometimes manifested activity throughout the socialist period. Antisocialist and anti-Soviet movements in the countries of Eastern Europe in the West are traditionally called "democratic".
So, strike performances organized by Solidarity in the summer of 1988, forced the communists to negotiate with the leadership of Solidarity. In connection with the beginning of the "restructuring" in the USSR, V. Yaruzelsky and his surroundings were forced to agree to the legalization of the activities of "solidarity", on competitive parliamentary elections, reforming the Institute of President of the country and the creation of the Second Chamber in the Seimas.
The June 1989 elections ended with the victory of "solidarity", and its faction in the Sejm has formed the government led by T. Mazovsky. In 1990, the leader of Solidarity L. Valens was elected president of the country. He supported the plan of radical market reforms L. Balzerovich, who was actually developed by the IMF and the World Bank. With the active participation of the new president, Poland began to close with NATO and the European Community. The economic difficulties associated with mass privatization, as well as the identification of secret links in former times with the special services of some figures from the surroundings of Valenses and he himself led to the fact that at the time of the presidential elections of 1995, A. Kvasnevsky won, in the past an active communist.
Already in the early 1990s. From the country, Russian troops were bred. By this time, the existence of the Warsaw Agreement and the Council of Economic Communications has already ceased. In 1994, Poland announced his desire to enter Western structures, which she succeeded: in 1999, despite the diplomatic condemnation by Russia, it became a member of NATO, and in 2004, a member of the European Union. IN last years (the reign of Kakachinsky's reign) in Russian-Polish relations increased the difficulties associated with mutual economic and political claims. Poland even blocked the signing in 2006 a new Agreement on EU and Russia's cooperation agreement. Currently, the Polish leadership according to the placement of American objects in the country, which further complicates the situation.
It should be noted that Poland is the most significant in the territory and population (36 million people) the state of the CEE region and, in principle, the relationship with it is important.
In the fall of 1989 in Czechoslovakia (Czechoslovaki) occurred. "Velvet Revolution." This state emerged in 1919 as a result of the Munich CORREC (September 1938) between Western powers and Hitler's Germany, in March 1939 Czechoslovakia ceased to exist. The Czech Republic was attached to Reihu with the status of the BEGOEMI and Moravia. Her powerful military-industrial complex until the end of World War II worked in Germany. Some noticeable resistance and sabotage was not. By June 22, 1941, the USSR supported formal diplomatic relations with Slovakia, formally independent, but actually controlled by Rehi.
Already during the war, close relations were established between the Czechoslovak Emigrant Government and Moscow. In 1945, a friendship agreement was signed between Czechoslovakia and the USSR. At the same time, Czechoslovakia refused his rights to the Transcarpathian Ukraine, which was previously in her earlier. In the first post-war years, if there are close relations with the Soviet Union in Czechoslovakia, the main democratic institutions remained. The then popularity of the USSR contributed to the fact that the influence of Czechoslovak Communists was very large. In February 1948, with the support of the USSR, they pushed out other political forces from power and established a regime in the country, not different from those that were formed at that time throughout the Eastern European Region.
Up until the end of the 1960s. Czechoslovakia did not have any strong anti-Soviet sentiments. The situation was changed by the events of 1968, when an attempt was made to the liberalization of the existing communist regime, which caused the concerns and suspicions of the Soviet leadership. The USSR and other countries - participants of the Warsaw Treaty introduced their troops into the territory of Czechoslovakia, which led to the termination of reforms and radical changes in the leadership of the country and the Communist Party. After that, at the level of mass consciousness, the reaction of alienation from the "Senior Brother" arose.
In Czechoslovakia, after the start of the "perestroika" in the USSR, the Secretary General of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Republic of Communist Party of Hussak refused to change the political course and to join the opposition dialogue and in 1988 was forced to resign from the leader's post. In November 1989, a "velvet revolution" occurred in Czechoslovakia, during which the Communists were forced under pressure from mass peaceful protests to agreed to the formation of a government with the participation of representatives of the democratic opposition. A speaker of the parliament was A. Dubchek, and President V. Gavel, Democrat writer.
Prague took a course on establishing close relations with Western countries. In 1992, Russian troops were derived from the country, and in 1993 this state itself was contemplated (without serious conflicts) to the Czech Republic and Slovakia. V. Gavel was elected president of the Czech Republic. The desire of both states to integration into Western structures has been preserved, however, the Czech Republic as economically more developed to this faster and already in 1999 became a member of NATO. Slovakia joined this organization only in 2004. In the same year, both states became members of the EU. Slovakia during the 1990s. There was more interest in cooperation with Russia, especially in the field of economy, but the case did not go on the declarations and statements.
Unlike Czechoslovakia, Hungary was an ally of Hitler's Germany and, together with her, defeated. The territory of the country was occupied by Soviet troops, and the USSR actively influenced the development of Hungarian political processes. By 1949, Stalinist regime was established in Hungary, headed by the leader of the local Communist Party F. Rakoshi. Contrary to the existing national traditions in the country began to copy the Soviet model of socialism in detail, which led to the exacerbation of socio-economic and political contradictions. There was a strong influence of the profascular elements who conducted anti-communist and anti-Semitic propaganda. The consequence of these contradictions was a deep intra-political crisis in Hungary, which broke out in the fall of 1956 in the form of armed clashes and almost led to the collapse of Hungarian socialism. After the events of 1956, the Soviet Union authorized the holding of a rather reasonable and independent economic policy in Hungary, which made the country relatively well-being in the framework of the socialist camp. But, on the other hand, the changes to some extent blurred the ideological foundations of the existing regime, so Hungary, like Poland, before the other Eastern European countries began dismantling the socialist system.
In October 1989, in Hungary, the Communists (Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party) were forced to agree to the adoption of a law on multiparty and activity of parties. And then to the Constitution of the country were amended. They envisaged the "peaceful political transition to the legal state, which implements a multi-party system, parliamentary democracy and a socio-oriented market economy." At the elections held in March 1990, the Communists were defeated by the Communists, and most places in Parliament won the Hungarian Democratic Forum. After that, all mention of socialism was excluded from the Constitution. Unlike other countries in the region, the transition of Hungary to "Western values" passed the evolutionary way, but the general vector of its movement towards integration into European structures coincided with the vector of movement of other post-communist states of CEE. Hungary enters the EU and NATO.
The democratization of public and state life occurred in the GDR, where the democratic opposition defeated in March 1990 in March 1990. Then there was an union of Germany by absorbing West Germany (Germany) of East Germany (GDR).
When considering the events of the end of 1989, it is necessary to take into account that in early December 1989 during the meeting M. Gorbachev and J. Bush (Art.) In Malta Gorbachev actually passed the Soviet sphere of influence in Eastern Europe - the West, more precisely - the United States.
Exceptionally dramatically developed events in the countries of South-Eastern Europe. It should be noted that the most significant states of the region have gained sovereignty with the active support of Russia. This refers to Bulgaria, Romania, as well as part of the former Yugoslavia of Serbia and Montenegro. Moreover, Russia often provided this assistance to the detriment of its own foreign policy interests, based on Panzlavan romanticism, which began to dominate public opinion from the 2nd halves XIX. in. And keeps some influence and now.
During the First World War, Bulgaria became the allied of the countries of the German bloc. In April 1941, Bulgaria participated in German aggression against Yugoslavia and Greece, but from participating in hostilities against the USSR, the Bulgarian government was evolving, referring to strong Russian moods among the population. After the release of the Red Army to the borders of Bulgaria on September 5, 1944, the USSR declared war, but the hostilities were actually not, since the Bulgarian army refused to fight, and the country had a change in the country. The government of the Patriotic Front declared war in Germany and its allies, and the Bulgarian troops at the final stage of the war fought on the side of the anti-Hitler coalition. In fact, since 1944, the establishment of a communist regime began, which was completed in 1948, when the People's Republic of Bulgaria was proclaimed.
Until the late 1980s. The relationship between the USSR and Bulgaria developed stably, inside the state of significant anti-communist forces was not. As in other countries of Eastern Europe, democratic changes in Bulgaria began at the end of 1989. In the same way as in other countries of the region, the task of integration into Western structures was almost immediately set. Later there was a sharp distance from Russia with which the visa regime was installed. At the moment, Bulgaria is a member of NATO, in 2004 it was adopted in the EU. Russian-Bulgarian relations for a long time are in a state of stagnation, mutual trade turnover remains insignificant.
Neighted with Bulgaria Romania also actively participated in the war against the USSR, in the period 1941-1944. It consisted in its composition as provinces not only Bessarabia, but also the Northern Black Sea region, including Odessa. At the same time, the state was trying to maintain contacts with the United Kingdom and the United States. On August 23, 1944, a coup in Romania occurred, she broke the block with Germany and joined the anti-Hitler coalition .. It is noteworthy that the Romanian King Mihai was awarded the highest award of the USSR - the Victory Order. However, in 1946, the monarchy in Romania was abolished, and the communist regime was installed in the country. Soviet-Romanian relations since the late 1950s. Developed somewhat differently than the relations of the USSR with other Eastern European countries. After the arrival in 1965 to power Nicolae Cheressku Socialist Republic Romania (CRP) distanced to the Soviet Union. Romanian leadership openly expressed a negative attitude towards the commissioning of the Warsaw Troops in Czechoslovakia in 1968 Romania was the only socialist country that preserved diplomatic relations with Israel after the Arab-Israeli War of 1967. In addition, Romania has demonstrated certain level Independence in the framework of the Warsaw and CMEA. The powerful economic development of the country led it to 1980 in the top ten industrialized countries of the world. In December 1989, as a result of an armed coup with the imitation of the "mass national uprising", N. Ceausescu (rather liberal, but with a strong cult of the president) was overthrown. President himself, together with his wife E. Ceausescu, was killed. This was filed by Western and Soviet (Gorbachevskaya) propaganda as the overthrow of the "hated communist regime".
After the fall of Socialism of Romania, as well as other Eastern European countries, took the course to integrate with the West, but the rapid decline in the standard of living has turned Romania into one of the poorest European countries, which did not allow to quickly implement the purpose of its policies - entry into the EU. This occurred only in 2007. Relations with Russia are in a state of stagnation, while in Romania, unitarist sentiments relating to the association with Moldova are popular.
The most difficult events from the beginning of the 1990s. Turned up in Yugoslavia. Russia throughout the XIX century. actively contributed to the desire of Serbia to independence from Ottoman Empire. In 1878, as a result of the Russian-Turkish war, the independence of Serbia was recognized as Istanbul. The country was proclaimed by the kingdom. The chapter of the country's foreign policy was tasked with the task of uniting southern Slavs into a single state. This goal was achieved after the First World War, when the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenians was formed (from 1929 - Yugoslavia).
In foreign policy, the country has kept the orientation on the Annthanta. Inside the state, from the very beginning, ethnic contradictions were designated, primarily between Serbs and Croats. On April 6, 1941, Germany and its allies began a war against Yugoslavia and Greece. April 10, Croatia proclaimed independence, and the 17th Yugoslavia capitulated. A very strong partisan movement was formed in the country, but the Red Army played a decisive role in the liberation of Yugoslavia, which in October 1944 entered its territory. On April 11, 1945, a friendship agreement was concluded between the countries. However, due to the desire of Yugoslav communists, to preserve independence in decision-making in the summer of 1948. The contract was denounced, and the relationship between the countries ceased. They were normal only in 1955, when a friendly agreement was signed. Nevertheless, Yugoslavia never became a member of the Warsaw Treaty, and in the SEV had the status of an observer. In the late 1980s. In the country, on the one hand, the monopoly of the Communists on power is stopped, on the other, disintegration processes are occurring, actively supported by the West.
"Perestroika" in the USSR and the weakening of the positions of the Communists in Eastern Europe led to significant changes in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, in which the dominant position was held by Serbia and its communist guide. At the same time, Serbia sought to preserve the existing federation, and Slovenia and Croatia insisted on the conversion of it to the Confederation (1991). In June 1991, Slovenia was proclaimed her independence, and Croatia's Cathedral adopted a declaration on the proclamation of Independence of Croatia. Then, from Belgrade, they sent a regular army against them, but Croats and Slovenians began to resist armed.
Attempts by Belgrade with the help of troops to prevent Independence of Croatia and Slovenia ended in failure due to the support of separatists from the European Union and NATO. Then part of the Serbian population of Croatia, supported by Belgrade, the beginning of an armed struggle against the independence of Croatia. The conflict was attended by Serbian troops, a lot of blood sheds, the conflict between Croatia and Serbia began to decline after entering in February 1992 to Croatia the UN peacekeeping troops. Even more bloody events accompanied the independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The latter led to the collapse of the country in 1991: Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as Macedonia announced independence; And only the latter managed to do it in a peaceful way. In other cases, an armed conflict with the Central Government took place. Russia recognized their independence, but in all conflicts supported the Serbs. Such support was due primarily by civilization factors and led to complications in Russia's relations with both other countries of the region and the main states of the West. Most of all was manifested in 1999 during the Kosovo crisis, and direct NATO aggression against Yugoslavia, consisting only from Serbia and Montenegro. Russia, supporting Belgrade, actually turned out to be on the verge of a diplomatic conflict with Western countries. At the same time, Serbia, where pro-Western forces came to power, all this period did not demonstrate the readiness for broad economic cooperation, and in 2000, almost immediately after the completion of the Kosovo crisis, a visa regime was introduced between the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and the Russian Federation.
In 2008, Russia supported the desire of Serbia to preserve the territorial integrity and condemned the countries of the West for recognition of the independence of Kosovo's edge.
In Albania, the communist regime was dismantled in 1992.
In the early 1990s In a number of Eastern European states, new constitutions were adopted, or important changes in existing ones. They changed not only the names of states, but also the essence of public and political system, perceived "Western Democratic Values". The Constitution also consolidated and changes in the functions of the head of state, which the collective body stopped acting. Everywhere was restored by the post of president of the state.
In 1989-1990, radical changes occurred in all Eastern European states, as a result of which the communist parties were removed from power. They received two names: a) "velvet" revolutions (meaning that the change of ruling political forces occurred peacefully, without violence and blood, a certain exception was Romania and Yugoslavia); b) Democratic revolutions (implies the transition from totalitarianism to democracy).
There are several points of view on the nature of the events of 1989-1990. The most reasoned and generally accepted is that these were massive democratic revolutions. As a result of mass speeches (especially in GDR, Czechoslovakia, Romania), new political forces came to power, which began to change the revolutionary content. In Poland, Hungary, Yugoslavia, although they were not accompanied by mass movements at this time, but were the result of the long-term evolutionary processes of the 80s. This evolution occurred under the pressure of the masses and led to revolutionary political change.
The scale of changes at the turn of the 80-90s draws attention. For about a year, from mid-1989 to mid-1990, a series of revolutions occurred in the countries of Central and Southeast Europe. There was an unprecedented in Europe from 1848. The phenomenon is a chain reaction of the influence of one country to others. In June 1989, the antisocialist opposition won the parliamentary elections in Poland. In October of the same year, the Reformed Direction was defeated at the Congress of the Hungarian Socialist Workers Party, which reorganized the BPRP into the Social Democratic Party and expressed a market economy, the diversity of ownership forms. In November, the plenum of the Central Committee of the Bulgarian Communist Party was shifted by T.jivkov, and in Czechoslovakia after student unrest, the CCF was removed from power. In November-December 1989, a coalition government was formed in the GDR. December brought the overthrow of the Ceausescu regime in Romania. In January 1990, the actual disintegration of SKU occurred, the disintegration of Yugoslavia began. In May 1990, the universal strike led to the formation of a coalition government in Albania.
Revolutions 1989-1990 in the countries of the region were the result of nationwide crises, combinations of internal and external factors. The main foreign policy prerequisite was the "restructuring" in the USSR, which prepared a layer of the former system ideologically and politically: there is a publicity, new in ideology, the refusal of Moscow from Dictate in a socialist camp. Analyzing internal factors should be primarily emphasized that socialism as a path of development and its Stalinist model were for European countries in general. None of them could adapt to it either through national specifics, nor through partial reforms, nor through crises. The conservative administrative and command system has become a development brake: actual one-partyness did not allow to take into account the requirements of time; The monopoly on power led to the political and moral degradation of the leading layer of the party and state and economic apparatus; The dominant ideology was in stagnation.
It is also necessary to draw attention to the fact that in the countries of the region, some elements or remains of civil society remained: non-communist parties in the framework of national fronts in Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria and other informal associations. Economic problems have accumulated and aggravated. All of the above, taken in the complex, led to the need for radical changes and speed of collapse of the administrative and command system in the countries of Central and Southeast Europe.
The content of revolutions is a radical change of political forces in power. In some countries (for example, Poland and Czechoslovakia), power has passed to clearly incomocialist and even anti-communist movements. In others (for example, in Bulgaria, the Yugoslav Republics of Serbia and Montenegro), there were modernization of the Communities and their programs, which allowed them for some time to maintain powerful powers.
The general direction of all the revolutions of Sepalanov. Their destructive aspect was facing the totalitarianism, the lack of or violation of civil rights, against the ineffective administrative and command economy, corruption. The creative side was focused on the establishment of political pluralism and real democracy, the priority of universal values, on the development of the economy according to the laws operating in highly developed countries, to raise the living standards. If we formulate the positive orientation of the revolutions extremely briefly, it is necessary to allocate two main directions of movement - to democracy and the market.
The destructive aspect was fruitful - the previous political systems died very quickly. With the creation of a new society, the case was not so simple and quickly, the transition to a market economy is especially slow. This is explained by many reasons. The objective factors should include the archaic and bulky economic structure, the need for huge investments in the production and social sphere, various starting positions of states. Czechoslovakia and GDRs can be somewhat conventionally attributed to states with a fairly high level of development, Poland, Hungary, Croatia and Slovenia - the middle development countries, and Bulgaria, Romania, four other republics of the former Yugoslavia (Serbia, Montenegro, Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina), Albania is low. Among the subjective circumstances, it should be noted the preservation of anti-capitalist forces, a high social price of reforms (unemployment, inflation) and various forms of protest, approved with the socialism of the psychology of the equity, the absence of a necessary scientific substantiation of change.
For the events of 1989-1990, the instability of the ideological and political forces participating in them was characterized. They can be denoted as antitolitarian, but more accurately - it is impossible, since they were far from a distinct ideological and socio-political self-determination. In essence, these were the shaky coalitions are very diverse in socio-political and ideological terms, unforgettable currents (for example, Solidarity in Poland, Civil Forum in Czechoslovakia). They were only in the fight against old powerSo soon after the victory, the motley units broke up. In each country, a large number of political parties acted, which were sought to power and which it was difficult to find mutual language. The path to stability was very complicated due to severe, as a rule, the economic situation, social tensions, acute political confrontations, nostalgia a significant part of the population at the time of socialism.
From a social point of view, the main content of the modern period is manifested in the dynamic bundle and polarization of society. On the one hand, a small group of rich was appeared, on the other hand, workers deprived of the former social protection. The bundle is accelerated as market relations are folded, covers all the segments of the population, but in varying degrees. Dramatic social problem number one - unemployment.
From the standpoint of geopolitics and international relations in Europe and the world, the revolution of the 1980s-90s led to a sharp change of foreign policy and economic orientations of the countries of Central and Southeast Europe. At the turn of 1990-1991. The military-political organization of the Warsaw Treaty was eliminated. CEV, introducing from January 1, 1991. Credentials in convertible currency, died, which caused the strongest blow to the economy of all Eastern European states. For the overwhelming majority of the countries of the region (with the exception of Serbia and Montenegro), from the very beginning of the 1990s, the desire to make the most quickly to join the European Community, NATO and other Western structures. At the same time, it turned out that their integration with the West would be difficult to pass, long and painfully.
The extension of NATO threatened a violation of the current balance of international forces. It met a strong opposition to Russia and Belarus who did not want to border the states of the super power unit. Nevertheless, the process of NATO movement east began. In the spring of 1999, the first group of Eastern European states - Czech Republic, Poland, Hungary was adopted in the ranks of the block. During the aggression of NATO countries against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (March - June 1999), all former Socialist countries of Central-Eastern Europe supported hostilities against the two Yugoslav republics, provided their airspace for NATO airplanes, etc. Macedonia allocated its territory to deploy the ground forces of the block before entering them into Kosovo. During and after the antiyugoslav aggression, neighboring states (Macedonia, Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina) have forced their movement in NATO. In general, this course is carried out by all states of Central-Eastern Europe, with partial exception of Serbia, Montenegro, Albania. It seems that in the near future there will be a further expansion of the NATO bloc due to another group of the countries of the region.
A more complex and long-lasting is the process of entering the countries of the region to the European Community (European Union). On the one hand, the states of Central-Eastern Europe would like to maximally get great benefits and benefits from the economic association with the most developed countries of Europe (investment in the structural restructuring of the economy, direct financial assistance in lifting the standard of living to Western European, the unified labor market, goods and goods and capital). On the other hand, the European Union countries are aware of the need to find huge amounts to pull up the economic systems of Central European countries to Western Europe and the complexity, the duration of economic restructuring processes in the former countries of socialism. Therefore, the European Community has not forced the process of its own expansion. Only at the summit in December 2001. The EU leaders decided to take into their ranks the first group of Central Europe countries in 2004 and identified a list of "applicants" from 10 republics. The rest (including Bulgaria and Romania) was invited to wait at least until 2007.
It is necessary to state that during the 1990s Russia has lost the role of the Center for Economic attraction for the countries of Central and Southeast Europe. Her place was taken by Germany, Italy, Austria, etc. In 1999, the countries of the European Union accounted for up to 60% of the foreign trade turnover of the states of the region.
The process of eliminating socialism in the countries of the region as a whole was a similar way. At the same time, it is necessary to pay attention to some national characteristics of both the events of 1989-1990 and subsequent development.
Poland. At the Plenum of the Central Committee PPP (January 1989), supporters of radical reforms have achieved decision-making on the transition to political pluralism and on the Communist Party dialogue with other socio-political forces. In February - April 1989, a number of meetings of the "Round Table" took place (PPP, the opposition, the Catholic Church), in which the parties agreed to resolve opposition activities, the legalization of "solidarity
", Change the election law. At the parliamentary election (June 1989), the victory won the opposition. At the end of 1989, the Coalition Government was formed in Poland, which was headed by the representative of Solidarity and the Catholic Church T.Mazazetsky and in which there were only four minister
Communist.
After that, the process of formation of new political and economic structures accelerated. Even the name of the state has changed: the Commonwealth of Polish Prospitations (Republic of Poland) instead of Poland. President in the 1991 elections. The former leader of Solidarity L.Valens was elected. "Solidarity" split, and a significant part of the members of this Party trade union transferred to the opposition to the Government and the President. In January 1990, PPP in January 1990 was transformed into the Social Democracy of the Republic of Poland, which supports multiparty and market economies. There are more than 50 parties in the country, including many Catholic.
The translation of the economy to the laws of the market was under the leadership of the Minister of Finance L. Balzerovich and was carried out by the method of "shock therapy". We immediately introduced free prices, the borders for foreign goods were opened, the privatization of state ownership was launched. The market has stabilized, but the Polish industry is more or less adapted to new conditions only in the mid-90s. Unemployment was and remains mass. Serious economic problems are preserved, despite the great help of the West (investment, "write-off" of half of foreign debt).
Internal political life in the 90s was distinguished by instability. Governments often changed. Valence President constantly conflicted with parliament. From November 1995, the President of Poland is the leader of Social Democracy Alexander Kvasniewski.
Eastern Germany. In the summer of 1989, the emigration of citizens of the GDR in Germany acquired a massive nature - by the end of the year, over 200 thousand moved to West Germany. Many cities passed mass manifestations demanding immediately start political and economic reforms. In October 1989, E. Chonekker was forced to leave the highest posts in the party and the state. Parliament excluded an article about the leading role of the Communist Party from the Constitution, formed a coalition government. The border with Western Berlin was opened. Segg recognized his mistakes and abuses, changed its name to the party of democratic socialism (PDS).
At the parliamentary elections (March 1990), PDS was defeated. The process of preparation for the union of Eastern and West Germany began. A symbol of the Iron Curtain was destroyed - Berlin Wall. By decision of the parliaments of the GDR and Germany since July 1, 1990, the agreement on the economic and currency union of the two parts of Germany began to operate. On October 3, 1990, the GDR ceased to exist, five new federal FRG lands appeared instead. Two parts of Germany united.
Czechoslovakia. In the fall of 1989, the opposition's manifestations are held, which consolidates, begins to head the masses and requires the transition to multiparty and market economies. After overclocking on November 17, 1989, the demonstration of Prague students there is a protest growth. The opposition created the social and political association "Civil Forum", whose head was Vaclav Havel. It led mass performances under the slogans of return to democracy and humanism.
In December 1989, the CCF substantially capitulated, agreeing with the decision of the Parliament about the abolition of a constitutional article on the leading role of the Communist Party. The Federal Assembly elected as his chairman A. Gavel, the President of the country - V. Gavel, formed a multi-party government. In 19901991 The country was called the Czech and Slovak Federal Republic. Denationalization began, an agreement was concluded on the conclusion of Soviet troops. The restructuring of the economy proceeded without special social shocks. The law on challenges, prohibiting former PFC functions and state security workers to occupy any senior positions.
In the parliamentary elections (June 1992) and in the Czech Republic, Yves Slovakia defeated the party, whose leaders immediately announced the near, but civilized "divorce" of the two republics. In July (1992), the presidential elections in the Federal Assembly was not elected V. Gavel, a supporter of the Unified State of Chekhov and Slovaks. He died in a car accident standing on the same positions A.Dubchk. At the end of November 1992, the Parliament with a slight majority of votes approved the elimination of the emergence of the CSFR. On the night of January 1, 1993 on political map New states - the Republic of Czech Republic and Slovakia appeared.
President of the Czech Republic is Vgvel (in January 1998 he was elected for the second five-year period). Until the end of 1997, the government consisted of representatives of the right-hand political forces, and the Prime Minister was the leader of the Civil Democratic Party V.Klaus. Since 1998, socio-economic events in the country holds the "left" government, headed by the leader of the Czech Social Democrats with Milichest Zemnom.
The strategic direction of the entire internal policy number one in the Czech Republic remains unchanged throughout the existence of the republic - an active transition to the market and civil society, but without shock therapy. The reform of the economy proceeds very successfully, with the best among the former socialist countries with indicators.
Since 1999, Czech Republic is a member of the NATO block. It is part of the group of countries whose admission to the European Union is scheduled for 2004. The largest trade partner of the Czech Republic is Germany (approximately 1/3 of import and export).
In Slovakia, reforms take place slightly slower, but with good results. Since the late 90s, the coalition of the right and centrist forces is in power (President Rudolf Schuster, Government M. Dzurinada).
Bulgaria. Radical reforms in this country were started to "above" - \u200b\u200bnew communist guidance. The Communist Party has kept power for a while, and then continued to hold fairly strong political positions in the country.
The collapse of the Bulgarian "Perestroika" led in November 1989 to the removal of Tjivkov. The Secretary General of the Central Committee of the BCP was elected Minister of Foreign Affairs Peter Infants, who soon occupied the established post of President Bulgaria. In January 1990, "Manifesto on Democratic Socialism" (recognition of deformations of socialism, condemnation of national policies of Tiezkova, a refusal of a leadership, was adopted at the Extraordinary Congress of the BCP (recognition of deformations of socialism, the condemnation of the National Policy of Tiezkova, the refusal of the leadership role, the course for the radical update of socialism in Bulgaria). Shortly after the Congress, the BCP was renamed Bulgarian Socialist Party (BSP).
A union of democratic forces (SDS) was created, which united 16 anti-communist parties. This movement and became the main opposition force. He headed his philosopher Zhelya Zhelya.
In June 1990, parliamentary elections took place, on which BSP received a small advantage over the opposition. But in August 1990, the Great People's Assembly was elected president of Zheleva, and at the end of the year the first coalition government formed, in which the socialists had more than half of the portfolios.
Zheleva was the President of Bulgaria until the end of 1996 in 1997-2009. The head of state was Peter Stoyanov - a representative of the antsocialist forces. In November 2001 The leader of the Socialist Party of Georgy Pyrvanov was elected president for a five year period.
The government of the country alternately was the socialists, the right-wing parties. From summer 2001. Bulgarian Prime Minister is the former monarch of Simeon II.
Romania. In December 1989, a peaceful demonstration with anti-type slogans took place in the small town of Timisoara. It was brutally suppressed by security forces and troops. The working cities responded with a common strike, which was the beginning of a democratic revolution. The unrest covered many cities. In Bucharest, they took the nature of the clashes with government troops. By order, Ceausescu specially opened fire on protesters, but the army as a whole declared its neutrality, and later passed on the side of the rebels.
The manifestations were captured by the building of the Central Committee of the RCP. For several days in the capital, there were fights with special forces, faithful to the dictator. Resistance was soon suppressed, and the authorities moved to the front of the national salvation. N. Schasyscu and his wife Elena were captured and a sentence of a military court was shot.
Yugoslavia. In January 1990, on the XIV (emergency) Congress of the Union of Communists begins federal State. The delegation of Slovenia and Croatia left him after the refusal to accept their proposals for the holding of multiparty elections already in 1990 and about the transformation of republican SC into independent parties. As a result, there was an actual split, the social democratization of republican compatines began, numerous new parties and movements have emerged, the ideas of nationalism and anti-communism appeared widely and widely.
In 1990, elections were held in republican misfortunes (parliaments), in which the former communist parties were defeated in Croatia and Slovenia, did not receive the majority in Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, but they retained power in Serbia and Montenegro. After the elections, the real disintegration of SFRA begins, which contributed by the loss of an integrating factor in the face of SK, the strengthening of centrifugal trends, large socio-economic and cultural differences between the republics.
In the second half of the 1990s, Slovenia and Croatia proclaimed their state sovereignty and began to form the basic institutions of the state (the army in the first place). The federal authorities and Serbia opposed the release of the republics from a multinational state. In May 1991 Military actions began against Croatia and Slovenia, which continued until March 1, 1992, they were discontinued under the influence of the following factors: a) recognition by the West independence of Slovenia, Croatia and other Yugoslav Republics; b) the development of the disintegration process (allocation from the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia); c) strong pressure of the international community (UN, West, Russia). Military clashes were the most fierce on the territory of Croatia.
In September 1991 In Macedonia, a referendum was held, according to the results of which the new sovereign republic was proclaimed. The Yugoslav army was removed from it without armed clashes.
In April 1992, Serbia and Montenegro united in the Union Republic of Yugoslavia (the so-called "Small Yugoslavia"). Of course, it was dominated by the end of the 1990s, defined the foreign and domestic politics of Serbia and its leader Slobodan Milosevic.
The most tragic character had the events of the first half of the 90s in Bosnia and Herzegovina, known as the "Bosnian crisis". Here in 1992 - 1995 he was held civil War with interethnic character.
The population of Bosnia and Herzegovina is multinational - 40% of Muslims (Bosnyakov), 32% of Serbs, 18% of Croats. In 1990-1991 There was a sharp polarization of the population and political parties on a national basis. Muslims and Croats advocated the sovereignty of the republic, Serbs against. In January 1992, Bosnia and Herzegovina's misfortune (Croats and Muslims) approved a sovereignty Memorandum and elected the President of the Muslim community by the president. The Serbian faction left the parliament, and the Serbians declared their autonomy and uncleaning the decision of the misfortune.
In April 1992, in accordance with the Memorandum of Bosnia and Herzegovina, an independent and immediately recognizes the EU. In the same month, civil war begins in Bosnia. At the end of April, the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina was self-proclaimed. In June 1992, the Federal Army was derived, and from that time the war continued between the formations of the three communities.
In June 1992, strict economic sanctions against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and Bosnian Serbs were introduced by the decision of the UN Security Council, subjectively recognized by the aggressors, the only guilty of war in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Since 1992, on the territory of the former Yugoslavia, the UN peacekeeping forces ("Blue helmets") performing the following functions: separation of warring parties, control over the observance of the truce, the protection of humanitarian convoys. The international community also developed and tried to realize several plans for the peaceful settlement of the Bosnian crisis, but they were not implemented in virtue of various reasons.
Since August 1995, NATO's forces began to bring massive blows on the military facilities of Bosnian Serbs, thereby maintaining the large-scale offensive of Muslims and Croats. Serbs suffered defeat and lost a significant part of the territory. The success of this united operation against the Republic of Serbian predetermined future agreements on Bosnia and Herzegovina.
In October 1995, a truce came, and at the end of October - the middle of November, the delegations of Croatia, Muslims of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia (represented the interests of Bosnian Serbs) at the American Air Base in Dayton. On December 14, 1995, the solemn signing of a peace treaty was held in Paris, which was attended by the heads of states-guarantors of its observance (USA, England, France, Germany, Russia). The main provisions of Dayton agreements may be reduced to the following: a) Bosnia and Herzegovina - a single (externally) state with the president, parliament, the government; b) it consists of two parts - the Croato-Muslim federation (51% of the territory) and the Serbian Republic (49%); c) section of land, compliance with the contract and maintaining peace provide the so-called multinational forces (mainly from NATO countries and under the command of this block) that replace UN peacekeeping battalions; d) sanctions against the Union of the Republic of Yugoslavia are gradually removed. In the second half of the 90s, the situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina externally normalized, but it still does not exist as a single state. Multiethnic forces continue to remain, being the only guarantor of the preservation of peace in the Bosnian lands.
In the late 90s, important events occurred in Serbia and the Union Republic of Yugoslavia, as well as around them. In Serbia, an anti-socialist opposition was formed and actively acted, opposing the president of the republic, the leader of the Socialist Party Slobodan Milosevich. In 1997, S. Miloshevich, fearing defeats in the elections in Serbia, achieved his own election for the presidency to shed.
1999 - Apogee of the Kosovo crisis. Recall that Kosovo is an autonomous region as part of Serbia, at least 90% of the population of which at the end of the twentieth century were Albanians. Since the end of the 40s, active activities are carried out here on the separation of the region from Serbia and Yugoslavia. In 1990, the Declaration of Independence Kosovo was adopted. In 1997, the Albanian army of the liberation of Kosovo was formed, which soon announced the open War Belgrade under the slogan of complete independence and accession to Albania. Since the spring of 1998, a real civil war with ethnic character and numerous victims began in the region.
The West accused Serbia and shed in genocide against the Kosovo Albanians and proposed to sign a contract actually rejected Kosovo from Serbia in a few years. The refusal of the Yugoslav delegation to sign the derogious document served as a reason for NATO aggression against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (March - June 1999). It participated in 19 developed countries of the world with economic potential equal to 679 Yugoslavsky. She passed without UN sanction. Over 25 thousand airlinalets were committed, more than 1 thousand winged missiles were released and 31 thousand shells with depleted uranium.
Guide to FRY (S. Miloshevich) and Serbia was forced to capitulate. In Kosovo, multinational armed forces were introduced, in which NATO troops dominated. Since the end of 1999, there will be a gradual sovereignty of the region (in violation of the UN Security Council resolution on the territorial integrity of SRAY) and displacing the residues of Serbs and Chernogorst from it.
In 2000, S. Miloshevich lost the presidential election in Sreeks Kutunitz. In 2001 The new Prime Minister of Serbia Zoran Jindgich ordered the issuance of S. Miloshevich to the International Tribunal for the Investigation of War Crimes in the former Yugoslavia (Hague).
The period under review was for the countries of Western Europe and the United States peaceful and stable compared to the first half century, which had several European wars and two world wars, two series of revolutionary events. Dominant development of the name of the group of states in the second half of the XX century. It is customary to consider a significant progress along the path of scientific and technological progress, the transition from the industrial to the post-industrial society. However, during these decades, the country of the Western world has encountered a number of complex problems, crisis situations, shocks - to all what is called "time calls". These were large-scale events and processes in different fields, such as technological and information revolutions, collapse of colonial empires, global economic crises 1974-1975. and 1980-1982, social speeches in the 60-70s. XX century, separatist movements, etc. All of them demanded that or another restructuring of economic and social relations, the choice of pathways of further development, compromises or tightening political courses. In this regard, various political forces were replaced by the authorities, mainly conservatives and liberals who tried to strengthen their position in the world changed.
The first postwar years in European countries have become the time of acute struggle primarily around the issues of a social device, political grounds of states. In a number of countries, for example, in France, it was necessary to overcome the consequences of the occupation and activities of the collaborationist governments. And for Germany, Italy, it was about full elimination of the remains of Nazism and fascism, creating new democratic states. Significant political battles unfold around the elections to the constituent meetings, the development and adoption of new constitutions. In Italy, for example, events related to the choice of the monarchical or republican form of the state, they went down in history as the "Battle of the Republic" (the country was proclaimed by the republic as a result of the referendum on June 18, 1946).
It was then that the strength of themselves, most actively participating in the struggle for power and influence in society over the next decades. On the left flank there were Social Democrats and Communists. At the final stage of the war (especially after 1943, when the Comintern was dissolved), members of these parties were collaborated in the resistance movement, later - in the first post-war governments (in France in 1944, a conciliation committee of the Communists and Socialists was established, in Italy in 1946 . Agreement was signed on the unity of action). Representatives of both left parties were part of the coalition governments in France in 1944-1947, in Italy in 1945-1947. But the fundamental discrepancies between the Communist and Socialist Party were maintained, moreover, in the post-war years, many Social Democratic Party excluded from their programs to establish the dictatorship of the proletariat, they adopted the concepts of social society, essentially switched to liberal positions.
In a conservative camp from the mid-40s. The most influential were parties that combined the representation of the interests of large industrialists and financiers with the nomination of Christian values \u200b\u200bas irruptive and uniting different social layers of the ideological foundations. These include the Christian-Democratic Party (HDP) in Italy (founded in 1943), People's Republican Movement (MRP) in France (founded in 1945), Christian-Democratic Union (since 1945 - XDS, with 1950 - KDS / HSS unit) in Germany. These parties sought to obtain broad support in society, emphasized the commitment of the principles of democracy. Thus, the first XDS program (1947) included the "socialization" slogans of a number of household sectors, "complicity" of workers in the management of enterprises. And in Italy during the referendum of 1946, most members of the HDP voted for the republic, and not for the monarchy. The confrontation of the right, conservative and left, socialist parties and accounted for the main line in the political history of Western European countries in the second half of the XX century. At the same time, it can be seen as changes in the economic and social situation in some years we moved a political pendulum to the left, then to the right.
From recovery to stability (1945-1950 - e)
After the end of the war, the coalition governments were established in most Western European countries, in which representatives of the left forces - socialists played a decisive role and in some cases of communists. The main activities of these governments were the restoration of democratic freedoms, cleaning the state apparatus from members of the fascist movement, persons who collaborated with the invaders. The most significant step in the economic sphere was the nationalization of a number of industries and enterprises. In France, 5 largest banks were nationalized, the coal industry, Renault automotive plants (the owner of which collaborated with the occupation regime), several aviation enterprises. The share of the public sector in the production of industrial products reached 20-25%. In the UK, where power in 1945-1951. Laborists were located, the state of the state passed power plants, coal and gas industry, Railways, transport, separate airlines, steel plants. As a rule, these were important, but far from the most prosperous and income enterprises, on the contrary, they demanded significant investments. In addition to the former masters of nationalized enterprises, significant compensation was paid. Nevertheless, nationalization and state regulation were considered by social-democratic leaders as a higher achievement on the path to the "social economy".
Constitutions adopted in Western European countries in the second half of the 40s. - In 1946 in France (Constitution of the fourth republic), in 1947 in Italy (entered into force on January 1, 1948), in 1949 in West Germany, became the most democratic constitutions in the entire history of these countries. Thus, in the French Constitution of 1946, in addition to the democratic rights, the rights to work, recreation, social security, education, the rights of workers on the management of enterprises, trade union and political activity, the right to strike "within the framework of laws" and others were proclaimed for participation in management.
In accordance with the provisions of the Constitutions, social insurance systems were created in many countries, which included pension provision, disease benefits and unemployment, help to large families. A 40-42-hour week was established, paid vacation was introduced. This was done to a large extent under the pressure of workers. For example, in England in 1945, 50 thousand dosers conducted a strike to achieve a reduction in the working week to 40 hours and the introduction of two-week paid vacations.
A special period in the history of Western European countries amounted to the 50s. It was the time of rapid economic development (an increase in industrial production reached 5-6% per year). The post-war industry was created using new machines and technologies. The scientific and technical revolution began, one of the main manifestations of which was the automation of production. The qualifications of workers who manage the automatic lines and systems increased and their salary increased.
In the UK level wages In the 50s. Increased by an average of 5% per year with a rise in prices by 3% per year. In Germany for the 50s. Real wages increased 2 times. True, in some countries, for example in Italy, Austria, the indicators were not so significant. In addition, the governments periodically "frozen" salary (prohibited its increase). It caused protests and workers' strikes.
Especially noticeable was the economic rise in the Federal Republic of Germany and Italy. In the post-war years, the farm has been harder here more and more slowly than in other countries. Against this background, the situation of the 50s. It was estimated as an "economic miracle." It became possible due to the restructuring of the industry on a new technological basis, the creation of new industries (petrochemistry, electronics, production of synthetic fibers, etc.), industrialization of agricultural areas. Significant help served American assistance in terms of Marshall. A favorable condition for lifting production was that in the post-war years there was a great demand for various industrial goods. On the other hand, there was a significant reserve of cheap labor (due to immigrants, immigrants from the village).
The economic rise was accompanied by social stability. In the conditions of the reduced unemployment, the relative sustainability of prices, the growth of wages to perform the working people to be minimized. Their growth began with the end of the 50s, when there were some negative effects of automation - reducing jobs and others.
The period of stable development coincided with the coming to power of the conservatives. Thus, in Germany, the name K. Adenauer, who served as Chancellor in 1949-1963, was associated with the revival of the German state, and L. Erhard called the "father of the economic miracle." Christian democrats partly retained the facade of "social policy," spoke about the society of universal well-being, social guarantees for labor people. But the intervention of the state in the economy was minimized. The theory of "social market economy" was established in Germany, focused on supporting private property and free competition. In England, the Conservative Governments of W. Churchill, and then A. Idena, conducted a reprivatization of some nationalized industries and enterprises (road transport, steel plants, etc.). In many countries, the advent of the conservatives and freedoms proclaimed after the war began, laws were taken, in accordance with which citizens were prosecuted for political reasons, the Communist Party was banned in Germany.
Changes of the 60s.
After a decade of stability in the life of the Western European states, a strip of shocks and changes associated with both internal development problems and colonial empires are faced.
So, in France by the end of the 50s. There was a crisis situation caused by frequent change of the governments of socialists and radicals, the collapse of the colonial empire (the loss of Indochina, Tunisia and Morocco, the war in Algeria), the deterioration of the position of workers. In such an environment, the idea of \u200b\u200b"strong power" was obtained, the active supporter of which was the active supporter of which General Sh. De Gaulle. In May 1958, the command of the French troops in Algeria refused to obey the government until Sh. De Gaulle returns to him. The general said that "ready to take over the power of the republic" subject to the abolition of the Constitution of 1946 and the provision of emergency powers. In the autumn of 1958, the Constitution of the Fifth Republic was adopted, providing the wider rights to the head of state, and in December de Gaulle was elected by the President of France. Having established the "personal power regime", he sought to confront the attempts to weaken the state from within and outside. But in the question of the colonies, being a realistic politician, soon decided that it was better to carry out the decolonization "from above", while maintaining an impact in the former possessions than waiting for shameful exile, for example, from the fought for the independence of Algeria. De Gaulle's readiness to recognize the right of Algerians to solve their destiny in 1960 an anti-government rebellion of the military. All in 1962 Algeria received independence.
In the 60s. In European countries, the speeches of different groups of the population under different slogans are frequent. In France in 1961-1962 Demonstrations and strikes were organized with the requirements of ending the insurgency of the ultracolonial forces who opposed the provision of independence algae. In Italy, mass performances were passed against the activation of neo-fascists. Workers have advanced both economic and political requirements. In the fight for the increase in wages included "White Collars" - highly qualified workers serving.
The highest point of social speeches during this period was the events of May - June 1968 in France. Began how to perform the Parisian students who demanded the democratization of the Higher Education system, they soon turned into mass demonstrations and a universal strike (the number of countries basting in the country exceeded 10 million people). The working series of Renault automotive plants occupied their enterprises. The government was forced to make concessions. Stakeholders have achieved wages by 10-19%, increasing holidays, extending trade union rights. These events were a serious test for the authorities. In April 1969, President de Gaulle nominated a draft law on the reorganization of local self-government to a referendum, but most of the votes rejected the bill. After that, Sh. De Gaulle resigned. In June 1969, a new president of the country was elected representative of the Halft Party J. Pompidu.
1968 was marked by the exacerbation of the situation in Northern Ireland, where the civil rights movement was intensified. The clashes of representatives of the Catholic population with the police turned into an armed conflict, which included both Protestant and Catholic extremist groups. The government introduced into the Ulster troops. The crisis, then exacerbating, then weakening, dragged into three decades.
A wave of social speeches led to political change in most Western European countries. In many of them in the 60s. Social democratic and socialist parties came to power. In Germany at the end of 1966, representatives of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SDPG) entered the coalition government with XDS / HSS, and since 1969 they already formed the government in a block with a free democratic party (CVDP). In Austria in 1970-1971 For the first time in the history of the country, the Socialist Party came to power. In Italy, the basis of post-war governments was the Christian-Democratic Party (HDP), which joined the coalition with the left, then with the right-wing parties. In the 60s. Its partners were left - Social Democrats and Socialists. The leader of the Social Democrats D. Saragat was elected president of the country.
With differences in situations in different countries The policy of social democrats had some common features. They considered the "Social Society" "never ending," the main values \u200b\u200bof which freedom, justice, solidarity proclaimed. They considered themselves as representatives of the interests of not only workers, but also other segments of the population (from 70-80s. These parties began to rely on the so-called "new middle layers" - scientific and technical intelligentsia, employees). In the economic sphere, Social Democrats acted for a combination of different forms of ownership - private, state, etc. Key position Their programs were the thesis on state regulation of the economy. The attitude to the market was expressed by the motto: "Competition is as far as possible, planning is as far as necessary." Of particular importance was the "democratic participation" of workers in solving issues of the organization of production, prices, salaries.
In Sweden, where Social Democrats were in power for several decades, the concept of "functional socialism" was formulated. It was assumed that the private owner does not need to be deprived of his property, but should be gradually involved in the fulfillment of social functions by redistribution of profits. The state in Sweden was about 6% of production facilities, but the share of public consumption in the Gross National Product (GNP) in the early 70s. accounted for about 30%.
Social democratic and socialist governments have allocated significant funds for education, health care, social security. To reduce unemployment, special training and retraining programs have been adopted. Promotion in solving social problems was one of the most significant achievements of Social Democratic Governments. However, the negative consequences of their policies were also manifested - excessive "regulation", bureaucratization of public and economic management, overvoltry of the state budget. Part of the population began to approve the psychology of social dependency, when people, without working, were expected to obtain as much as those who worked hard. These "costs" caused criticism from the conservative forces.
The important part of the activities of the social democratic governments of Western European states has become a change in foreign policy. Especially significant steps in this direction were made in the Federal Republic of Germany. The government came to power in 1969, led by Chancellor V. Brandt (SDPG) and Vice-Chancellor and Foreign Minister V. Scheel (CVDP) made a fundamental turn in Eastern Policy, concluded in 1970-1973. Bilateral agreements with the USSR, Poland, Czechoslovakia, confirming the inviolability of the borders between Germany and Poland, Germany and GDR. These treaties, as well as four-sided agreements on West Berlin, signed by representatives of the USSR, USA, Great Britain and France in September 1971, created real soil to expand international contacts and mutual understanding in Europe. 4. Fall of authoritarian regimes in Portugal, Greece, Spain. In the mid-70s. Significant political changes occurred in the states of southwestern and southern Europe.
In Portugal, as a result of the April revolution, 1974, authoritarian regime was overthrown. The political revolution, carried out by the movement of the armed forces in the capital, led to the change of power in the field. The first post-revolutionary governments (1974-1975), consisting of the leaders of the movement of the Armed Forces and Communists, focused on the tasks of defashization and the approval of democratic orders, decolonization of the African possessions of Portugal, carrying out agricultural reform, adopting a new country's constitution, improving the living conditions of workers. The nationalization of the largest enterprises and banks was carried out, work control was introduced. In the future, the right unit of Democratic Alliance came to power (1979-1983), who has tried to minimize the transformation initiated earlier, and then the coalition government of the socialist and social democratic parties headed by the leader of Socialists M. Soaresh (1983-1985).
In Greece in 1974, the "Black Colonelov" regime was replaced by the Civil Government, consisting of representatives of the conservative bourgeoisie. It did not conduct serious transformation. In 1981-1989 And since 1993, the party was a party to the NEGRE-Socialist Movement (Pask), a course of democratization of political system and social reforms was held.
In Spain, after death in 1975, F. Franco, the head of the state became King Juan Carlos I. When approved, the transition began from an authoritarian regime for democratic. The government headed by A. Suarez restored democratic freedoms, abolished the ban on the activities of political parties. In December 1978, a constitution was adopted, proclaiming Spain with a socio-legal state. Since 1982, the Spanish Socialist Workers Party has been in power, its leader F. Gonzalez headed the government of the country. Particular attention was paid to measures for the rise in production, job creation. In the first half of the 1980s. A number of important social events were held by the government (decline in the working week, an increase in vacations, adoption of laws that expand the rights of workers in enterprises, etc.). The party sought social stability, achieving the consent between different layers of Spanish society. The result of the socialist policies that were in power continuously until 1996, it was the conclusion of a peaceful transition from dictatorship to a democratic society.
Neoconservatives and liberals in recent decades of the XX - early XXI century.
Crisis 1974-1975 Seriously complicated the economic and social situation in most Western European countries. We needed change, structural restructuring of the economy. There were no resources for her with existing economic and social policy, state regulation of the economy did not work. The answer to the time call tried to give conservatives. Their orientation for the free market economy, private entrepreneurship and initiative was well linked with an objective need for wide investment in production.
In the late 70s - early 80s. Conservatives came to power in many Western countries. In 1979, the Conservative Party defeated the parliamentary elections in the UK, the government headed M. Thatcher (the party remained ruling until 1997) - in 1980, the Republican R. Reagan, who won and in 1984 elections in 1982 was elected president. G. In Germany, the coalition of XDS / HSS and SVDP came to power, the post of Chancellor took G. Kohl. There was a long-term board of Social Democrats in Northern Europe. They suffered defeats in the elections in 1976 in Sweden and Denmark, in 1981 in Norway.
For those who came during this period, the figures were not for nothing called new conservatives. They showed that they can look forward, capable of change. They were distinguished by political flexibility and factories, appeal to the wide segments of the population. Thus, British conservatives, headed by M. Thatcher, defended the "true values \u200b\u200bof the British Society", to which the hardworking and thrift; disregard for lazy people; independence, support for its own strength and the desire for individual success; respect for the laws, religion, the owners of the family and society; Promoting the preservation and enhancement of the National Great of Britain. The slogans for the creation of "democracy of owners" were used.
The main terms of the non-unconsorment policies were the privatization of the public sector and the coagulation of state regulation of the economy; Course for free market economy; reduction of social spending; reduction of income taxes (which contributed to the intensification of entrepreneurial activity). In social policy, the equation was rejected, the principle of redistribution of profits. The first steps of neoconservatives in the field of foreign policy led to the new round of the arms race, the exacerbation of the international situation (the bright manifestation of this was the war between the United Kingdom and Argentina due to the Falkland Islands in 1983).
Encouraging private entrepreneurship, the course on the modernization of production contributed to the dynamic development of the economy, its restructuring in accordance with the needs of the unfolded informational revolution. Thus, the conservatives proved that they are capable of transforming society. In Germany, the most important historical event was added to the achievements of this period - the union of Germany in 1990, involvement in Kolya in the number of the most significant figures of German history. At the same time, during the reign of conservatives, there were no performances of various groups of the population for social and civil rights (among them the strike of English miners in 1984-1985, performances in Germany against the placement of American missiles, etc.).
In the late 90s. In many European countries, conservatives in power changed liberals. In 1997, the Labor Government headed by E. Blair came to power, and in France, on the results of parliamentary elections, the government was formed from representatives of the left parties. In 1998, the German Chancellor was the leader of the Social Democratic Party of Schroeder. In 2005, he was replaced by the Chancellor, a representative of the KDS / HSS of A. Merkel, who headed the Government of the Great Coalition, consisting of representatives of Christian Democrats and Social Democrats. Earlier in France, the government came to replace the left government from representatives of the right-hand parties. However, in the middle of the 10th year. XXI century In Spain and Italy, right-wing governments as a result of parliamentary elections were forced to give the power to governments led by the Socialists.
By the 60-70 months of the 19th century, the period of national liberation movements and revolutions ends in Europe. Despite the defeat of some speeches throughout Europe, a wave of struggle for the elimination of feudal remnants, national independence is rolled. The world that occurred in Europe has gave impetus to their political and social development. Special place in state and public Life ranked bourgeoisie. The production of industrialization provided exit from economic crisis and demographic growth of the population of Europe.
Political development European countries in late 19 - early 20th century
By the 70th. National liberation movements and revolutions are being completed in Western Europe. There were bourgeois national states in the form of constitutional monarchies or republics. The evolutionary nature of socio-political development began to prevail. A parliamentary system was formed on a two- or multi-party basis. The parliamentary tribune made it possible to declare the requirements and requests of the wide segments of the population. Civil society has been approved with his knowledge of the principles of law and management, autonomy of thinking.
In political life, the role of industrial bourgeoisie, interested in the patronage of a strong state for the protection of its property, increased in political life. She puts the state apparatus, party, unions of entrepreneurs, other utility organizations.
In England, the regime of the parliamentary monarchy and the bipartisan system acted. Liberals and conservatives were alternately replaced in power. Enhanced executive and its administrative apparatus in the face of the Cabinet of Ministers.
In France, in 1870, the republican system established, but the positions of monarchists were still strong. The French bourgeoisie, prompted by democratic layers, led a long struggle for strengthening the republic. In 1875, the Constitution of the Third Republic was adopted, which provided for the creation of a two-bearet parliament. The head of state was announced by the president elected by the Chambers of Parliament. He possessed great powers. In the struggle for the statement of the republic and its democratization, France survived late XIX. in. Several serious political crises.
In Germany, in 1871, a constitution was adopted, according to which the executive and partly legislative power was concentrated in the hands of the emperor. The highest representative body was Reichstag, elected on the basis of universal election law. The laws taken by the Lower Chamber of Parliament were subject to approval in the upper chamber and the emperor. He appointed Chancellor - the Union Minister responsible only to him. Prussia retained a three-year election law in elections to the local Landtag.
In Italy, the bourgeois monarchy was approved. The legislative power belonged to the king and parliament, which consisted of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The king prescribed and shifted the highest officials States, had the right to dissolve parliament. The electoral right received an extremely narrow layer of programms.
The exacerbation of social contradictions, the growth of the mass movement forced the ruling circles of many Western countries to make the democratization of political system, mainly on the way to expand electoral rights. In England, the reform of the polling law of the 80s. Increased the number of voters to parliament due to the shallow bourgeoisie and the tops of the working class. The electoral law reform in Italy (1882) provided the right to vote among the average and even small owners. In Germany, there was a persistent struggle of democratic forces for the abolition of a three-year electoral system in Prussia.
At the beginning of the XX century. The politicians of the new formation came to power, aware of the need to apply new methods of managing society. They began to carry out reforms in social relations. Bourgeois reformism manifested mainly on the basis of liberalism, which captured the dominant position during the approval of the industrial society. Political leaders of liberal orientation in France (E. Comb, radicals), Italy (J. Jolitti), in England (D. Lloyd George) held some reforms in order to reduce social tensions. In Germany, where liberalism was weaker, but the need for reforms was felt, reformism was implemented on a conservative basis. His conductor was the imperial chancellor B. von Buloves.
Social structure of European countries in late 19 - early 20th century
During industrialization changed social Structure European society. As a result of the compound of industrial and banking, the financial aristocracy has emerged, which included a narrow circle of individuals and families. It made an elite of Western society.
The symbol of power in France was "200 families", which controlled the French bank. In the psychology of the financial aristocracy, the extreme individualism and a sense of community to themselves were intertwined.
Representatives of the old aristocracy played a prominent role in society. In England, Germany, Italy and even in France, where the gap with the feudal past occurred most radically, they were opened with access to power, business. They sought to cite from bourgeois layers with them.
The industrial era created the conditions for entrepreneurship. There was a sufficiently large middle class, which united bourgeoisie, officials, intelligentsia. These were well-educated people engaged in labor and possessed practical mind. For them, interest in enrichment was combined with interest in the case in which they saw often the meaning of their lives.
Industrial coup resulted in the formation of a working class, deprived of means of production. Hired workers have become the main manufacturers of material goods.
The use of machines created conditions for the use of women and children. It was quite high was the gap in the payment of qualified and unskilled workers.
In agriculture, most Western countries have been occupied by a significant part of the able-bodied population. In England, the peasantry almost disappeared. It was replaced by tenants and agricultural workers. In other countries, the positions of wealthy peasants and farmers increased, but there were still many small peasants, especially in France.
Demographic processes of European countries in late 19 - early 20th century
Industrialization, agricultural productivity growth has created material prerequisites for meeting the needs of people in food, increasing population. The "first demographic explosion" occurred. European population for the XIX century. Doubled and amounted to 1900 more than 400 million people. Especially sharply increased the growth rate of the population in the second half of the XIX century, which is due to a decrease in mortality at high fertility. The progress of medicine in the fight against epidemics, health improvement contributed to a decrease in mortality. In the last third of the XIX century. The highest population increase was observed due to low mortality time and high fertility. But on turn XIX. - XX centuries. The tendency to reduce the birth rate has sharply designated. In many countries - England, Germany, Italy, Spain, Switzerland, Belgium, Holland, Scandinavian states - the demographic revolution began, which meant a decline in fertility and mortality, raising the life expectancy.
The demographic revolution began in France, which happened in the century earlier, at the turn of the XVIII - XIX centuries. It is directly related to the transformations caused by the Great french revolution and the consequences of Napoleonic wars.
Western European countries are characterized by late marriages. Average age Marriage in Western countries was at the end of the XIX century. 25 - 28 years old. A new type of family was developed, in which the practice of conscious birth regulation was observed, which was caused by social and cultural progress. The birth rate was lower in the proemual classes, medium-sized layers, above - in unqualified workers, in poor families.
A characteristic feature of family-marriage relations was an increase in marriage instability. However, terminate the marriage in the XIX century. It was possible only after a long and expensive procedure, so only representatives of the provided layers could achieve the divorce. Marriage in most cases terminated on the initiative of men. With the growth of its economic independence, women became initiative to dissolve.
Migrations of the population of the countries of Europe by the late 19 - early 20th century
XIX century It is considered a century of mass migration movements. Migrations or movements of people were caused by many reasons - economic, political, national, religious.
The wealth of the subsoil of new world, land spaces demanded workers. The legislation of the United States, Latin American countries patronized immigration. Organized recruitment points, a wide network of resettlement incentive societies. In 1800 - 1900 28 million people emigrated to America from Europe. England occupied the first place in the number of migrants, from which about 13 million people left over the years. The main importance of the migration movements was that they accelerated the economic development of countries in need of labor flow, led to colonization of weakly populated areas, contributed to the involvement of various regions into the system of world economy. At the same time at the beginning of the XX century. Migration from England and Germany significantly decreased, but significantly increased from less developed countries - Italy, Balkan countries, Eastern Europe. The resettlement of developed countries into economically retarded for the purpose of submission of the latter has increased. A similar character was migrated from France in North Africa. In general, European migration led to the settlement of many areas of North and Latin America, Australia, Oceania.
Urbanization of Europe in the late 19 - early 20th century
The rapid development of industrial production entailed urbanization, which means focusing the population and economic life in cities, the growth of urban residents by reducing rural.
The urbanization process began primarily in England and was closely related to industrialization. In the middle of the XIX century. More than half of the population of England lived in the cities, at the beginning of the 20th century. - 2/3 of the total number. London, together with suburbs, has numbered more than 7 million inhabitants.
The inflow of the rural population in the city expanded the backup army of labor, created new consumer masses, which stimulated the development of mass production. In the period from 1880 to 1914, 60 million Europeans moved from villages to cities. In 1900, there were 13 millionaire cities.
Urbanization developed spontaneously, uncontrollably, which led to the spread of various social diseases - crime, alcoholism, prostitution, mental disorders. The state of the urban environment has deteriorated, which led to the environmental crisis. Therefore, the urban authorities began to pay attention to the process of improving cities. The development of medical knowledge made it possible to identify the pathogens of epidemics whose raids were poor neighborhoods, where the population lived boringly, in unsanitary conditions. In the fight against epidemics, observance of personal hygiene, air purification and habitats were required.
Also began to change the layout of cities. Through the old center and the outlook, new wide streets were laid - prospectuses. The need for the construction of public buildings - department stores, libraries, exhibition halls, sports facilities has increased. There were changes in construction equipment, new building materials appeared - metal, glass, concrete.
Education of Europe in the late 19th - early 20th century
Technical progress and associated transition to machine production required competent qualified workers. Therefore, in Western countries in the second half of the XIX century. Universal initial training is introduced. The number of competent men by the end of the century reached 75 - 90% of the total number. In a public school, children trained reading, writing, gave elementary knowledge of arithmetic, acquainted with history, religious dogmas. The study of a certain minimum knowledge was characteristic of the school process.
Children of wealthy parents had the opportunity to get seconded education. With the development of industrial production, along with the gymnasiums of the humanitarian profile, technical and real schools appeared, in which much attention was paid to the study of mathematics, physics, chemistry. The middle school was not available to the bulk of children and because it was paid, and because the children of the poor were forced to make life from early years.
After graduating from high school, the education could be continued in higher educational institutions and get the profession of engineer, agronoma, teacher, doctor. Higher education was paid everywhere. Women closed access to universities.
Life of the countries of Europe in the late 19th - early 20th century
The quality of food of Western Europeans as a whole has improved, as the percentage of meat food, fruit increased in the diet. At the same time, the use of alcohol and tobacco. In Germany, the annual share of tobacco per person has increased from 1 to 1.6 kg in 1870 - 1913. Coffee has become a public drink, although poor people often satisfied with his surrogate.
Families with prosperity lived in palaces, mansions, apartments, furnished dear furniture. The interior changed simultaneously with change artistic styles. In the Napoleonic era, the furniture was heard by heavyweight, clear geometrism of oval, a circle, a rectangle. The atmosphere of the house was cold-official, the main character. In the middle of the century, the furniture became easier and frightened, lush plush and velvet (second rococo). Modern style of the end of the century brought the sluggish outlines, streamlined forms, asymmetry. The luxury and well-being are emphasized - dark tones in the interiors, soft quilted furniture, heavy drapery.
Fashion in clothes dictated by the courtyard, gave way to fashion bourgeois. Male suit as a whole acquired a uniformity, businesslikeness, practicality he began to be treated in functional intended purpose. The jackets and jackets turned into work clothes, a frak - in the parade. At the end of the XIX century. Tuxedo included (England), which were put on, going to the men's club, theater, restaurant.
Women's clothing was distinguished by a great variety and was designed to emphasize the wealth and prosperity of her husband. At the beginning of the XIX century. The female dress resembled a tunic, the belt was under the sadder, at the bottom of the skirt and on the sleeves - many volanov. The female outfit was complemented by expensive decorations. In the middle of the century in a female fashion, where the tone was asked France, the style of the second empire was established - the clothes were extremely coursed. Crinoline entered into use, which represented a seamless dome skirt with a multitude of lower skirts or steel hoops. Especially fashionable were golden lace finish. At the end of the XIX century. With the advent of new vehicles (car, tram), the distribution of sports exercises women's clothing Simplified. An important factor that influenced changes in clothing was the desire of women to equality, their struggle for education. There were women servants, doctors, teachers. The use of a skirt with a blouse, a suit consisting of a skirt and jacket, a coat.
Simple people wore something that did not bother to work and what could afford to afford. The folk costume was supplanted by the pan-European urban type, although his many details were preserved (ornament, decorations).
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Richina of the First World War. Plans by Party
The following major wars were preceded by the following world war:
The Spanish-American (1898), the US imperialists sought to seize the island's important economic and strategic terms in the quiet and Atlantic Oceans and in the Caribbean Sea belonging to Spain. The outcome of this war was in favor of the United States, which predetermined the immeasurable economic and military superiority of the States over feudal apartments.
Anglo-Board War (1899-1902). The cause of the war was the intention of England to seize the two small Bordes in southern Africa (now South Africa), in whose territory there were richest deposits of gold and diamonds. In 1900, England sent a 200-thousand army against the boys (later bringing its number to 450 thousand). Protecting its independence, the borax created an army in 60 thousand people on a police-based basis. However, despite the partisan movement, they were forced to stop resistance in 1902.
Russian-Japanese war (1904-1905). Its reason was the collision of the interests of Tsarist Russia and imperialist Japan, seeking to turn into their colonies Korea, Manchuria and other districts of the Far East. Russia had 300 thousand soldiers and 57 warships. Japan has created a large army with the help of the United States and England - 370 thousand people and 73 warships. Russia underestimated the enemy's strength and poorly prepared for war. Military failures and the growing revolution within the country forced the royal government to take the conditions of the world dictated by Japan.
First world WarOn August 1, 1914 and lasted until November 11, 1918, arose as a result of the exacerbation of the political and economic struggle between the largest imperialist countries of Europe. This led to the section of the world into two hostile camps and the emergence of two groups: the Triple Union - Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy and Triple Consent or Entente - England, France and Russia.
The war between major European powers was beneficial to the US imperialists, since as a result of this struggle there were favorable conditions for the further development of American expansion, especially in Latin America and the Far East. American monopolies made a bet to maximize benefits from the war in Europe.
Due to the fact that the war for the redistribution of the world affected the interests of all imperialist countries, most of the worlds of the world were gradually drawn into it. The war was the world, both in its political goals and scale.
Preparing war, the imperialists saw in it:
First, a means of resolving external contradictions;
Secondly, a tool that could help them cope with the increasing discontent of the population of their own countries and suppress the growing revolutionary movement.
In nature of the war 1914-1918. It was an imperialist, comprehensive, unfair on both sides. It was a war for someone who is more robbery and depart.
The plans of the hostilities of the main participants in the war did not sufficiently take into account the increased role of economic and moral factors and were calculated on the maintenance of battles due to the mobilization reserves accumulated in peacetime. It was believed that the war would be short-term.
It is characterized in this regard, the strategic plan of Germany (Schlöffen plan), which has planned the rapid defeat of the obviously superior forces of the Entente through major offensive operations, first against the armies of France and England, and then against Russia. This circumstance determined the choice of the strategic form of the offensive - the flank bypass and the environment of the essential forces of the enemy. In order to bypass and surrounding the French army, the flank maneuver was planned to be carried out through Belgium bypassing the main forces of the French army from the north. In the East, it was planned to deploy 15-16 divisions, which should have covered the eastern Prussia from the possible invasion of Russian troops.
Although the Schlöffen plan has been inherent in such positive moments, as taking into account the factors of surprise and the role of the strategic initiative, the right choice of the direction of the main strike and the concentration of forces in the decisive direction, as a whole, it turned out to be vicious because it was incorrectly assessed by the possibilities of their troops and an enemy.
The Austro-Hungarian Plan of War, the requirement of the German General Staff of the Russian Army had a strong influence during the depreciation of Germany in France. In this regard, the Austro-Hungarian General Staff planned at the same time active actions against Russia, Serbia and Montenegro. The main blow was planned to apply from Galicia to the East and Northeast. The Austro-Hungarian plan was built without real accounting for the country's economic and moral possibilities. The presence of the forces did not correspond to the tasks.
The French plan, although there was an active offensive actions, but carried a passive and expectancy, since the initial actions of the French troops were made dependent on the actions of the enemy. The plan provided for the creation of three percussion groups, but only one of them (Larring) received an active task - to occur on Lorraine and Alsace. The central grouping should become a link covering the border in its lane, and Belgian - to act depending on the behavior of the opponent. If the Germans begin to occur through the territory of Belgium, this army should be ready for the offensive in the northeast direction; If the Germans do not take active actions in neutral Belgium, it should have come in the eastern direction.
English plan The fact that the Allies - Russia and France should be taken over the severity of war on land. The main task of the English armed forces was considered to ensure domination of the sea. For action on land, there was a transfer of seven divisions to France.
The Russian plan of the war due to the economic and political dependence of Tsarist Russia from the English-French capital provided for simultaneous offensive actions against Austria-Hungary and Germany. The plan had two options.
Option "A". If Germany focuses the main forces against France, the main efforts of the Russian army were sent against Austria-Hungary.
Variant "g". In the case of Germany's deployment of the main strike in Russia, the Russian army has drawn its main efforts against Germany. The North-West Front had to defeat the 8th German army and master East Prussia. The South-Western Front was the task to surround the Austro-Hungarian troops located in Galicia.
By the beginning of the First World War, the strategic deployment of troops in accordance with the received war plans was completed by Germany and France in 16-17 days. Russia took on mobilization and deployment of troops 30 days. By the beginning of the war, none of the parties had a common superiority in the power.
In this way:
1. In the era of imperialism, when the contradictions inherent in capitalist society reach the extreme degree of exacerbation, when the development of capitalism goes extremely unevenly and jumps like, when the political reaction and military aggression occurs, there is a complicated, robber, robber wars for the redistribution of peace, for world domination. In the era of imperialism of war, they develop into world.
2. Education of the unions of the largest states of Europe was apparent preparation for war and indicated the irresistibility of its approximation. Internal and external contradictions forced the ruling circles of European states to speed up the unleashing of the war. The imperialists tried to inspire the people's thought about the inevitability of armed clashes, the militarism was impaired in every way, the chauvinism was roasted. The bourgeoisie, playing on the patriotic feelings of the peoples, justified the arms race, masked the gripful goals of false reasoning about the need to protect the fatherland from external enemies.
3. Common for all plans of the countries participating in the First World War appeared that they expressed the gripful aspirations of individual powers, as well as both enemy coalitions. At the same time, they reflected acute contradictions between the individual imperialist states within the coalitions, each of which sought more military burden to impose on their allies and more wealth in the deregious mining.
Strategic plans were deprived of purposefulness, they did not determine quite clearly the directions of the main strikes and did not provide the creation of the necessary superiority to achieve the goals of the war.
First period newest Story Opened the tragic chapter in the history of mankind - the First World War. But she did not allow so much the former problems and contradictions, how much began new ones. The causes of the First World War are diverse.
The main causes of the war:
Struggle for spheres of influence between leading countries of the world;
The desire for a new redistribution of colonies;
The growth of internal political contradictions in Europe and the desire to solve or avoid them with the help of war;
Registration of opposing military-political unions: Anntan and the Triple Union, Arms Racing, Militarization of the Economy.
Participants:
Entente:France + United Kingdom + Russia
Triple (quadruple) Union:
Germany + Austria-Hungary + Italy + Turkey
- Italy + Bulgaria
Mutual claims:
Great Britain:
Germany is the main rival in European politics, in the sea trade and in the struggle for the colonies;
Between the countries, an undeclared economic and trading war was held;
The United Kingdom could not forgive Germany support for drills in the English-Board War 1899-1902
But at the same time, it was striving to preserve Germany as a rival of Russia and France on the European continent;
It sought to take away from Turkey the rich oil of the Mesopotamia and the Arabian Peninsula.
These and other foreign policy interests led the Great Britain to the abandonment of the "brilliant isolation" policies and joining the Antigherman Union.
France:
Germany is the main opponent on the European continent;
It sought to take revenge for defeat in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870;
Hoped to return Alsace and Lorraine, to attach the Saari coal pool and the rur;
French products have not kept competition with German in the European market;
He was afraid to lose colonies in North Africa.
For these reasons, France has become an active participant in the Antigherman Block.
Russia:
It sought to expand its territory at the expense of Austria-Hungary, attaching Galicia;
Claimed control over the Black Sea Straits Bosphorus and Dardanelles;
Building the construction of the Berlin-Baghdad railway as a violation of a contract for the division of spheres of influence in the Balkans;
Hopefully to preserve the role of "defender of all Slavic peoples" in the Balkans, supporting the anti-Aavustic and antiturure struggle of the peoples of the Balkans.
With the help of victorious war, Russia sought to push the time for solving the domestic domestic problems.
To solve these tasks, Russia has found allies in the face of Great Britain and France.
USA:
Sought to penetrate the European market;
Hopefully strengthen their influence in Asia and increase penetration into China.
Those. Become an active participant in European politics.
Germany:
The young dynamic state was striving for military, economic and political leadership;
The active conquest of sales markets has led to a collision of interests with the UK;
It sought to preserve and expand the colonial possession at the expense of France, Holland, Belgium, Great Britain;
Intervened in the policies of the Middle East region.
Germany most aggressively sought to dominate world politics.
Austria-Hungary:
Expand its territory at the expense of Russia, Romania, Serbia;
Select the role of "Defender of all Slavic peoples" from Russia;
Strengthen the authority of the imperial power due to the victorious war;
Suppress the growing anti-avustic moods among the peoples of the multinational empire.
Faced by interests with Russia, Austria-Hungary was in one block with Germany.
Italy:
The young state sought to strengthen their authority in Europe;
Hoping to obtain territorial acquisitions in Europe and colonies.
However, Italy possessed very limited opportunities for warfare, so at the beginning of the war announced its neutrality and subsequently spoke on the side of the Entente.
Turkey:
Compare with Russia and the United Kingdom for domination over the Black Sea Straits and the impact on the Middle East Policy;
It sought to suppress the growing national liberation movement of the involved Slavic peoples on its territory.
Occasion:
On June 28, 1914, in the capital of Bosnia - Sarayevo, a member of the secret Serbian patriotic organization "Young Bosnia", a nephew and the heir of the Austro-Hungarian Emperor Ertzgercog Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophia were killed by the Gabriel.
Start of war:
On July 23, Austria-Hungary presented Serbia an ultimatum demanding to admit to the country of Austrian police to investigate the murder. Serbia rejected this requirement.
29. July Russia announced mobilization. Germany put forward the ultimatum of Russia demanding to stop mobilization. Russia rejected ultimatum.
August 1 Germany declared the war of Russia. This date is recognized as the beginning of the First World War.
| ENTENTE | TRIPLE ALLIANCE |
| Highly professional British army and sea fleet; Inexhaustible human resources russian army, courage of Russian soldiers; But the industrial backwardness of Russia, the weak development of communications. Corrupt and incompetent leadership of the Russian army; The British army is not a few allies geographically cut off from each other. The French army was not ready for a long conflict; | The German army was the best in Europe in terms of training and organization; The German population was covered by high patriotism and faith in his great appointment high equipped with heavy artillery, machine guns, submarines, a wide range of railway roads Austro-Hungarian army was built following the example of the German army. Strategic preparation for war. But the multinational composition of the Austro-Hungarian army |
Both sides were not ready for a long positionary war, did not expect infantry to lose the ability to move. The most striking example of improper assessment of the nature of the modern war by the commands of both sides was the widespread opinion on the most popular role of cavalry.
Schlöffen plan.
Schliffen Plan - Strategic Plan lightning wardeveloped by the head of the General Staff of Germany von Schliffen.
The essence of the plan: during the first month, defeat France, invading its territory through Belgium, because Russia will require at least one and a half months to carry out full mobilization and focusing their troops on the border. Then it was planned to transfer all German troops against Russia and finish the war in two months.
However, from the first days of events developed not as planned by the German command:
Belgium had a decisive resistance;
France began an offensive to the territory of Germany, invaded Alsace and Lorraine;
The United Kingdom entered war;
Russia began an offensive, without waiting for the full deployment of his troops.
By September, the plan of the lightning war was rivor.
Military course. (independent work of students)
Explore the course of hostilities on available sources and give them an estimate from the point of view of one of the warring parties.
| date | Event | Result |
| September 5 - 12 August 1914 - September 1914 October 1914 December 1914 | Battle on Marne Galitsky Battle Battle Under Tannenberg Austro-Hungarian troops began an offensive in Serbia. Turkey entered the war on the side of the Thieves Union, declaring the war of Russia, Great Britain and France. United Kingdom installed Continental marine blockade of Germany Counteroffensive Serbian Army Sarakamysh Operation (Transcaucasia) | The English-French troops stopped the offensive of the German army. 600 km of Western 2 Front from Switzerland's borders to the coast of the Atlantic. Germany is forced to lead the war on two fronts. The Russian army occupied Lviv. The German army surrounded the Russian army. Russia has lost about 20 thousand people killed and was forced to leave Eastern Prussia. Captured 45% of the territory of Serbia, including the capital - G. Belgrad formed the Caucasian Front. German cruisers entered the Black Sea and fired at Odessa, Sevastopol, Novorossiysk, Feodosius. A few German fleet was locked in the ports of the Northern and Baltic seas. The territory of Serbia is cleared of the Habsburg Empire troops, Serbian troops continued on the offensive on the territory of Austria-Hungary. The Niche Declaration was adopted, in which the strategic goal of Serbia in the war was formulated: uniting all South Slavic lands around the Serbian Dynasty Karageorgievich. The Russian army won the Turkish and suffered martialctions On the territory of Turkey. |
Results of the 1914 military company:
The strategic plans of the countries of the Fourth Union were torn, the plan of the lightning war failed. Germany is forced to lead the war on two fronts.
The war has acquired a protracted character, turning into a positional ("sedentary", trench) war. The parties refused large-scale hostilities that were now worn mainly defensive.
The war demanded the mobilization of all economic and human resources of warring states. In war, 38 countries were included in which approximately 75% of the population lived, more than 70 million meadow fought in the existing armies.
| date | Event | Result |
| January 1915 February - March 1915 April 1915 May 1915 autumn 1915 | German aviation began to make raids on the east coast of England. The English-German Marine Battle of Dogger Banks in the North Sea The beginning of the offensive of the Russian army in the Carpathians the offensive of the French in Champagne. English attack on the nevertheless Russian troops captured the fortress Mixing Germany announced an unlimited underwater war of Great Britain Anglo-French fleet attacked Dardanenella (Turkish fortifications) The German gas attack near Iprom (chlorine) The Armanta troops landed in the Gallipolly (Turkey) counteroffensiveness of the German-Austrian army on the Eastern Front Italy came out of the three-way union and entered the war on the side of the Antena, the German submarine Skilled the huge passenger American liner "Luis" Bulgaria entered the war on the side of the three-way union, attacking Serbia | Skilled the German cruiser "Blucher" These actions did not bring tangible results to allies. Over 100 thousand Austrians are captured. Austro-German command focused its main forces on the Eastern Front. Water, Washing England and Ireland declared a military zone and any vessel in these waters will be UN |
