Indian clothing - men and women. Indian national dress. Required documents and visa for India India type of state
For a long time India was a rich country, where Europeans sailed for interesting goods, aromatic spices, bright fabrics, precious metals and stones. The development of trade routes was facilitated by the unique and convenient location with direct access to the ocean. Lack of a competent government policy to preserve unique natural features and ecosystems have led to environmental disasters.
Geographic characteristics
The Republic of India is located in the southern part of Asia on the Indian subcontinent. The territory of the state is 3.3 million km. The country is the seventh largest country in the world.
India's neighbors are Pakistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar and Afghanistan. The country's maritime borders are adjacent to the Maldives, Sri Lanka and Indonesia. The country is densely populated. The total population exceeds 1 billion 300 million people.
Nature
Mountains and plains
The relief of the country is represented by high mountain ranges, plateaus and a large plain. The main and only mountain ranges of India are the Himalayas, which stretch along the borders of Nepal, Afghanistan and China.
The ridges within the borders of India are still high mountains, but they differ in complexity from the main ridges located in other countries. The highest point in India is Mount Kanchenjungu with a height of over 8.5 thousand meters.
The flat part of the country stretches parallel to the ridges of the Himalayas. It is absolutely flat, and its length is 2,400 km. The remaining territory of the state is divided into plateaus ...
Rivers and lakes
The rivers of India play a large role in the country and are the main source of water and a means of irrigating fields and lands. At the same time, they are the cause of natural disasters and catastrophes. The most famous rivers in India are the Ganges and Brahmaputra. In general, more than a dozen large rivers flow through the country. For the part, the main source of water is rain. Recharge and the risk of flooding in their valleys happens during monsoons.
For the rest of the rivers, including large ones, the glaciers of the Himalayas are the source of water. The main periods of their flooding and emergence from naturally low shores are the hot summer months. Many rivers in India flow into the Bay of Bengal.
There are practically no lakes in the country. There are only small ones. They are concentrated mainly in the Himalayas. Among the large reservoirs of a similar plan, only the Sambhar Lake can be noted, which is used by the population to boil salt ...
The seas washing India
The extremely advantageous location of the state, which has an outlet to the ocean, determined the economic prosperity of the country several centuries ago. This location is important to this day.
The shores of India are washed by the waters of the ocean of the same name and the seas that make up its basin. These are the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal and its waters of the northern part of the Indian Ocean. The length of the state's coastline is 7.5 thousand km.
Plants and animals of India
India is one of the few countries that can boast of a variety of species of flora and fauna. There are endemics here. There are about a third of them. On the territory of the state, you can find a coconut tree, sandalwood, bamboo, banyan tree and more. There are pine evergreen forests, monsoon forests and mountain meadows.
In terms of the diversity of the animal world, the country has begun to lose ground over the past few decades. But here you can still find the Indian rhino, the Asiatic lion, the Himalayan bear, as well as the leopard ...
Climate of India
The climate of India is due to the presence of the Himalayas and the Thar Desert. The mountains are a natural obstacle to cold air currents from Central Asia. It is for this reason that the air temperature in the country differs from the climate of states located in a similar belt.
In summer, the desert attracts monsoon winds with significant precipitation. It rains actively from mid-summer to mid-autumn. On the territory of the country, there is the rainiest place on earth - the city of Cherrapunji, which has an annual rainfall of 12,000 mm ...
Resources
Natural resources of India
The natural resources of India are represented by large deposits of minerals, the list of which includes: manganese ores, iron ores, aluminum, gems and metals.
Forests occupy about a quarter of the country's territory and are a source of timber, as well as fodder for livestock, but they do not fully cover the needs of the state. The problem lies in deforestation in the Himalayas.
The land in the country is barren. They require a sophisticated irrigation, processing and fertilization system. Because of this, there are few clean pastures in the country and there are not enough forage plants for animals.
Wind energy is actively used in India. According to this method of energy generation, the country ranks fifth in the world ...
Industry and agriculture in India
The industry leader in India is mechanical engineering. Mostly local enterprises are engaged in the production of parts and components for cars.
In the list of the main types of industry of the state, it is worth noting ferrous metallurgy and the production of coal. The textile industry is actively developing in the country, significant investments are being made in it.
Agriculture is represented by the production of wheat and rice ...
The culture
Peoples of india
India is especially interesting for the mentality of its population. For a long time, an unusual social system existed here, in which there were various estates, the so-called castes. Residents treated them by profession, income level, place of residence or birth. According to the foundations, representatives of different castes were not allowed to marry. Today, at the official level, all this has been canceled, but in practice there are representatives of orthodox views who adhere to the same principles ...
Symbolism
Sights of india
INDIA(in Hindi Bharat), Republic of India, a state in South Asia, on the Indian subcontinent, includes the Lakkadiv, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. It shares borders with China, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Nepal, Bhutan and Sri Lanka. The border with China in the Himalayas is unmarked. Area 3.3 million km2 (7th in the world). In terms of population, it ranks 2nd in the world (after China) - 1 billion 49.7 million people (2003). Part of the Commonwealth. Capital Delhi (New Delhi). Largest cities: Kolkata, Bombay, Delhi, Chennai, Bangalore, Ahmedabad, Hyderabad, Pune, Kanpur, Nagpur, Jaipur, Lucknow.
Government of India
Federal Republic. The head of state is the president. Elected by a college of voters made up of both houses of parliament and state legislatures for a 5-year term. The legislature is a bicameral parliament. Consists of the Council of States (no more than 250 seats, of which 12 are appointed by the president, the rest are elected from the legislatures of the states and territories) and the People's Assembly (545 seats, 543 are elected by popular vote, 2 are appointed by the president). Executive power is exercised by the government headed by the prime minister, who is appointed by the president.
Administrative divisions of India
28 states and 7 union territories of central subordination.
Population of India
The largest peoples: Hindustans, Telugu, Marathi, Bengalis, Tamils, Gujarati, Kannara, Punjabis, etc. Hindus make up 80% of the population, Muslims 14%, Christians 2.4%, Sikhs 2%, Buddhists 0.7%. The Muslim population is concentrated in the states of Jammu and Kashmir, West Bengal, and the western part of Uttar Pradesh. The rest of the religious communities: Christians (mostly Catholics) are concentrated in the North-East of the country, in Bombay and in the South; Sikhs - in Punjab and adjacent regions, Buddhists - in Jammu and Kashmir, regions of the Himalayas.
The national languages are Hindi and English, the states have official national languages. Of the 18 languages recognized as state, 13 belong to Indo-Aryan, 4 to Dravidian language groups and 1 to Tibetan. The most widely spoken language is Hindi: it is spoken by more than 300 million people. Hindi is recognized as the official language in the northern states of India. Other Indo-Aryan languages: Bengali, Gujarati, Assami, Kashmiri, Konkani, Marathi, Nepali, Oriya, Punjabi. Urdu is the main language of Indian Muslims in the North and South of India. The Sindhi language is widespread in the Gujarat state border areas with Pakistan (emigrants who fled from the Pakistani province of Punjab after the partition of the country in 1947 live here). A quarter of India's population speaks Dravidian languages. The languages of this group are spoken mainly in southern India, partly in the central part of the country, in eastern Bihar. Four Dravidian languages are recognized as official languages: Kannada, Malayalam, Tamil and Teluju. Manipuri and other Tibetan languages are spoken in northeastern India. The languages of international communication are Hindi and English. 74.3% of India's population lives in villages and only 25.7% are urban dwellers. India is one of the most populous countries. The average density of its population, which was at the beginning of the 20th century. about 70 people per 1 km2, by the beginning of the 21st century. amounted to 319.3 people. per 1 km2.
Nature of india
India is located mainly within the Hindustan Peninsula and the Indo-Gangetic Plain, including parts of the Himalayas and Karakorum. OK. 3/4 of the country's territory is plains and plateaus. Almost all of Hindustan is occupied by the Deccan plateau (it decreases to the east from 900 m to 300 m). In the west and east, the Deccan passes into the mountains (Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats), the outer slopes of which abruptly drop off to the ocean. In the south of the peninsula there are isolated canteens up to 2698 m high (Anaimudi). To the north of the Indian subcontinent, in a vast foothill trough, is the alluvial Indo-Gangetic plain. The highest mountain system of the Earth - the Himalayas (height in India up to 8126 m, Nangaparbat city) and the Karakorum mountains with alpine relief and glaciers in the ridge zone border India from the north. Deposits of coal, iron ores, manganese, chromite, bauxite, diamonds.
The natural vegetation of the Deccan Plateau and the Indo-Gangetic Plain is greatly altered; Savannahs, xerophytic light forests, deciduous forests in places, prevail in the northwest - shrub semi-deserts and deserts. On the windward slopes of the Western Ghats, in the Ganges and Brahmaputra deltas, in the foothills of the Eastern Himalayas - evergreen rainforests... At the foot of the Himalayas - terai (swampy jungle), above - monsoon forests, mountainous mixed and coniferous forests, mountain meadows and steppes. The forests cover approx. 1/4 of the territory of India. Nat. parks Kaziranga, Girsky Les, Manas, etc .; numerous reserves. India is the only place on Earth where a tiger and a lion live side by side (both are currently protected). Monkeys are numerous not only in the jungle, but also in cities, as they are considered sacred animals. Some other animals, both wild and domestic, are considered sacred. Elephants have been trained since antiquity. There are a number of endemic species of mammals and birds in India.
Climate of India
The climate is predominantly tropical, with a tropical monsoon in the north. During the humid summer monsoon, which plays a huge role in India's agriculture, 70-90% of precipitation falls, winters are dry and cool, from March to May there is a dry and hot season. Annual precipitation ranges from less than 100 mm in the west of the Indo-Gangetic Plain to 12,000 mm in Cherrapunji on the Shillong Plateau (the wettest land in the world). The main rivers are the Ganges, with the Jamna tributary, Indus (upper reaches), Brahmaputra (lower reaches), Narmada, Godavari, Krishna. The rivers are full in summer (there are floods) and are widely used for irrigation.
India Economy
GNP per capita is $ 450 (1999). 2/3 of the world's poor live in India, although the standard of living of the population is gradually increasing and the share of the poor is decreasing. Tolerance, lack of class hatred and respect for wealth, inherent in Hinduism and Buddhism, protect India from social conflict.
2/3 of the population is employed in agriculture, which makes the largest contribution to GNP (1/3). Hindustan was home to a number of crops - rice, cotton, sugar cane. In the 1960s. India experienced a "green revolution": thanks to the spread of hybrid varieties of wheat, rice and other crops, not only the problems of providing food to its population, but also the export of food grains were solved. In the 1970s-1980s. India also experienced the White Revolution, which resulted in self-sufficiency in dairy products. 145 million hectares are cultivated (over 2/5 of the territory), under crops - approx. 180 million hectares (about 35 million hectares are sown twice a year). Irrigated approx. 3/5 s.-x. area. The main agricultural regions are the Indo-Gangetic Plain and the coastal lowlands. India occupies one of the first places in the world for the production of sugar cane (harvest in terms of raw sugar 16-18 million tons; over 1/2 - in the northern part of India), peanuts (5-7 million tons, hl . sample in the southern part of India) and tea (approx. 600 tons; 3/4 of the collection - plantations of the Assam Valley and the foothills of the Eastern Himalayas), as well as for the production of jute (1-1.3 million tons; 2 / 3 - West Bengal), castor oil plant (southern part of India), cotton (1.2–1.5 million tons: the main regions are the eastern part of the states of Maharashtra and Gujarat). In the southern part of India - tea, coffee, rubber plants, coconut, spices (pepper, ginger, cardamom, etc.). Numerous livestock (1/5 of the world; 1996, million) of cattle 196 (including 80 buffaloes; mainly used as draft force), 120 goats and 45 sheep; pigs, camels, poultry are bred.
India possesses significant mineral and energy resources. The reserves of coal and iron ore are one of the largest in the world, there are also bauxite, oil, manganese, etc. In terms of the export of manganese ore and mica, India occupies one of the first places in the world. After gaining independence, most of the enterprises of heavy industry in India were nationalized or created by the state itself. Heavy industry enterprises are concentrated mainly on the Kota-Nagpur plateau, where coking coal deposits are adjacent to iron ore deposits. New industrial centers (Bhilai, Bokaro, Rourkela, Durgapur) are being created in the previously backward inland regions.
The public sector holds leading positions in the defense industry, nuclear energy, rail and sea transport, aviation, and communications. The private sector currently dominates in mechanical engineering, agriculture, light, food and medical industries, construction, trade, and road transport.
The light industry is represented by both handicraft and modern enterprises. Indian natural silks, Kashmir shawls, wood carvings, papier-mâché products, saffron, furs, and jewelry are world famous. Every Indian state, many cities and localities are famous for their handicrafts. For example, in the largest state of Uttar Pradesh, the city of Varanasi (Benares) is a well-known center for silk weaving and bronze products; Mirzapur is famous for its carpets; Muradabad is famous for its metal utensils; the largest production of locks and iron chests in India is concentrated in Aligarh; Firozabad is the country's largest center for the production of glass bracelets - cheap jewelry. World famous handicrafts of the southern city of Mysore (the former capital of the principality of the same name), especially ivory and sandalwood, as well as natural silks. India is a major supplier to the world market of leather and leather goods, as well as footwear. Most of the jute processing facilities are located in the Hoogleside, a chain of towns along the Hooghly River north of Calcutta. Enterprises for the processing of agricultural products and minerals are usually located near the places where raw materials are extracted. These are factories for refining cotton, processing peanuts, sugar cane, freezing and drying products, primary processing of metals. Consumer goods manufacturing is concentrated in large cities. State governments in every possible way welcome the development of industries: for this, industrial parks are being created - small free zones characterized by low taxes and low land prices.
India in last years it has also come to the fore as a manufacturer of medicines and pharmaceuticals, quite competitive in comparison with Western products, but much cheaper.
The traditional industry, such as cutting diamonds and other precious stones, also retains a high share in exports.
The government of the country has made the main stake on the development of education and the cultivation of highly qualified personnel. In 1950 there were 25 universities and 700 colleges, and in the mid-1990s. there were already 172 universities and 7,000 colleges. By the number of specialists with higher education India has taken one of the leading positions in the world. The country is in third place in terms of the number of qualified scientific and technical personnel and in second place in terms of the number of professional programmers.
The monetary unit is the Indian rupee.
History of India
The most ancient civilization - the Harappan or Indus (valley of the Indus River; second half of the 3rd millennium - the first half of the 2nd millennium BC) - was created by the people of the Dravidian family, possibly the ancestors of the Tamils. This is one of the first agricultural civilizations on Earth, along with Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. The Harappan civilization was familiar with the smelting of bronze and precious metals, but did not know iron. Iron was made by the Aryan tribes who came from the north about the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. The main source of the period 1500-800. BC e. are the Vedas. At this time, a caste system arose and took shape, which consolidated the dominant position of the descendants of the Aryans.
Not enough is known about the Aryan states today; their dating is also problematic. Magadha in the Ganges valley is apparently the oldest of them (7th century BC). The kings of Magadha adopted Buddhism and supported its spread. In the 4th century. BC e. Magadha became part of the Mauryan empire, the founder of which (Chandragupta) met with Alexander the Great. Alexander annexed the Indus Valley to his vast empire, but not for long. After the reign of the great Ashoka (3rd century BC), which united almost all of Hindustan, the Mauryan empire fell into decay. In the 4-6 centuries. n. e. almost all of Northern India was united by the Gupta state. With the spread of Islam, Muslim states arose, the largest being the Delhi Sultanate (early 13th century - 16th century). The sultanate fell under the onslaught of the conqueror Babur, the founder of the Mughal dynasty. During its heyday (17th century), the state of the Great Mughals covered almost the entire territory of India.
From the 16th century. First Catholic missionaries began to penetrate into India (the first Christian community was founded according to legend by the Apostle Thomas), and then the colonialists. The Portuguese established a colony in Goa. In the 18th century. the empire of the Great Mughals disintegrated into separate principalities. British trading company East India Company from the 17th century. created on the coast a network of its trading posts-fortresses (of which the cities of Calcutta, Bombay, Madras, and others later grew). Agents of the company, pursuing a policy of "divide and rule", through bribery and force subjugated the Indian principalities. The main rival of England was France. As a result of the Anglo-Mysore, Anglo-Maratha and Anglo-Sikh wars, the East India Company by the end of the 18th century. conquered all of India, from the second half of the 18th century. paying special attention not to trade, but to the management of territories, the collection of land tax, and the reform of agrarian relations. India became not only a source of raw materials, but also a huge sales market for Britain, where the era of the industrial revolution began. The entire system of local crafts was undermined, and poverty increased. In 1783-1784 the company's activities were brought under government control. Throughout the 19th century. the company's rights have been curtailed more than once, and since the suppression of the sepoy uprising, the company has been disbanded. India became a colony.
The British did not touch the caste system (by that time there were already about 3500 castes), in religious practice they limited only extremes (human sacrifice, the custom of sati - self-immolation of widows). But they contributed to the introduction of new relations, the development of capitalism. The Indian Party was formed in 1885 national congress... Mahatma Gandhi, who headed the Indian National Congress in 1915, developed tactics of nonviolent struggle against the colonialists, which implied a boycott of British goods, refusal to cooperate with the British, etc. Amid the difficulties and wars of the 20th century. this struggle was crowned with success, but Britain divided the country (1947) into 2 dominions - the Indian Union (with a predominantly Hindu population) and Pakistan (with a predominantly Muslim population).
Due to unresolved territorial issues (especially in Kashmir), relations between India and Pakistan remain tense. In 1950 the Indian Union became the Republic of India. Gandhi's associate J. Nehru became the prime minister. His only daughter, I. Gandhi, was prime minister four times. The caste system was abolished by law in 1950.
India today plays an important role in the Non-Aligned Movement. With the help of the USSR, great successes have been achieved in the implementation of the space program. India is a nuclear power.
National Holidays - August 15 (Independence Day (1947)) and January 26 (Republic Day).
General information
Remark 1
India is one of the oldest countries on our planet. It keeps many mysteries of our earthly civilization. India is a country of ancient farmers, scientists, a land of fairy tales and fabulous riches, the pearl of the former British colonial empire. For $ 200 $ years, India was a British colony. She gained independence only in $ 1947. Its official name is the Republic of India.
The life and work of many great people of the past are associated with India. Today India is a country of great contrasts in culture, population and economy. Let's consider the characteristics of the country in more detail.
Geographical position
India is located in South Asia, on the Indian subcontinent. It is washed by the waters of the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea, which belong to the Indian Ocean basin. The territory of India has a diamond shape, elongated from north to south. India is crossed by the southern tropic. In the north, the natural border of India is the Himalayan mountains.
Territory and borders
India covers an area of $ 3.3 million $ km ^ 2 $. From the southwest and southeast, the territory goes to the Indian Ocean. In the north, the Indo-Gangetic lowland passes into the Himalayan mountains. The Deccan plateau is located in the center of the country.
Finished works on a similar topic
- Coursework 460 rubles
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India's neighboring countries are:
- Pakistan,
- Afghanistan,
- China,
- Nepal,
- Butane,
- Myanmar,
- Bangladesh.
Remark 2
The border with Pakistan is one of the sources of international tension in the region. The question of the state ownership of the states of Jammu and Kashmir, now occupied by Pakistan, remains unresolved.
The border with Afghanistan is also unfavorable (especially in the area of the Punjab state), on the territory of which the civil war continues. The borders with China and Nepal pass in the difficult conditions of the Himalayan mountains. Therefore, difficulties arise in joint economic activity... In addition, China is often Pakistan's ally in conflicts.
The southern borders of the country (coast), on the contrary, are very conducive to economic development. India is located in close proximity to the intersection of important trade routes between the countries of Europe, Africa and Southwest Asia on the one hand and the states of Southeast Asia and Australia on the other.
Form of government and state structure
By the form of government India - federal Republic... The head of state is the president. Administratively, the territorial division allocates $ 25 for the states and $ 7 for the union territories on the territory of the state. The capital state is Delhi (New Delhi).
By level economic development India belongs to the group developing countries... But lately, the country's economy has made important progress in the development of the most modern industries.
Remark 3
Despite international agreements, India (like Pakistan) possesses nuclear weapons.
From the history of the country's development
States on the territory of the Indian subcontinent arose in ancient times. Thanks to the favorable climate and fertile soils, agriculture provided the economic development of the ancient states. Alexander the Great failed in his attempt to conquer India. In the $ 15th century, Vasco da Gama announced the beginning of the European colonization of India with cannon volleys. Subsequently, the entire south of Asia was captured by Great Britain.
At the beginning of the $ XX $ century, the national liberation movement intensified in India. In $ 1947, India was granted independence. But at the same time, the former British colony was divided. Instead of one state, in addition to India, Western and Eastern Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan were also formed. The division was carried out on a national and religious basis and caused political clashes and inter-ethnic conflicts. The conflict with Pakistan has not yet been resolved.
India is today the leader of the non-aligned movement. It is pursuing a peaceful policy aimed at reducing international tension.
- a state in South Asia, occupying most of the Indian subcontinent.
Official name of India:
Republic of India. The official name of the country, India, comes from the ancient Persian word "sindhu" - the historical name of the Indus River. The Indian Constitution also recognizes a second name, Bharat, which comes from the Sanskrit name of the ancient Indian king, whose history was described in the Mahabharata. The third name, Hindustan, has been used since the Mughal Empire, but has no official status.
Territory of India:
The area of the state of the Republic of India is 3287590 km².
Population of India:
India has a population of over 1 billion (1.126 billion).
Ethnic groups of India:
In India, there are several hundred nations, nationalities and tribes, the largest of them are: Hindustans, Telugu, Marathi, Bengalis, Tamils, Gujarati, Kannara, Punjabis, etc.
Life expectancy in India:
The average life expectancy in India is equal to 63.62 years (see the rating of the countries of the world in terms of life expectancy).
Capital of India:
New Delhi (Delhi).
Major cities of India:
New Delhi (Delhi), Kolkata (more than 16 million inhabitants), Mumbai (Bombay) (more than 15 million inhabitants), Chennai (Madras) (6 million inhabitants), Hyderabad (5 million inhabitants), Bangalore (4 , 5 million inhabitants), Ahmedabad (4 million inhabitants).
Official language of India:
Hindi, English. More than 30 different languages and 2000 dialects are spoken in India. The Indian Constitution stipulates that Hindi and English are the two languages of the national government, i.e. state languages. In addition, there is an official list of 22 scheduled languages that can be used by Indian state governments for various administrative purposes.
It was planned that in 1965 English will lose its state language status and will be called an "additional state language" until the full-scale transition to Hindi is completed. However, in connection with the protests of some states in which Hindi did not become widespread, the situation was preserved when two languages were the state. Due to rapid industrialization and multinational influence in the economy, English continues to be a popular and influential medium of communication in government and business.
Religion in India:
Hindus - 81.3% of the population of India, Muslims - 12%, Christians - 2.3%, Sikhs - 1.9%, other groups (including Buddhists, Jains, Nestorians, Parsis, etc.) - 2.5%.
Geographical position of India:
India is a state in South Asia that occupies most of the Indian subcontinent. India borders Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal and Bhutan to the northeast, Bangladesh and Myanmar to the east. In addition, India has maritime borders with the Maldives in the southwest, Sri Lanka in the south, and Indonesia in the southeast. The disputed territory of the state of Jammu and Kashmir shares a border with Afghanistan.
India is a huge, triangle-shaped country in the southern part of Asia, which is enclosed in the north by the Himalayas, and in the south by the Indian Ocean.
The island of Sri Lanka is located off the northern coast of India. India covers an area of 3,875,590 km, although this figure is not entirely accurate as some sections of the border are contested by China and Pakistan.
Northern India is home to the snowy peaks and valleys of the Himalayas and the vast Indo-Gangetic Plain that separates the Himalayas from the southern peninsula and stretches from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal. South of the plains, the landscape rises to the Deccan Plateau, which is triangular in shape and ranges from 300 to 900 meters above sea level. The plateau is bounded by the Eastern and Western Ghats, hills that run parallel along the eastern and western coasts of Hindustan and separate the fertile coastal regions from the inland lands.
Rivers of India:
Brahmaputra, Ganges, Godavari, Indus, Krishna (river), Sabarmati.
Administrative divisions of India:
India consists of twenty-eight states (which, in turn, are divided into regions), six union territories and the National Capital District of Delhi. Each state has its own elected government, while the union territories are governed by an administrator appointed by the union government. However, some union territories have their own elected governments.
States of India:
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra
Meghalaya
Nagaland
Rajasthan
Tamil Nadu
Uttaranchal
Uttar Pradesh
Himachal Pradesh
Chhattisgarh
Andhra Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh
Gujarat
Jammu and Kashmir
Jharkhand
West Bengal
Karnataka
Union Territories of India:
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Dadra and Nagar Haveli
Daman and Diu
Lakshadweep
Delhi National Capital District
Pondicherry
Chandigarh
Government of India:
Executive power in India is exercised by the president, vice president and government headed by the prime minister. The president is elected for a five-year term by an electoral college made up of members of both houses of parliament and state legislatures. The President can be re-elected for a second term. The vice president is elected by an electoral college for a five-year term by members of both houses of parliament. The vice president is also the chairman of the Council of States (upper house of parliament). The prime minister is appointed by the president, but the leader of the party or coalition with the majority of mandates in the lower house, to which the government is accountable, is nominated. The prime minister proposes the ministerial candidacies, which are also officially approved by the president. The government forms the Council of Ministers, which is responsible for the operation of the administrative machinery and the determination of state policy.
President of India appoints chairman The Supreme Court, on the recommendation of the latter - members of the Supreme Court and the highest courts of the states, as well as other high officials... All legislative acts of the Indian Parliament, and partly local acts, come into force after they are signed by the President. The President performs legislative activities during breaks in the work of parliament, which approves presidential decrees. The head of state has the right to declare a state of emergency in the states. The President can introduce martial law in the country in the event of a serious security threat due to external aggression or armed rebellion. The corresponding presidential declaration needs to be approved by both houses of parliament within a month. The President has the authority to issue laws during martial law that are binding in all states of the country.
The Parliament of India consists of two chambers - the upper Rajya Sabha, or Council of States, and the lower Lok Sabha, or People's House.
The Lok Sabha deputies, of whom there were 545 in 1998, are elected (except for two from the Anglo-Indian community) by direct, universal and secret ballot in constituencies formed in the states and union territories. The president of the country is also one of the members of parliament. The quota of each administrative-territorial unit is proportional to the size of the population. Lok Sabha can express a vote of no confidence in the government and demand its removal. The lower house is elected for a term of 5 years, but the president has the right to dissolve it earlier on the recommendation of the prime minister or if the government is dismissed. Only the Lok Sabha adopts laws related to the financial sphere.
The maximum number of Rajya Sabha members is 245.
Almost all of them (with the exception of 12) are elected in the legislatures of the states and union territories. The rest are appointed by the president based on their contributions to literature, science, art and their social activities. The Rajya Sabha cannot be dissolved, but at the end of every second year the chamber rotates by one third. As a result, the deputy corps is completely replaced every 6 years.
Legislation must pass through both houses of parliament.
The Rajya Sabha has veto power over those that relate to financial issues, although it is not ruled out that the House may recommend a reconsideration. Other discrepancies are discussed in a joint session in which the members of the chambers have one vote, which gives the Lok Sabha the advantage.
India's public civil services comprise three blocks:
at the level of the country as a whole, states and within the framework of all-Indian departments, which have their own governing divisions in the center, states and union territories. Until 1961, only the Indian Administrative Service and the Indian Police Service were such departments. Later, the Indian Engineering Service, the Indian Health Service and the Indian Forest Service were also established.
The Indian Constitution contains a provision for independent commissions in government departments that are required to certify and approve officials in civilian institutions. Central organizations, for example, in the areas of taxation, postal services, customs operations, and the Central Secretariat rely on their own rules and procedures for recruiting.
The Indian Administrative Service of India (IAS) has approximately 3,000 senior staff.
It is replenished annually by 100 college graduates, of which 75% are admitted on the basis of a rigorous competition and 25% - on the recommendation of the local IAS branches. IAS personnel occupy important positions in the districts and work in government agencies of the country and states.
The Planning Commission was created by a decision of the Cabinet of Ministers in 1950 as an advisory body on the planned economic development of India, headed by the Prime Minister.
The system of government in the states of India.
The executive branch of the states is represented by the governor, who is appointed by the president for a five-year term. The governor appoints the chief minister of the state, who is the leader of the majority party or party coalition in the legislature, and assigns him to the formation of the state council of ministers. In his actions, the governor is guided by the recommendations of the Council of Ministers headed by the Chief Minister. Ministers are collectively responsible to the state legislature, which is elected for a 5-year term by popular vote by district. Most states have small upper chambers, or legislative councils. Their members are either chosen by a specially designated electorate or appointed by the governor.
Before being signed by the governor, laws must be approved in both chambers.
In the event of a discrepancy between their positions, the constitutional procedure leaves the final decision with the lower house. It is she who owns the right to legislatively manage finances. The governor is responsible for sending some of the adopted laws to the President of India for approval.
Center and states: separation of powers.
The division of powers between the capital and the states is governed by three registries. The first of them lists approx. 100 functions assigned to federal bodies, including defense, foreign policy, money circulation and taxation. The second contains 66 articles reflecting the tasks assigned to the state administrations, incl. maintenance of law and order, policing, justice, local government, ensuring the development of education, health, social services and Agriculture... In addition, the country's government is dependent on the province for nearly all rural development programs. The third register identifies the activities for which both the center and the states are responsible.
The collection of the most important taxes in India is under the jurisdiction of the central government, which strengthens its position in considering the distribution of funds received between the capital and the states, to which it provides grants and loans for the implementation of various development projects. Nevertheless, the balance of power develops favorably for the Indian government only in cases where the state leadership is the same party that rules the country, and the Prime Minister is popular and can appeal directly to the electorate.
The balance of power between the center and the periphery changes with the declaration of a state of emergency in India.
By introducing it by decree in any state, the president (together with the Indian parliament, if events occur during the session) is able to issue legislation for that state. Parliament must approve the decision of the head of state within two months and then reaffirm its previous position every six months. A state of emergency may be introduced for a period not exceeding three years. In the 1970s-1980s, the dismissal of state governments by the President of India and the establishment of direct rule from Delhi were repeatedly used locally to prevent opposition parties from coming to power.
Local governments in India.
During the years of British rule, the main administrative unit became the district (zila), headed by an official from the Indian Administrative Service. The counties, numbering at least 1.3 million inhabitants, have retained their importance in independent India as well. However, the key structure was the "development block" (there are about 6,000 of them in the country), covering about 100 villages, together numbering 100 thousand inhabitants. Such blocks are headed by approx. 6,000 officials who are responsible for the engineering work and the dissemination of best practices. In addition, since the late 1950s, the government has encouraged the formation of local self-government bodies based on village councils - panchayats. The new system has acquired a standardized structure: the lower level - panchayats formed by voting in villages, the middle - panchayat committees, elected indirectly in the "blocks", and the upper one - district councils (zila parishad), to which these committees send their representatives to coordinate programs action.
