the main > Well drilling > 1 concept is the subject of the object of sociology. The subject of sociology. Concept, subject, object and method of sociology. The concept and types of deviant behavior. In most cases, members of society follow both the officially established and actually established social

1 concept is the subject of the object of sociology. The subject of sociology. Concept, subject, object and method of sociology. The concept and types of deviant behavior. In most cases, members of society follow both the officially established and actually established social

SOCIOLOGY

TEACHING AND METHODOLOGICAL GUIDE

For self-study disciplines

(For students of FPO and C / L)

KHARKOV

INTRODUCTION

The current stage of development of higher professional education in universities of Ukraine is characterized by cardinal changes in the system of humanitarian training of students. The humanization of education is aimed at the intellectual, aesthetic and moral development of the individual, increasing the level of education of a specialist, which is an important condition for his professional self-determination in work. The solution of these problems presupposes the renewal of the organizational and methodological forms of activating the heuristic potential of students.

The proposed methodological guide to a certain extent serves this purpose. This manual includes a short course of lectures on sociology, a reference dictionary of the main categories and concepts, control tasks and guidelines for independent work, general and additional literature on the topics of the course, as well as an algorithm for organizing independent work in the study of sociology.

The lecture topics offered in the manual correspond to the normative standards of the sociology course for higher educational institutions of Ukraine. IN short synopsis of lectures, students are offered topics that make up the framework of the course, revealing the logic of the academic discipline and the science of "sociology", each lecture covers several topics of the course. This is a kind of response model. However, these models should not be perceived as complete and complete; when answering tests and exams, it is necessary to turn to the analysis of real events and processes, to be able to apply theory, a system of sociological concepts. After all, social knowledge is important not in itself, but primarily as a means of ensuring a more conscious and active participation of the individual in the life of society.

Theme test work the student chooses according to the last digit (one or two) of the grade book numbers.

This teaching aid offers students a special kind of help. It focuses not only on the preparation and delivery of the control task (this is a tactic), but also on the receipt of ordered, concentrated, formalized knowledge necessary for a specialist (strategy).

In the system of scientific knowledge, sociology has a special place: it is the only science that studies society as a whole, moreover, society in its socio-human dimension. This means not just society for a person, but a person in society - this is the essence of sociology, and this determined the logic of the presentation of the material in this manual.

Concept, subject, object and method of sociology

Sociology object

Any scientific discipline has its own object and its own subject of study. As a rule, an object is understood as a range of phenomena (phenomena) subject to its study. The more general science is, the wider is this range of phenomena. The object of sociological knowledge is society. The term "sociology" comes from the Latin societas - "society" and the Greek logos - "doctrine", meaning literally "the doctrine of society." This term was introduced into a wide scientific circulation in the middle of the 19th century. French philosopher Auguste Comte. But even before that, the great scientists and philosophers of mankind were engaged in the study and comprehension of the problems of society, various aspects of its functioning, leaving the world a rich heritage in this area. Comte's project of sociology implied that society is a special entity, distinct from individuals and the state and subject to its own natural laws. The practical meaning of sociology is participation in the improvement of society, which, in principle, lends itself to such improvement. Social life is closely related to the life of the individual and affects the behavior of each person. Thus, the object of the study of sociology is social reality, the person himself and everything that surrounds him. Human society is a unique phenomenon. It is directly or indirectly the object of many sciences (history, philosophy, economics, psychology, jurisprudence, etc.), each of which has its own perspective of studying society, i.e. your subject.

Sociology subject

The subject of research is usually understood as a set of characteristics, qualities, properties of an object that are of particular interest for a given science. The subject of sociology is the life of society, i.e. a complex of social phenomena arising from the interaction of people and communities. The concept of "social" is deciphered as referring to the life of people in the process of their relationships. The vital activity of people is realized in society in three traditional spheres (economic, political, spiritual) and one non-traditional - social. The first three give a horizontal section of society, the fourth - a vertical one, implying a division according to the subjects of social relations (ethnic groups, families, etc.). These elements social structure in the process of their interaction in traditional spheres and form the basis of social life, which in all its diversity exists, is recreated and changes only in the activities of people.

People interact, uniting in various communities, social groups. Their activities are predominantly organized. Society can be viewed as a system of interacting and interconnected communities and institutions, forms and methods of social control. The personality manifests itself through the totality of social roles and statuses that it plays or occupies in these social communities and institutions.

At the same time, status is understood as a person's position in society, which determines access to education, wealth, power, etc. A role can be defined as the expected behavior of a person due to his status. Thus, sociology studies social life, i.e. interaction of social subjects on issues related to their social status.

On this basis, the key concept of sociology is interchange. It consists of single changes, but this is not any action, but a social action. In such an action there is a subject or a group of people, they can be observed empirically, in such an action there is always a goal, process and result. It is the totality of such actions that forms the social process as a whole, and in it some general trends which are sociological laws. The difference between sociological laws and mathematical, physical, chemical laws is that the former are approximate and inaccurate; they may or may not happen, since the former are approximate and inaccurate. completely depend on the will and actions of people and are probabilistic in nature. If we know for sure that twice two will always be four, and the path is speed multiplied by time, then social phenomena and processes do not fit into such a clear framework and may or may not be realized depending on the moods and activities of people in combination with many objective and subjective factors. Nevertheless, it is possible to predict events in advance, manage them and calculate possible alternatives, choosing the preferred option. Of course, the role of sociology and sociological research increases immeasurably in crisis situations when accounting becomes important. public opinion, its reorientation and change of ideals and paradigms.

Sociology studies social structure societies, social groups, culture system, personality type, repetitive social processes, changes taking place in people, while focusing on identifying development alternatives.

Sociological knowledge acts as a unity of theory and practice, empiricism.

Theoretical studies provide an explanation social reality based on laws, empirical research is specific detailed information about the processes taking place in society (observations, polls, comparisons).

Sociology as a science

The definition of sociology as a science is formed from the designation of an object and a subject. Its numerous variants, with different formulations, have substantive identity and similarity.

Sociology is defined in a variety of ways:

1) as a scientific study of society and public relations (N. Smelzer, USA);

2) as a science that studies practically all social processes and phenomena (E. Giddens, USA);

3) as a study of the phenomena of human interaction and the phenomena arising from this interaction (P. Sorokin, Russia - USA);

4) as a science about social communities, the mechanisms of their formation, functioning and development, etc. The variety of definitions of sociology reflects the complexity and versatility of its object and subject.

The concept of society

Social concept

Social is a set of certain properties and characteristics (social relations) of social communities (classes, groups of people) in the process of their joint activity in specific conditions, manifested in their relations to each other, to their position in society, to phenomena and processes public life... A social phenomenon or process occurs when the behavior of even one individual is influenced by another individual or social group. It is in the process of interacting with each other that people influence each other and thereby contribute to the fact that each of them becomes a carrier and exponent of some social qualities. Thus, social connections, social interaction, social relations and the way they are organized are the objects of sociological research. The following main features can be distinguished that characterize the specifics of the social.

First, it is common property, which is inherent in different groups of people and is the result of their relationships. Secondly, it is the nature and content of relations between different groups of people, depending on the place they occupy and on the role they play in various social structures. Thirdly, it is the result of joint activities of different individuals, manifested in communication and in their interaction. The social arises precisely in the course of the interaction of people, is conditioned by the differences in their place and role in specific social structures

The tasks of sociology

Sociology as an independent science has its own tasks. Sociology, studying social life in various forms and spheres, firstly, solves scientific problems that are associated with the formation of knowledge about social reality, the development of methods of sociological research. Secondly, sociology studies the problems that are associated with the transformation of social reality, the analysis of ways and means of purposeful impact on social processes.

An equally important task of sociology is to ensure reliable “ feedback»Society management.

The functions of sociology

Sociology has many different functions in society. The main ones are:

1) theoretical and cognitive - gives new knowledge about society, social groups, individuals and the patterns of their behavior. Of particular importance belongs to special sociological theories that reveal the laws, prospects for the social development of society. Sociological theories provide scientific answers to pressing problems of our time, indicate real ways and methods of social transformation of the world;

2) applied - provides specific sociological information for solving practical scientific and social problems. Revealing the patterns of development of various spheres of society, sociological research provides specific information necessary for exercising control over social processes;

3) social forecast and control - warns of deviations in the development of society, predicts and models trends social development... On the basis of sociological research, sociology puts forward scientifically based forecasts regarding the development of society in the future, which are theoretical basis constructing long-term plans for social development, and also gives practical recommendations.

4) humanistic - develops social ideals, programs of scientific and technical, socio-economic and socio-cultural development of society.

The structure of sociology

In modern sociology, three approaches to the structure of this science coexist.

1) empiricism, i.e. complex of sociological research focused on collecting and analyzing real facts social life using a special technique;

2) theories - a set of judgments, views, models, hypotheses that explain development processes social system in general and its elements;

3) methodology - a system of principles underlying the accumulation, construction and application of sociological knowledge.

The second approach is targeted. Fundamental sociology (basic, academic) is focused on the growth of knowledge and scientific contribution to fundamental discoveries... It solves scientific problems associated with the formation of knowledge about social reality, description, explanation and understanding of the processes of social development.

Applied sociology is focused on practical benefits. This is a set of theoretical models, methods, research procedures, social technologies, specific programs and recommendations aimed at achieving a real social effect.

As a rule, fundamental and applied sociology incorporates empiricism, theory, and methodology.

The third (large-scale) approach divides science into macro- and micro-sociology. The first studies large-scale social phenomena (ethnic groups, states, social institutions, groups, etc.); the second - the spheres of direct social interaction (interpersonal relations, communication processes in groups, the sphere of everyday reality).

In sociology, content-structural elements are also distinguished. different levels: general sociological knowledge; sectoral sociology (economic, industrial, political, leisure, management, etc.); independent sociological schools, directions, concepts, theories.

Any science operates with certain concepts, categories. Categories are the most important, the most essential, reflecting the essence of this science of the concept. These are the building blocks of this science.

So, the following categories of sociology can be called: social equality, social communities (classes, groups, nations, age and gender and professional groups), sociological research, social management, social policy, social sphere, social goals, social ideal, social phenomena, social institutions, social relationships, etc., i.e. those most essential concepts that reflect the subject of the science of sociology.

5... HISTORY OF SOCIOLOGY

For a long time, thinkers have sought to discover secret springs that govern global social processes and subtle mechanisms of interaction between two or more people. However, sociology as an independent science appeared only in the middle of the 19th century.

True, the belated appearance can be explained by the extreme complexity of the subject of study - human society. After all, we do not really know when exactly it arose. Historians say: 40 thousand years ago, although the human race arose more than 2 million years ago.

No matter what historians say, we know for sure that the first and fairly complete idea of the structure of society was given by ancient philosophers Plato and Aristotle... Then there was a very long, stretching for two thousand years, historical pause, before outstanding scientists and thinkers appeared. N. Machiavelli, T. Hobbes, F. Bacon, J.-J. Rousseau, A. Helvetius, I. Kant and many others), which have seriously enriched our knowledge of society and human behavior. Finally, in the 19th century, sociology itself was born, which absorbed the best achievements of human thought about society and, thanks to the application of specific scientific methods, advanced our knowledge further. Among the creators of scientific sociology, stand out O. Comte, K. Marx, E. Durkheim and M. Weber. From them opens the actual scientific period in the history of sociology.

To prehistory, we refer to antiquity and modern times. Four figures stand out here: Plato, Aristotle, Machiavelli and Hobbes. The history of sociology itself includes the period from the middle of the 19th to the beginning of the 20th century, when the founders of modern sociology, Comte, Marx, Durkheim, and Weber, lived and worked.

Only in the modern period does sociology appear as an exact science based on empirical facts, scientific method and theory. The two preceding periods characterize its pre-scientific stage, when the totality of ideas that explained man and society was formed within the framework of social philosophy.

ANTIQUITY

In the social philosophy of Plato(427-347 BC) and Aristotle (384-322 BC), we find the position of sociologists - the study of traditions, customs, morals and relationships of people; they summarized facts, built concepts that culminated in practical recommendations on how to improve society. Since in antiquity "society" and "state" were not distinguished, both concepts were used as synonyms.

Plato. Plato's "State" is considered the first work on "general sociology" in history. He emphasized the special role of the division of labor and created the world's first theory of stratification, according to which any society is divided into three classes: the highest, consisting of wise men who govern the state; the middle one, including the warriors guarding it from turmoil and disorder; the lowest, where artisans and peasants were listed. The upper class is endowed with tremendous privileges, but it constantly abuses power. To prevent this from happening, the knowledge must be deprived of private property, which, according to Plato, corrupts the morals of people. People who had reached 50 years of age, highly educated and talented should be allowed to manage society. They should lead a harsh lifestyle and not indulge in earthly pleasures.

Aristotle... His order was supported by the middle class. Besides him, there are two other classes - the rich plutocracy and the proletariat deprived of property. The state is best governed when:

1) the mass of the poor is not excluded from participation in governance;

2) the selfish interests of the rich are limited;

3) the middle class is more numerous and stronger than the other two.

The imperfections of society, Aristotle taught, are not corrected by equalizing distribution, but by the moral improvement of people. The legislator should strive not for all general equality, but for the equalization of life's chances. Anyone can own private property, it does not harm the mores of people and develops healthy selfish interests. A person is governed by many aspirations, but the main thing among them is the love of money. Under collective ownership, all or most are poor and bitter. On the other hand, the excessive inequality of people is no less dangerous for the state. Aristotle extols a society in which the middle class is stronger than all others.

NEW TIME (XV-XVII CENTURY)

Nicolo Machiavelli(1469-1527). He was the first of the modern thinkers to turn to the ideas of Plato and Aristotle and created on their basis the original theory of society and the state. His main work "The Sovereign" seems to continue the main line of reasoning of Plato's "State", but the emphasis is placed not on the structure of society, but on the behavior of a political leader. In the person of Machiavelli, sociology and political science acquired a new dimension, they became the science of human behavior in society.

Machiavelli said that a ruler who wants to succeed must know the laws of human behavior. The first law states that our actions are governed by ambition and the motive for power. Wealthy people are driven by the fear of losing what they have accumulated, and poor people are driven by the passion to acquire what they have been deprived of. The second law says that a smart ruler does not have to keep all of his promises. After all, subjects are not in a hurry to fulfill their obligations. Seeking power, you can squander promises, but having come to it, you do not have to fulfill them, otherwise you will become dependent on subordinates. And where there is dependence, there is indecision, cowardice and frivolity. The third law: evil must be done immediately, and good - gradually. People value rewards when they are rare, but punishments must be carried out immediately and in large doses. A one-time stiffness is tolerated with less irritation and is considered more fair than an extended one over time. Punishment does not need evaluation and reciprocal gratitude (as encouragement).

The next step was made Thomas Hobbes(1588-1679). He developed the theory of social contract, which served as the basis for the doctrine of civil society. Animals do not have a struggle for honors and titles, therefore they do not have hatred and envy - the reasons for rebellions and wars. People have it all. It is wrong to think that people are naturally cooperative. If a person loved another by natural impulse, then he would seek communication with everyone in equal measure. But each of us prefers the society of those who are more profitable for him. It is our nature that pushes us to look not for friends, but for honor and benefits.

What motivates people to create a society? Mutual fear. It knocks people into groups to help them survive competition. But, having united, people are not pursuing a public good at all, but even strive to benefit from this, or to achieve respect and honor. Therefore, human society will be neither very large nor very stable. It is stable if glory and honor are given to all. But it doesn't work that way. The majority is always bypassed, the honor goes to a few, therefore, society will inevitably disintegrate over time. Fear does not separate, but unites people, compels them to take care of mutual safety. The state is the best way to satisfy such a need. Therefore, the reason for the emergence of a stable, long-lasting society is mutual fear, and not love and disposition.

The natural state is a war of all against all or a social struggle for survival. It characterizes the daily life of people in a pre-civil society. Civil society is another matter - the highest stage of development. It rests on social contract and legal laws. He has three forms of government: democracy, aristocracy, monarchy. Only with the emergence of the state does property appear in the true sense of the word and the corresponding institutions (court, government, army, police) that protect it. As a result, the war of all against all ends.

The concept of "society"

“Society” is a fundamental category of modern sociology, which interprets it in a broad sense as a part of the material world isolated from nature, which is a historically developing set of all methods of interaction and forms of uniting people, in which their all-round dependence on each other is expressed, and in a narrow sense - as a structurally or genetically defined genus, species, subspecies of communication. In other words, society is a historically developing set of relations between people, which is formed in the process of their life.

The sociological thought of the past explained the category "society" in different ways. In ancient times, it was identified with the concept of "state". This can be seen, for example, in judgments ancient greek philosopher Plato. The only exception was Aristotle, who believed that the family and the village as special types of communication are different from the state and that there is a different structure of social ties, in which the relationship of friendship - the highest type of mutual communication - comes to the fore.

In the Middle Ages, the idea of identifying society and the state reigned again. Only in modern times in the 16th century. in the works of the Italian thinker N. Machiavelli, the idea of the state as one of the states of society was expressed. In the XVII century. English philosopher T. Hobbes forms the theory of the "social contract", the essence of which was the return by members of society of part of their freedoms to the state, which is the guarantor of compliance with this contract. XVIII century characterized by the clash of two approaches to the definition of society: one approach interpreted society as an artificial formation, contrary to the natural inclinations of people, the other - as the development and expression of natural drives and feelings of man. At the same time, the economists A. Smith and D. Hume defined society as a labor union of people connected by the division of labor, and the philosopher I. Kant - as humanity taken in historical development.

Early XIX in. was marked by the emergence of the idea of civil society. It was expressed by G. Hegel, who called civil society the sphere of private interests other than public ones. The founder of sociology, O. Comte, viewed society as a natural phenomenon, and its evolution as a natural process of growth and differentiation of parts and functions.

According to E. Durkheim, society is a supra-individual spiritual reality based on collective ideas. M. Weber defined society as the interaction of people, which is a product of social, i.e. other people-oriented actions. According to Karl Marx, society is a historically developing set of relations between people, which are formed in the process of their joint activity.

Culture concept

The study of human societies, social groups and the life of individuals is possible from the point of view of analyzing the social characteristics of human communities, which is necessary for the implementation of all types of joint activities. With this approach, the subject of sociological research will be human knowledge, skills and abilities, general norms of mutual understanding between people, which are necessary to streamline human relations, create social institutions and control systems for the distribution of wealth. In this case it comes about the study of human culture.

Culture is an extremely diverse concept. This scientific term appeared in Ancient Rome, where it meant "cultivation of the land", "upbringing", "education". Having entered everyday human speech, in the course of frequent use this word has lost its original meaning and began to denote the most diverse aspects of human behavior, as well as types of activity.

The sociological dictionary gives the following definitions of the concept of "culture": "Culture is a specific way of organizing and developing human life, represented in the products of material and spiritual labor, in the system of social norms and institutions, in spiritual values, in the totality of people's relations to nature, among themselves and to ourselves. "

Culture is phenomena, properties, elements of human life that qualitatively distinguish a person from nature. This qualitative difference is associated with the conscious transforming activity of a person. The concept of "culture" captures the general differences between human life and biological forms of life; reflects the qualitatively unique forms of human life within the framework of historical eras or various communities.

The concept of "culture" can be used to characterize the characteristics of the behavior, consciousness and activities of people in certain areas of life (work culture, political culture). The concept of "culture" can fix the way of life of an individual (personal culture), social group (national culture) and the whole society as a whole.

The culture can be divided into the following types:

1) by the subject - the bearer of culture - into public, national, class, group, personal;

2) by functional role - for general (for example, in the general education system) and special (professional);

3) by genesis - into folk and elite;

4) by types - into material and spiritual;

5) by nature - into religious and secular.

Functions of culture

1. Communicative. It is associated with the accumulation and transmission of social experience (including intergenerational), with the transmission of messages in the course of joint activities. The existence of such a function makes it possible to define culture as a special way of inheriting social information.

2. Regulatory. It manifests itself in the creation of guidelines for human actions and a system of control over these actions.

3. Integrating. It is associated with the creation of a system of meanings, values and norms as the most important condition for the stability of social systems.

Consideration of the functions of culture makes it possible to define culture as a mechanism of value-normative integration of social systems.

Socialization of personality

The most important type of social interaction, during which the formation of any person as a full-fledged and full-fledged member of society takes place, is socialization. Sociologists use this term to describe the process by which and by which people learn to adapt to social norms.

Socialization as a process makes possible the continuation of society and the transmission of its culture from generation to generation. This process is conceptualized in two ways.

1. Socialization can be understood as the internalization of social norms: social norms become obligatory for the individual in the sense that they are rather established by him for himself than imposed on him by means of external regulation and are thus part of the individual's own individuality. Thanks to this, the individual feels an internal need to adapt to the social environment that surrounds him.

2. Socialization can be thought of as an essential element of social interaction based on the assumption that people are willing to raise the value of their own image by seeking approval and higher status in the eyes of others; in this case, individuals are socialized to the extent that they measure their actions in accordance with the expectations of others.

Consequently, socialization is understood as the process of assimilation by a person of patterns of behavior of society and groups, their values, norms, attitudes. In the process of socialization, the most common stable personality traits are formed, which are manifested in socially organized activities, regulated by the role structure of society.

The main agents of socialization are: family. school, peer groups, facilities mass media, literature and art, social environment, etc.

In the course of socialization, the following goals are realized:

1) interaction of people based on the development of social roles;

2) the preservation of society due to the assimilation by its new members of the values and patterns of behavior that have developed in it.

Stages of socialization

The stages of socialization coincide (conditionally) with the stages of the age-related development of the individual:

1) early (primary) socialization. It is associated with the acquisition of general cultural knowledge, with the development of the initial ideas about the world and the nature of human relationships. Adolescence is a special stage in early socialization. The particular conflict nature of this age is due to the fact that the child's capabilities and abilities significantly exceed the rules prescribed for him, the framework of behavior;

2) secondary socialization:

a) professional socialization, which is associated with the acquisition of special knowledge and skills, with the introduction to a certain subculture. At this stage, the individual's social contacts expand, the range of social roles expands;

b) the inclusion of the individual in the system of social division of labor. It assumes adaptation in professional subculture, as well as belonging to other subcultures. The rate of social change in modern societies leads to the fact that there is a need for resocialization, the assimilation of new knowledge, values, roles, skills instead of the previous ones, insufficiently mastered or outdated. Resocialization covers many phenomena (from the correction of reading and speech to professional training or a change in value orientations of behavior);

c) retirement age or disability. Characterized by a change in lifestyle due to exclusion from the production environment.

Consequently, the socialization of a person begins at birth and lasts for the whole life, this process at each stage is carried out by special institutions. These include: family, kindergartens, schools, universities, work collectives, etc. Each stage of socialization is associated with the action of certain agents. Socialization agents are people and institutions associated with it and responsible for its results.

Social institutions

Types of social institutions

In total, there are five fundamental needs and five basic social institutions:

1) the need for earning a livelihood (institute of production);

2) the need for security and order (institution of the state);

3) needs for the reproduction of the clan (the institution of the family);

4) the need for the transfer of knowledge, socialization of the younger generation (educational institutions);

5) the need for solving spiritual problems (the institution of religion).

table 2

Social institutions

Consequently, social institutions are classified according to public spheres:

1) economic (property, money, regulation of money circulation, organization and division of labor), which serve the production and distribution of values and services. Economic social institutions provide the entire set of production ties in society, connecting economic life with other spheres of social life. These institutions are formed on the material basis of society;

2) political (parliament, army, police, parties) regulate the use of these values and services and are associated with power. Politics in the narrow sense of this word is a complex of means, functions based mainly on the manipulation of the elements of power to establish, exercise and maintain power. Political institutions (state, parties, public organizations, court, army, parliament, police) in a concentrated form express the political interests and relations existing in a given society;

3) the institutions of kinship (marriage and family) are associated with the regulation of childbirth, relations between spouses and children, socialization of young people;

4) educational and cultural institutions (museums, clubs) are associated with science, education, etc. Their task is to strengthen, create and develop the culture of society, in its transmission to future generations. These include: the family as an educational institution, schools, institutes, art institutions, creative unions;

5) religious institutions, i.e. those that organize a person's attitude to transcendental forces, i.e. to supersensitive forces, acting outside the empirical control of man, and the attitude to sacred objects and forces. Religious institutions in some societies have a strong influence on the course of interactions and interpersonal relations, creating a system of dominant values and becoming dominant institutions (the influence of Islam on all aspects of social life in some countries of the Middle East).

In sociology, as in any other science, there are such basic components as knowledge and the means of obtaining it (in this context, it is not the subjects scientific activities- scientists and research teams, but only the means and results of their activities). The first component includes knowledge about knowledge (methodological knowledge) and knowledge about the subject. The second component is both individual methods and sociological research proper.

Methodological knowledge includes ideological and methodological principles; the doctrine of the subject of sociology; knowledge of methods, their development and application; the doctrine of sociological knowledge, its forms, types and levels; knowledge about the process of sociological research, its structure and functions.

Knowledge about - these are specially constructed classifications or typologies, conceptual or mathematical models, hypotheses and theories, statistical data.

Methods in Sociology - it is a means of obtaining and systematizing scientific knowledge about social reality. They include the principles of organizing cognitive (research) activities, regulatory norms or rules, a set of methods and techniques of action, an order (scheme or plan) of actions. In sociology, both private scientific methods (for example, observation, polling) and general scientific methods (for example, statistical) are used.

Research methods and techniques are built in a certain sequence based on regulatory principles. The sequence of methods and techniques of actions is called a procedure. The procedure is an integral part of any method.

Methodology - it is the implementation of the method as a whole, and hence its procedure. It means linking one or a combination of several methods and corresponding procedures to research, its conceptual apparatus; selection or development of methodological tools (set of methods), methodological strategy (sequence of application of methods and corresponding procedures). Methodological tools, methodological strategy or just a technique can be original (unique), applicable only in one study, or standard (typical), applicable in many studies.

In different studies, the same method is specifically refracted depending on its place and role in the study, on its connection with other methods.

The technique includes technique. Technics - it is an implementation of the method at the level of the simplest operations, brought to perfection. It can represent a set and sequence of techniques for working with the object of research (data collection technique), with research data (data processing technique), with research tools (technique for compiling a questionnaire).

Sociology methods

Sociology methods - a set of basic cognitive techniques with the help of which they arrive at scientific truths. uses two groups of methods:

1. general scientific, characteristic for all sciences, such as analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, structural-functional method, systems approach, etc.

2. special(own, specific) methods:

survey, in the form of questionnaires and interviews;
observation;
analysis of documents;
content analysis;
experiment;
sociological test;
sociometric survey (sociometry).

Classification of methods in sociology

By the scale of application

General scientific (for example, mathematical methods)
Particularly scientific (e.g. survey methods)

By level of knowledge

Theoretical (axiomatic method, hypothetical-deductive method, etc.)
Empirical (observation, document analysis, etc.)

By stages of research

Collection methods
Processing methods
Analysis methods

The term sociology comes from two words: the Latin "societes" - "society" and the Greek "logos" - "word", "concept", "doctrine". Thus, sociology can be defined as the science of society.

The famous American scientist J. Smelser gives the same definition of this term. However, this definition is rather abstract, since many other sciences also study society in various aspects.

In order to understand the features of sociology, it is necessary to determine the subject and object of this science, as well as its functions and research methods.

The object of any science is a part of external reality chosen for study, which has a certain completeness and integrity. As already noted, the object of sociology is society, but at the same time science studies not its individual elements, but the whole society as an integral system. The object of sociology is a set of properties, connections and relationships that are called social. The concept of the social can be viewed in two senses: in a broad sense, it is analogous to the concept of "public"; in a narrow sense, the social is only an aspect of social relations. Social relations develop between members of a society when they occupy a certain place in its structure and are endowed with social status.

Consequently, the object of sociology is social connections, social interaction, social relations and the way they are organized.

The subject of science is the result of a theoretical study of a selected part of external reality. The subject of sociology cannot be defined as unequivocally as the object. This is due to the fact that during historical development sociology views on the subject of this science have undergone significant changes.

Today, the following approaches to defining the subject of sociology can be distinguished: 1) society as a special entity, different from individuals and the state and subject to its own natural laws (O. Comte); 2) social facts, which should be understood as collective in all manifestations (E. Durkheim ); 3) social behavior as a person's attitude, that is, an internally or externally manifested position focused on an act or abstaining from it (M. Weber); 4) scientific study of society as a social system and its constituent structural elements (base and superstructure ) (Marxism).

In modern domestic scientific literature, the Marxist understanding of the subject of sociology is preserved. It should be noted that this is fraught with a certain danger, since the representation of society in the form of a basis and a superstructure leads to ignoring the personality and universal human values, denying the world of culture.

Therefore, more rationally, the subject of sociology should be considered society as a set of social communities, strata, groups, individuals interacting with each other. Moreover, the main mechanism of this interaction is goal-setting.

So, taking into account all these features, it can be determined that sociology is the science of general and specific social laws of the organization, functioning and development of society, the ways, forms and methods of their implementation, in the actions and interactions of members of society.

Sociology, which actively uses subjective assessments, especially in empirical research, is not interested in the relationship of these assessments with the personal characteristics of the respondents. The main thing for a sociologist is to identify the patterns of formation and change in the subjective opinions of respondents and their connection with indicators that characterize their belonging to a particular social, professional, etc. groups. So, for example: satisfaction (with work, quality of life, etc.) of representatives of various strata and groups - a subjective psychological evaluative attitude - is one of the most popular indicators in empirical sociological research

2 . Sociology is a differentiated and structured system of knowledge. A system is an ordered set of elements interconnected and forming a certain integrity. It is in the clear structuredness and integrity of the sociology system that the internal institutionalization of science is manifested, which characterizes it as an independent one. Sociology as a system includes the following elements: 1) social facts - scientifically based knowledge obtained during the study of any fragment of reality. Social facts are established through other elements of the sociological system; 2) general and special sociological theories - systems of scientific sociological knowledge, aimed at solving the issue of the possibilities and limits of knowledge of society in certain aspects and developing within certain theoretical and methodological directions; 3) sectoral sociological theories - systems of scientific sociological knowledge aimed at describing individual spheres of social life, substantiating a program of specific sociological research, ensuring the interpretation of empirical data; 4) methods of collecting and analyzing data - technologies for obtaining empirical material and its primary generalization.

However, in addition to the horizontal structure, systems of sociological knowledge are clearly differentiated along three independent levels.

1. Theoretical sociology (level of fundamental research). The task is to consider society as an integral organism, to reveal the place and role of social ties in it, to formulate the basic principles of sociological knowledge, basic methodological approaches to the analysis of social phenomena.

At this level, the essence and nature of the social phenomenon, its historical specificity, and its connection with various aspects of social life are revealed.

2. Special sociological theories. At this level, there are branches of social knowledge, which have as their subject the study of relatively independent, specific subsystems of the social whole and social processes.

Types of special social theories: 1) theories that study the laws of development of individual social communities; 2) theories that reveal the patterns and mechanisms of functioning of communities in certain spheres of social life; 3) theories that analyze individual elements of the social mechanism.

3. Social engineering. The level of practical implementation of scientific knowledge in order to design various technical means and improve existing technologies.

In addition to these levels, macro-, meso- and microsociology are distinguished in the structure of sociological knowledge.

Within the framework of macrosociology, society is studied as an integral system, as a single organism, complex, self-governing, self-regulating, consisting of many parts and elements. Macrosociology primarily studies: the structure of society (which elements make up the structure of early society and which are modern), the nature of changes in society.

Within the framework of mesosociology, the existing groups of people in society (classes, nations, generations), as well as stable forms of life organization created by people, called institutions: the institution of marriage, family, church, education, state, etc., are investigated.

At the level of microsociology, the goal is to understand the activity of an individual, motives, nature of actions, incentives and obstacles.

However, these levels cannot be considered separately from each other as independently existing elements of social knowledge. On the contrary, these levels must be considered in close interconnection, since understanding the general social picture, social laws is possible only on the basis of the behavior of individual subjects of society and interpersonal communication.

In turn, social forecasts about this or that development of social processes and phenomena, the behavior of members of society are possible only on the basis of the disclosure of universal social laws.

In the structure of sociological knowledge, theoretical and empirical sociology are also distinguished. The specificity of theoretical sociology is that it relies on empirical research, but theoretical knowledge prevails over empirical, since it is theoretical knowledge that ultimately determines progress in any science and in sociology too. Theoretical sociology is a set of diverse concepts that develop aspects of social development of society and give their interpretation.

Empirical sociology is more of an applied nature and is aimed at solving urgent practical issues of public life.

Empirical sociology, unlike theoretical sociology, is not aimed at creating a comprehensive picture of social reality.

Theoretical sociology solves this problem by creating universal sociological theories. Theoretical sociology lacks a core that has remained stable since its inception.

There are many concepts and theories in theoretical sociology: the materialist concept of the development of society by Karl Marx is based on the priority of economic factors in the development of society (historical materialism); there are various concepts of stratification, industrial development of societies; convergence, etc.

However, it must be remembered that certain social theories are not confirmed in the course of the historical development of society. Some of them are not implemented at one stage or another of social development, others do not stand the test of time.

The specificity of theoretical sociology is that it solves the problems of studying society on the basis of scientific methods of cognizing reality.

At each of these levels of cognition, the subject of research is concretized.

This allows us to consider sociology as a system of scientific knowledge.

The functioning of this system is aimed at obtaining scientific knowledge both about the entire social organism and about its individual elements, which play a different role in the process of its existence.

Thus, sociology is a multidimensional and multi-level system of scientific knowledge, which consists of elements that concretize general knowledge about the subject of science, research methods and ways of its design.

3.Method- the main way of collecting, processing or analyzing data. Technique - a set of special techniques for the effective use of a particular method. Methodology is a concept that denotes a set of techniques associated with a given method, including private operations, their sequence and interrelation. Procedure - the sequence of all operations, the general system of actions and the method of organizing the study.

The main methods used in social empirical research are the following.

Observation is a purposeful perception of the phenomena of objective reality, in the process of which the researcher gains knowledge about the external sides, states and relations of the objects that are being studied. The forms and methods of recording observation data can be different: a form or diary of observation, a photo, film or television camera and other technical means. The peculiarity of observation as a method of collecting information is the ability to analyze versatile impressions about the object under study.

There is a possibility of fixing the nature of behavior, facial expressions, gestures, expression of emotions. There are two main types of surveillance: enabled and disabled.

If the behavior of people is studied by a sociologist as a member of a group, then he conducts participatory observation. If a sociologist studies behavior from the outside, then he is conducting unencumbered observation.

The main object of observation is both the behavior of individuals and social groups and the conditions of their activity.

An experiment is a method, the purpose of which is to test certain hypotheses, the results of which have a direct effect on practice.

The logic of its implementation is to trace the direction, magnitude and stability of changes in the characteristics of interest to the researcher by choosing a certain experimental group (groups) and placing it in an unusual experimental situation (under the influence of a certain factor).

Distinguish between field and laboratory experiments, linear and parallel. When selecting participants in the experiment, methods of pairwise selection or structural identification, as well as random selection, are used.

The planning and logic of the experiment include the following procedures: 1) selection of an object used as experimental and control groups; 2) selection of control, factorial and neutral signs; 3) determination of experimental conditions and creation of an experimental situation; 4) formulation of hypotheses and definition of tasks; 5 ) the choice of indicators and a method for monitoring the course of the experiment.

Document analysis is one of the most widely used and effective methods collection of primary information.

The purpose of the study is to find indicators that indicate the presence of a topic in the document that is significant for analysis, and that reveal the content of textual information. The study of documents allows you to identify the tendency and dynamics of changes and development of certain phenomena and processes.

The source of sociological information is usually text messages contained in minutes, reports, resolutions, decisions, publications, letters, etc.

A special role is played by social statistical information, which in most cases is used for the characteristics and specific historical development of the phenomenon or process under study.

An important feature of information is its aggregated nature, which means correlation with a certain group as a whole.

The selection of information sources depends on the research program, and methods of specific or random selection may be used.

Distinguish between: 1) external analysis of documents, in which the circumstances of the emergence of documents are studied; their historical and social context; 2) internal analysis, during which the content of the document is studied, all that is evidenced by the text of the source, and those objective processes and phenomena that the document reports.

The study of documents is carried out by qualitative (traditional) or formalized qualitative and quantitative analysis (content analysis).

A survey - a method of collecting sociological information - provides for: 1) oral or written appeal of the researcher to a certain set of people (respondents) with questions, the content of which represents the problem under study at the level of empirical indicators; 2) registration and statistical processing of the received answers, their theoretical interpretation.

In each case, the survey involves an appeal directly to the participant and is aimed at those aspects of the process that are little or not amenable to direct observation. This method of sociological research is the most demanded and widespread.

The main types of survey, depending on the written or oral form of communication with respondents, are questionnaires and interviews. They are based on a set of questions that are offered to respondents and the answers to which make up an array of primary data. Questions are asked to respondents through a questionnaire or questionnaire.

An interview is a focused conversation, the purpose of which is to get answers to the questions provided by the research program. Advantages of an interview over a questionnaire survey: the ability to take into account the level of the respondent's culture, his attitude to the topic of the survey and individual problems, expressed intonationally, flexibly change the wording of questions taking into account the personality of the respondent and the content of previous answers, and raise the necessary additional questions.

Despite some flexibility, the interview is conducted in accordance with a specific program and research plan, in which all the main questions and options for additional questions are recorded.

The following types of interviews can be distinguished: 1) by content (documentary, opinion interview); 2) by technique (free and standardized); 3) by procedure (intensive, focused).

Questionnaires are classified according to the content and design of the questions asked. Distinguish between open questions, when respondents express themselves in a free form. In the closed questionnaire, all answer options are provided in advance. Semi-closed questionnaires combine both procedures.

When preparing and conducting a sociological survey, there are three main stages.

At the first stage, the theoretical premises of the survey are determined: 1) goals and objectives; 2) problem; 3) object and subject; 4) operational definition of initial theoretical concepts, finding empirical indicators.

In the course of the second stage, the sample is substantiated, the following is determined: 1) the general population (those strata and groups of the population to which the results of the survey are supposed to be extended); 2) the rules for the search and selection of respondents at the last stage of the sample.

At the third stage, the questionnaire (questionnaire) is substantiated: 1) meaningful representation of the research problem in the formulation of questions intended for respondents; 2) justification of the questionnaire regarding the capabilities of the surveyed population as a source of the required information; 3) standardization of requirements and instructions for questioners and interviewers on the organization and maintenance survey, establishing contact with the respondent, registering responses; 4) providing preconditions for processing the results on a computer; 5) ensuring organizational requirements for the survey.

Depending on the source (carrier) of primary information, there are mass and specialized polls. In a mass survey, the main source of information is represented by representatives of various social groups, whose activities are directly related to the subject of analysis. Participants in mass polls are usually called respondents.

In specialized surveys, the main source of information is competent persons, whose professional or theoretical knowledge, life experience allows making authoritative conclusions.

The participants in such surveys are experts who are able to give a balanced assessment of the issues of interest to the researcher.

Hence, another name for such surveys, widely used in sociology, is the method of expert assessments.

4. Concrete case study (CSI) is a system of theoretical and empirical procedures that allows you to gain new knowledge about social facility(process, phenomenon) for solving fundamental and applied problems. Sociological research consists of four interrelated stages: 1) preparation of research; 2) collection of primary sociological information; 3) preparation of the collected information for processing and its processing on a computer; 4) analysis of the processed information, preparation of a report on the results of the study, formulation of conclusions and recommendations.

There are three main types of sociological research: intelligence, descriptive and analytical.

Reconnaissance is the simplest type, solving limited problems and studying small surveyed populations. It has a simplified program and is used in the case of unexplored problems, to obtain additional information about the object, to clarify hypotheses and tasks, to obtain operational data.

Descriptive research is a more complex type, involving the acquisition of empirical information for a holistic view of the phenomenon under study, which has a complete program and is applied to a large community with various characteristics.

Analytical research is the most difficult type, with the goal of not only describing the phenomenon under study, but also finding out the reasons that underlie it and determine the nature, prevalence, acuteness and other features characteristic of it. It is the most valuable, time consuming and carefully crafted program.

According to the dynamics of the object, a point (one-time) study and a repeated one (several studies of the same object at regular intervals according to a single program) are distinguished. A specific case study can be large-scale or local. Mostly this is social work to order.

Direct preparation of the study involves the development of its program, work plan and supporting documents. The program is the language of communication between the sociologist and the client; it is a strategic research document. It is a thesis statement of the concept of the organizers of the work, their ideas and intentions. It is also considered a comprehensive theoretical justification of methodological approaches and methodological techniques for the study of social facts.

The program consists of two parts - methodological and methodological. The first includes the formulation and substantiation of the problem, indication of the goal, definition of the object and subject of research, logical analysis of basic concepts, formulation of hypotheses and tasks; the second is the definition of the surveyed population, the characteristics of the methods used for collecting primary sociological information, the logical structure of the tools for collecting this information and the logical schemes for processing it on a computer.

Brief commentary on the structural elements of the CSI program.

A social problem is a contradictory situation created by life itself. Problems are classified by purpose, carrier, extent of prevalence, duration of the contradiction and its depth.

The goal should always be result-oriented; it should, through implementation, help to identify ways and means of solving the problem.

The object of the CSI is a social fact, i.e. any social phenomenon or process. The subject of CSI - the sides or properties of the object that most fully express the problem.

The logical analysis of basic concepts implies the selection of concepts that define the subject, an accurate and comprehensive explanation of their content and structure.

A hypothesis is a preliminary assumption that explains a social fact for the purpose of its subsequent confirmation or refutation.

The tasks are formulated in accordance with the goal and hypotheses.

The general population (N) is all people who are territorially and temporally involved in the object under study. Sample population(n) is a micro-model of the general population. It is composed of respondents selected for the survey using a particular sampling method. The selection of respondents is carried out according to social formulas, using a table of random numbers, methods of mechanical, serial, nesting, spontaneous sampling, methods of "snowball" and the main array. The most accurate method is quota sampling.

The program substantiates the need to use specific methods for collecting sociological information (questionnaires, interviews, document analysis, observation, etc.).

The logical structure of the toolkit reveals the focus of a particular block of questions on certain characteristics and properties of the object, as well as the order of the questions.

Logical schemes for processing the collected information show the expected range and depth of analysis of sociological data.

5.Early XX in. significant changes took place in public life, which could not but affect the development of sociological knowledge.

Capitalism entered its advanced stage, which was characterized by revolutions, world wars, unrest in society. All this required the development of new concepts of social development.

E. Durkheim (1858–1917) was one of the most prominent representatives of sociology who influenced the creation of classical sociology. The French sociologist largely relied on the positivist concept of O. Comte, but went much further and put forward the principles of a new methodology: 1) naturalism - the establishment of the laws of society is similar to the establishment of the laws of nature; 2) sociologism - social reality does not depend on individuals, it is autonomous.

Durkheim also argued that sociology should study objective social reality, in particular, that sociology should study social facts. A social fact is an element of social life that does not depend on the individual and has a "coercive force" in relation to him (way of thinking, laws, customs, language, beliefs, monetary system). Thus, three principles of social facts can be distinguished: 1) Social facts are fundamental, observable, impersonal phenomena of social life; 2) the study of social facts should be independent of "all innate ideas", that is, the subjective predisposition of individuals; 3) the source of social facts is in society itself, and not in the thinking and behavior of individuals.

He also proposed to use functional analysis, which made it possible to establish a correspondence between a social phenomenon, a social institution and a certain need of society as a whole. Here another term, put forward by a French sociologist, finds its expression - social function.

The social function is the establishment of a connection between the institution and the need of society as a whole determined by it. The function represents the contribution of a social institution to the stable functioning of society.

Another element of Durkheim's social theory, which unites it with Comte's concept, is the doctrine of harmony and solidarity as the fundamental principles of social order. Durkheim, following his predecessor, puts forward consensus as the foundation of society. He distinguishes two types of solidarity, the first of which historically replaces the second:

1) mechanical solidarity inherent in undeveloped, archaic societies in which the actions and deeds of people are homogeneous;

2) organic solidarity based on the division of labor, professional specialization, economic interconnection of individuals.

An important condition for the solidarity of people is the compliance of their professional functions with their abilities and inclinations.

Another prominent theoretician of sociological thought, M. Weber (1864–1920), lived at the same time as Durkheim. However, his views on society were significantly different from the French thinker.

If the latter gave undivided priority to society, then Weber believed that only the individual has motives, goals, interests and consciousness, the term "collective consciousness" is more a metaphor than an exact concept. Society consists of a set of acting individuals, each of whom strives to achieve their own, and not social goals, since a specific goal is always to be achieved faster and this requires less costs. To achieve individual goals, people come together in groups.

The ideal type is the instrument of sociological knowledge for Weber. An ideal type is a logical construct of thought created by the researcher.

They serve as a foundation for understanding human actions and historical events. Society is just such an ideal type. It is intended to designate with one term a huge set of social institutions and connections. Another research method for Weber is the search for the motives of human behavior.

It was he who first introduced this method into the sociological category and clearly developed the mechanism for its application. So, in order to understand the motivation of a human action, the researcher needs to put himself in the place of this person. Knowledge of the entire chain of events and how the majority of people act in certain cases allows the researcher to determine which particular motives guided a person in performing a specific social action.

Only in combination with it can social statistics become the core of the methodological basis of sociology. It was the method of studying the motives of human activity that formed the basis of the theory of social action.

Within the framework of this theory, Weber identified four types of it: goal-rational, value-rational, traditional, and affective.

An important element of Weber's social teaching is also the theory of values. Values are any statement that is associated with a moral, political or some other assessment.

Weber calls the process of forming values attribution to values.

Attribution to values is a procedure for both selection and organization of empirical material.

Weber also paid considerable attention to the study of questions of the sociology of power. In his opinion, the organized behavior of people, the creation and functioning of any social institutions is impossible without effective social control and management. He considered the bureaucracy, a specially created administrative apparatus, to be the ideal mechanism for realizing power relations.

Weber developed the theory of an ideal bureaucracy, which, according to the thinker, should have the following characteristics: 1) division of labor and specialization; 2) a clearly defined hierarchy of power; 3) high formalization; 4) impersonal character; 5) career planning; 6) division of organizational and the personal life of members of the organization; 7) discipline.

LECTURE No. 1. Sociology as a science

Subject, object, functions and methods of sociology

Sociology in the system of humanities

The structure of sociology

Basic paradigms of sociology

1. Subject, object, functions and methods of sociology

Term sociology comes from two words: the Latin "societes" - "society" and the Greek "logos" - "word", "concept", "doctrine". Thus, sociology can be defined as the science of society.

The same definition of this term is given by the famous American scientist J. Smelser... However, this definition is rather abstract, since many other sciences also study society in various aspects.

In order to understand the features of sociology, it is necessary to determine the subject and object of this science, as well as its functions and research methods.

Object any science is a part of external reality, chosen for study, which has a certain completeness and integrity. As already noted, the object of sociology is society, but at the same time science studies not its individual elements, but the whole society as an integral system. The object of sociology is a set of properties, connections and relationships that are called social. Concept social can be viewed in two senses: in a broad sense, it is similar to the concept of "public"; in a narrow sense, the social is only an aspect of social relations. Social relations develop between members of a society when they occupy a certain place in its structure and are endowed with social status.

Consequently, the object of sociology is social connections, social interaction, social relations and the way they are organized.

Subject science is the result of a theoretical study of a selected part of external reality. The subject of sociology cannot be defined as unequivocally as the object. This is due to the fact that during the historical development of sociology, views on the subject of this science have undergone significant changes.

Today, the following approaches to defining the subject of sociology can be distinguished:

1) society as a special entity, different from individuals and the state and subject to its own natural laws (O. Comte ) ;

2) social facts, which should be understood as collective in all manifestations (E. Durkheim ) ;

3) social behavior as a person's attitude, that is, an internally or externally manifested position focused on an act or abstaining from it (M. Weber ) ;

4) the scientific study of society as a social system and its constituent structural elements (base and superstructure) ( Marxism).

So, taking into account all these features, it can be determined that sociology Is the science of general and specific social laws of the organization, functioning and development of society, the ways, forms and methods of their implementation, in the actions and interactions of members of society.

Like any science, sociology performs certain functions in society, among which the following can be distinguished:

1) cognitive(cognitive) - sociological research contributes to the accumulation of theoretical material about various spheres of social life;

2) critical- data from sociological research allow you to check and evaluate social ideas and practical actions;

3) applied- sociological research is always aimed at solving practical problems and can always be used to optimize society;

4) regulatory- the theoretical material of sociology can be used by the state to ensure social order and exercise control;

5) prognostic- based on the data of sociological research, it is possible to make forecasts of the development of society and prevent the negative consequences of social actions;

6) ideological- sociological developments can be used by various social forces to form their position;

7) humanitarian- sociology can help improve social relations.

Another hallmark of sociology as a science is its set of research methods. In sociology method Is a method of constructing and substantiating sociological knowledge, a set of techniques, procedures and operations of empirical and theoretical knowledge of social reality.

There are three levels of methods for studying social phenomena and processes.

First level covers general scientific methods used in all humanitarian fields of knowledge (dialectical, systemic, structural and functional).

Second level reflects the methods of related sociology of the humanities (normative, comparative, historical, etc.).

The methods of the first and second levels are based on universal principles of knowledge. These include the principles of historicism, objectivity and consistency.

The principle of historicism presupposes the study of social phenomena in the context of historical development, their comparison with various events in history.

The principle of objectivism means the study of social phenomena in all their contradictions; it is inadmissible to study only positive or only negative facts. The principle of consistency implies the need to study social phenomena in an indissoluble unity, to identify cause-and-effect relationships.

TO third level include methods that characterize applied sociology (survey, observation, document analysis, etc.).

Actually, sociological methods of the third level are based on the use of a complex mathematical apparatus (probability theory, mathematical statistics).

Sociology as an independent science emerged in the first half of the 19th century, and its founder is the French philosopher . The term "sociology" was introduced in 1839 and literally means "the science of society" (from lat. societas- society and Greek. logos- teaching).

Like any scientific discipline, sociology has its own object and subject of study. The object is understood as the sphere of reality that is subject to study, and it is at it that the research search is directed. Hence, object sociology, as the name suggests, is society. But society is studied by many disciplines such as history, philosophy, economics, political science, etc. At the same time, each of the named social sciences highlights its specific aspects, properties of the object, which become the subject of its research. It is rather difficult to determine the subject of sociology, since throughout the history of its development, representatives of various schools and trends have expressed and are expressing different views regarding the understanding of the subject of their science.

So, Auguste Comte believed that the subject of sociology research is laws of social development, which, like natural laws in nature, should extend their influence over human society.

Labor behavior

Labor collectives

Sociology of employment

Labor and employment market, economic behavior of an individual in a competitive labor market

Social and professional groups engaged in any type of work: social organizations that promote employment

Sociology of unemployment

Unemployment as a social phenomenon and socio-economic process, its consequences

Unemployed, social organizations engaged in the employment of the unemployed

Sociology of management

Management in the sphere of labor and production as a social process and its consequences

The personality of the leader and subordinate, social organizations of various forms of ownership

Sociology of the city

The city as an integral social organism, a system of settlement and development of citizens

Citizens as a socio-territorial community

Sociology of the village

The village as a social policy and settlement system, urbanization and its social consequences

Rural residents as a socio-territorial community

Sociology of Entrepreneurship

Entrepreneurship as a social phenomenon and social process, social consequences

Entrepreneurs as a new element of the social structure

Sociology of Marketing

Marketing as a fork of socio-economic activity in the formation of inquiries. social base, consumer behavior and product promotion

The consumer and his consumer orientations

Sociology of insurance

Insurance order; social consequences of the development of the insurance market

Insurance companies and personality in the role functions of the insurer and the policyholder

Sociology of finance and banking

Social relations, processes and phenomena in the financial market, their social consequences

Financial institutions, social and professional groups and users of the financial market

Regional sociology

Interaction of regions and the center as an integral system

The region as a socio-territorial community, distinguished by its material, socio-economic and socio-cultural characteristics

Sociology of households

The activities of household members to organize their life and life support

Household as a type of business entity and its members

Given the dynamic development of the financial market, the market for goods and services as a whole, it can be assumed that the process of "atomization" of sociology will continue and new private sociological theories will appear (for example, sociology of risk, sociology of the market, etc.). However, this process cannot be endless and must be based on the institutional and scientifically grounded selection of the subject and object of new private sociological theories.

Sociology subject

The integrity and concreteness of a particular science is revealed in its subject, that is, in the understanding of what it studies. For the success of cognitive activity, subjective confidence is necessary that the subject of science is that special reality that has a specific, concrete-sensory definiteness or quality that indicates the limitation of the subject and its difference from others. "Something is due to its quality and, losing its quality, it ceases to be what it is" (G. Hegel).

Thus, the subject is what determines the existence of science itself, as well as what distinguishes it from other sciences. In modern domestic literature, a tradition has developed to consider the issue of the subject of science in the context of the nature of the relationship between the concepts of “object” and “subject” of science. When defining an object, they point to it as part of the environment around us. the real world, emphasizing the independence of its existence from our consciousness. As for the definition of an object, on the contrary, they emphasize the fact of its existence only in the mind of the researcher. The final conclusion of this approach is the proposition that the object itself does not contain any subject of research and that the latter is only a mental construction of a person. This is the point of view of G.P. Shchedroviyky and some other authors.

It should be noted that this provision, in the same measure in which it turned out to be widespread, is incorrect. The idea of such a duality, as is known, was shared in the history of philosophy and logic by representatives of different directions. It was especially emphasized by Kant, whom Hegel sharply criticized for this, calling despair, which led to the distinction between what the products of our thinking (thoughts, concepts) represent, and what things represent by themselves, the disease of the century.

In essence, in this criticism, Hegel, albeit on an idealistic basis, defended an important principle of scientific knowledge - the principle of the identity of being and thinking, thought and the object of thought. The principle, which subsequently received its confirmation and development on a materialistic basis, in particular, in the philosophy of F. Engels.

The subject matter of science is as real and objective as its object. And this position is proved, as Engels said, not by a couple of magic phrases, but by the long and difficult development of philosophy and natural science.

Sociology object

A true understanding of the peculiarities of science, its systemic quality is revealed only in the definition of its subject. The object of any science, as a rule, is present in this definition in its givenness as an initial premise. If we are talking about social science, then for all sciences included in its structure, the object is society. For all natural sciences, this object will be nature. The other simply does not exist in reality.

As for the specific scientific research or any of its sectoral areas, then regardless of the area in which it is carried out, the "dilution" of the object and the subject of research, their determination is a mandatory procedure, without which the research process itself simply cannot begin. However, here, too, the fact of their mutual objective existence should be recognized.

What is the subject of sociology as a science? Despite the fact that it was constantly developing historically, its content deepened, its boundaries were clarified, this did not change, however, its true nature - to be an objective reality, expressed in the form of a theoretical construction. Kong, for example, considered this subject to be the scientific knowledge of society in general. Durkheim as such singled out the concept of "social fact", which is a product of collective consciousness, truly indicating a social quality. Weber saw the subject of sociology in the concept of social action, endowing sociality with the property of consciousness. Sorokin expanded the interpretation of the subject to the concept of "social interaction" and the consequences that follow from this, and so on. Thus, the understanding of the subject of science evolved gradually, in the course of its evolution. It is being actively discussed and specified today.

Summarizing the diversity of views on this issue, we can conclude that the subject of sociology is the scientific study of social relations as joint and conscious forms of life of people in all their diversity and development.

The category "social" in this definition is substantial, revealing the essential content and depth of the very subject of sociology. Inclusion in the definition of the attribute "scientific study" frees from the need to "overload" it with any detailed nomenclature. Scientific study is obligatory in accordance with the status of science, with all goals and objectives developed in the course of historical development; it requires to consider its subject in all its manifestations, namely to study facts, connections, processes, structures, causes, interactions, patterns, contradictions, etc. etc. This means research is needed sociality in all forms of material and spiritual life, in any context of historical space, time and scale. This is the general logic of any cognitive process, any scientific knowledge, including sociological.

Since society is not a simple mechanical structure, but a complex system of human relations, the comprehension of all their wealth and diversity is impossible within the framework of any one science. That is why society is studied by a whole set of social sciences, each of which distinguishes in this object (society) its area, its specificity, its quality, in other words, its own subject, focusing and specializing on it. Economic relations, for example, are studied by political economy, political - by political science, legal - by a number of legal disciplines, etc. For each of these sciences, the subject of research exists objectively, realistically, and not only in the mind of the researcher. However, these relations, with all their diversity and specificity, firstly, are in constant interconnection with each other, and secondly, and this is the most important thing, they are all essentially relations social, that is, various forms and types of joint and conscious life of people. Thus, sociology, studying them, is an integral science, methodology and theory knowledge society, since he studies the common thing that expresses their unity - their systemic (social) quality.

With all the variety of problems that theoretical sociology solves, in our opinion, it should be noted the problem of social and historical progress. It runs like a red thread throughout the history of sociology. In each sociological doctrine or direction, it is interpreted differently, but it is invariably present. However, for the first time in world sociology, it was specifically formulated by sociologists P. Lavrov and M. Kovalevsky. Without the idea of progress, there is and cannot be sociology, emphasized M. Kovalevsky. If sociology does not indicate the direction of society's movement towards progress, does not formulate social ideals and the national idea, then it turns into empty chatter, states Lavrov.

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