Theoretical foundations of using intonation. Phonetic and rhythmic-intonation means of creating imagery Means of intonation
Intonation - an important meaningful means of language. One and the same sentence pronounced with a different intonation takes on a different meaning. With the help of intonation, we express various communicative goals: a statement, a question, an exclamation, an urge. Often the intonation with which the phrase is pronounced is more trusted than the words, that is, the direct meaning of the phrase. In addition, intonation carries important information about a person: about his mood, about his attitude to the subject of speech and the interlocutor, about his character and even about his profession. This property of intonation was already noted in antiquity. For example, Abul-Faraj, a scientist of the 13th century, wrote: “The one who speaks, gradually lowering his voice, is undoubtedly deeply saddened by something; he who speaks with a weak voice is as timid as a lamb; the one who speaks shrilly and incoherently is as stupid as a goat. "
A person who speaks his native language can easily distinguish the most subtle shades of intonation by ear, but often does not know how to reproduce them in his own speech. In general, the public speech of most people is characterized by intonation poverty, which manifests itself in the monotonous and monotonous intonation design of statements. In order to master intonation means in their entirety, it is necessary to understand the essence of this complex phenomenon.
First of all, it is necessary to learn that intonation is a complex means of language that is implemented in oral speech and serves to:
expressions of the connection between words in a sentence, ensuring the unity of words related in meaning (organizing function);
splitting a sentence (and more broadly - a stream of speech) into semantic segments (delimitation function);
highlighting the most important speech units (culminative function),
expressions of the purpose of the statement - assertion, question, exclamation, urge (illocutionary function).
Intonation markup of text is a kind of intonation transcription, that is, a record of how to use the main components of intonation when reading a text. The procedure for intonation marking of the text is as follows:
1. Mark in the text the place of the pauses and their length. A pause is marked with a vertical line, a short one - one, a long one - two. Usually, long pauses correspond to punctuation marks in the text, and short pauses are made inside common sentences between groups of subject and predicate, with homogeneous members of a sentence, when listing, etc.
2. Underline those words on which the phrasal emphasis should fall. In those words that have pronunciation options, mark the word stress.
3. Note the movement of tone (i.e. melody) in the accented words. Descending melody is marked with an arrow down, and ascending - an arrow up.
4. Mark the most important sections of the text, which should be read slowly and clearly. Less important passages that should be read quickly and “in the same breath” can be enclosed in parentheses.
5. Read the text according to the markup you made and check if it is easy to read.
To improve the skills of mastering intonation, special exercises are offered, aimed at expanding the range of the voice and developing the ability to hear and understand the difference in intonation when reading a text by a professional speaker and a non-professional.
41. Speech rate
It is very important for a court speaker to maintain the tempo of speech, i.e. the speed of pronouncing speech elements. “Which speech is better, fast or slow? - asks P.S. Porokhovshchikov and answers: Neither one nor the other; only natural, normal speed of pronunciation is good, that is, one that corresponds to the content of speech, and the natural tension of the voice. In our court, almost without exception, sad extremes prevail; some speak at a speed of a thousand words per minute, others painfully search for them or squeeze sounds out of themselves with such an effort, as if they were strangled ... "Then he gives an example:" The prosecutor reminded the jury of the last words of the wounded young man: "What did I do to him? why did he kill me? " He said it patter.- Should have said so that the jury heard dying. "
The rate of speech depends on the content of the utterance, on individual characteristics the speaker and his emotional state. Most often, court speakers deliver a speech with an inner enthusiasm, in a state of emotional stress, which manifests itself in a somewhat accelerated pace of speech. However, it should be remembered that too fast a pace does not allow you to assimilate all the information given out. And too slow speech tires the judgment; if the pace is too slow, it seems that the speaker's speech is difficult due to poor knowledge of the case materials, due to lack of evidence. Slow speech, as a rule, leaves the judges indifferent to the subject of the discussion.
Even if a speech is delivered at an optimal pace (which is about 120 words per minute), but without changing it, it will still be perceived with difficulty, since it is impossible to talk about different subjects (for example, a statement of the circumstances of the case and an assessment of the actions of the defendant, presentation data of the act of forensic medical examination and characteristics of the personality of the defendant) at the same pace. Analyzing the materials of the case, the judicial speaker discusses the truth or falsity of certain evidence, argues, refutes, draws conclusions. In addition, in almost every judicial speech there are so-called commonplaces in which the prosecutor and the lawyer raise and resolve moral questions. Naturally, all these structural parts cannot be pronounced at the same tempo. The most important of them are pronounced in a slightly slower pace, which emphasizes the significance of thoughts, their weight, since a slower pace highlights the thought, emphasizes it, allows you to stop attention on it. Less important parts are pronounced somewhat faster, easier; emotional assessment of any phenomena is also given at a somewhat accelerated pace.
The prosecutor's speech is perceived better when it is pronounced confidently, slowly, convincingly, and the result is the objectivity of the conclusions.
The court orator needs to own both a slow, "weighty", authoritative word, and a clear, clear tongue twister. It is very important for lawyers to develop an ear for speech, the ability to hear the sound of their speech and evaluate it. This allows you to feel and control the tempo, which means it helps the court to easily understand the speaker's thoughts.
The court speaker needs to convey to the participants in the trial the subtlest semantic nuances of his speech. You need to learn to make timely pauses, which are very important, because they are a means of semantic and emotional highlighting of a word or phrase. A pause is a temporary stop in the sound that breaks the flow of speech, caused by various reasons and performing different functions. In the stream of oral speech, deliberation pauses often occur, during which the speaker formulates a thought, finds the most necessary form of expression, and selects linguistic means. A pause provides an opportunity to think about which thought to move on to. It allows important thoughts to sink deeper into the minds of listeners.
Depending on the function, there are logical and psychological pauses. Logical pauses separating one speech segment from another, form a statement, help to understand its meaning. Let's consider an example: Fellow judges//Business/by which/you have to pass judgment/is in my opinion/not quite ordinary. Logically significant in the statement are the words is in my opinion/not quite ordinary they are separated by a logical pause. The logical center in them - not quite ordinary it is placed at the end of the statement and is also separated by a logical pause. In the example Especially unpleasant/ observe/ when for such crimes/ /young people/have just crossed the threshold of majority logical pauses build the perspective of the statement. They divide the phrase into logical segments, the most significant of which is at the end of the statement: find themselves in the dock/young people etc. Logical center have just crossed the threshold of majority also separated by a logical pause. Logical pauses, as we see from the examples, arise within statements, between statements; pauses form the transition from one thought to another. They allow you to more accurately formulate the flow of thought, emphasize important points, important words, focus on them, increase the purposeful perception of speech.
Psychological pauses allow you to draw attention to the most important, most significant part of the statement. They, according to the exact definition of K.S. Stanislavsky, "give life" to the statement. They emphasize emotional moments, create a certain emotional mood, and enhance the psychological impact of speech. "Where, it would seem, logically and grammatically impossible to make a stop, there it is boldly introduced by a psychological pause." Psychological pauses are important in such compositional parts as "Statement of the circumstances of the case", "Characteristics of the personality of the defendant", "The reasons that contributed to the commission of the crime." In the example Soon/very soon/you will go to the meeting room/for that // to pass judgment calculated, skillfully sustained pauses, especially after words to the meeting room, they focus the attention of the defendants and everyone in the courtroom, make them think about the fate of the young people sitting in the dock. Even speaking about the qualification of a crime or the measure of punishment, the speaker can use psychological pauses with great effect and efficiency: Given the severity/committed crime/personality of the defendant/I ask you to determine the punishment/term// ... Pauses after words taking into account the gravity of the crime committed, after the words punishment and term- these are logical pauses: they divide the statement into logical segments and form the perspective of the statement; however, if one of the pauses is delayed for five to six seconds, it will become more psychological, since it mobilizes the attention of the defendant and the citizens present in the courtroom to the limit, creates the effect of expectation, and makes the defendant truly understand what he has done. And if the speaker deeply and objectively analyzed the circumstances of the case, gave the correct legal and deserved moral assessment of the committed act, the audience will agree with the speaker's opinion.
Especially important from the point of view of psychology is the initial pause, during which the audience gets to know the speaker, tunes in to him. Oratory theorists advise not to start speaking immediately, but to pause for 10-15 seconds, during which the speaker makes eye contact with the audience. Such behavior of the court speaker, who stood up to deliver a speech, may seem somewhat inappropriate, since eye contact with the audience was already established during the course of the judicial investigation, moreover, the court speech is addressed primarily to the court, to the jury. Therefore, the initial pause should most likely be made after the call. Your honor, gentlemen of the jury, distinguished court, distinguished jurors, and it will show the court speaker's indifference to this case and his excitement and will activate the attention of the audience. The initial pause will have an even greater psychological impact if, after it, the speaker quietly, at a somewhat slower pace, begins to talk about the features of this case or the difficulty of the task facing him in this process. This will give his words weight. However, pauses should not be overused, as this makes the speech abrupt, creates the impression that the speaker is poorly prepared for its pronunciation.
The role of intonation-expressive means in the speech of a judicial orator was shown by A.P. Chekhov in the story "Strong Feelings", where a young man in love with his bride, under the influence of the expressive speech of his lawyer friend, wrote her refusal:
“… - I tell you: ten - twenty minutes is enough for me for you to sit down at this very table and write a refusal to your bride.
And the lawyer started talking about my fiancee's faults. Now I understand perfectly well that he was talking about women in general, about their weaknesses in general, but then it seemed to me that he was talking only about Natasha. He admired her upturned nose, screams, shrill laughter, pretentiousness, just everything that I did not like so much about her. All this, in his opinion, was infinitely sweet, graceful, feminine. Imperceptibly for me, he soon switched from an enthusiastic tone to a fatherly edifying one, then to a light, contemptuous one ... My friend said nothing new, long known to everyone, and all the poison was not in what he said, but in an anathemic form. That is, the devil knows what form! Listening to him then, I became convinced that the same word has a thousand meanings and shades, depending on how it is pronounced, in the form that is given to the phrase. Of course, I cannot convey to you either this tone or form, I can only say that, listening to my friend, I was indignant, indignant, despised along with him ...
Believe it or not, but in the end I sat at the table and wrote a refusal to my bride ... "
The euphony of speech, or euphonia (Greek euphonia - from her - good + phonia - sound), is associated with an aesthetic assessment of the sounds of the Russian language and presupposes a combination of sounds that is convenient for pronunciation and pleasing to the ear.
Euphonious and discordant sounds
In Russian, sounds are perceived as aesthetic and unaesthetic, associated with the concepts of "rough" ( boor, hrych)- "gentle" (mom, darling, lily, love);"Quiet" (quiet, whisper, squeak) -"Loud" (shouts, calls, roars). Vowel sounds, sonorous l, m, n, r, and voiced consonants are considered musical, they give speech the beauty of sound. Listen to the words: smoothly, sonorous, dialect. Read aloud and listen to the severity of the sound of the lawyer's speech R and p ": The verdict cannot be built on assumptions. Sounds w, w, u and combinations railway, louse, yusch are dissonant, and their repetition in speech is undesirable.
Read the text below and see for yourself: “I believe that when you imagine this defendant ..., walking for no purpose ... then committing murder ... and calmly changing clothes, wiping his hands and choosing property ...; when you imagine this person, deliberately locking the door, leaving and, finally, walking and drinking ..., then, I think, you will admit that such a person thought about a crime was not accidental ... ”. On the other hand, this is a good pictorial technique: the repetition of hissing sounds intensifies the depressing state, emphasizes it.
An important element of the sound organization of speech is the observance of accentological norms associated with the staging of stress in a word. “Verbal stress, - writes Z.V. Savkova, - forms the word. It cements it, pulls sounds and syllables into a single whole - a word, preventing it from disintegrating ”. Indeed, the main function of verbal stress is phonetic unification of a word, highlighting a word in speech. In addition, stress plays the role of a meaningful means: NS and whether - drank and, tr at sit - coward and t, s but mok- deputy O k, n O ra- since but.
Some accentological norms
Here are the words, the staging of the stress in which causes difficulties: SCH e lick(not click but th), epil e psia, shof e p, uv e house, ringing and shh, table I R(not st O lar), acquired e nie, sable e knowledge, p e feri, cl e it, repeat e nny, alphabet and t, dial O g, rolled O g, part e p, intention, gloss at T(not l O scoot), and skra, lace but (not cr at chew), quart but l(not sq. but rtal), to but mbala(not flounder but), isp e denmark(not confession but nie), invent e nie, balls but hush, ball O bathroom, bo I knowledge, bombardiers but be, imp and blame.
In short adjectives and participles, the stress is mobile: in feminine adjectives it falls on the ending: narrow but, close but, needs but, quiet but, right but, started but; in adjectives and participles of masculine and neuter gender - on the basis: at zok, bl and zok, n but chat, at zko, bl and hard, n but chato; in plural forms - on the basis, it is permissible for the ending: at zki and narrow and, bl and zki and close and, h at wait and alien NS, in e rny - true NS, n but chats, etc. but you. In prefixed verbs (for example: understand, sell, shed, live) masculine stress is put on the prefix: NS O nyal, pr O gave, pr O lil, in NS lived; in feminine verbs - to the ending: understood but, sold but, spilled but, lived and; in plural verbs - with the prefix: NS O nyali, pr O gave, pr O lily, in NS lived.
Compound words with two roots have two accents: deep O respect but dumb, n O born-born, pl O goobr but sultry, blotchy but dtsatil e tny, nine and this but zhny, in e nnosl at holding, high O qualifits and drowned and etc.
In case of difficulty in setting stress, dictionaries will help you (see literature).
Remember that clear and concise speech has a rational and emotional impact on the court and the citizens in the courtroom.
42. Judicial ethics - a set of rules of conduct for judges and other professional participants in criminal, civil and arbitration proceedings, ensuring the moral character of their professional activities and off-duty behavior, as well as scientific discipline studying the specifics of the manifestation of moral requirements in this area.
Judicial etiquette is a set of rules of conduct for the subjects of a judicial process that regulate the external manifestations of the relationship between the court and the persons involved in the case, the forms of their communication, based on the recognition of the authority of the judiciary and the need to observe decency in a state institution *.
43. Standards of speech behavior of a judicial speaker.
The procedural role of the prosecutor and lawyer in the trial must also correspond to their verbal behavior. It should be remembered that it is determined by the official atmosphere of communication in the judicial debate, the official nature of the relationship of the communicants. Society develops forms of speech behavior and requires native speakers to comply with these rules, to comply with the ethics of speech behavior, which is a collection of ... models of correct speech behavior. The forensic speaker must perform a complex operation of selecting into a speech act what is most appropriate for a given communication environment.
The formality of the speech situation in the trial requires a form of address to you. It is unethical when a judge or prosecutor turns to the defendant against you.
While supporting the prosecution, the prosecutor should be restrained in words, his conclusions should be deliberate and fair, in relation to the defendant there can be no familiarity, insults or ridicule. In the following examples, the ethics of the speech behavior of the prosecutor is violated. lies and common words swearing, skin in relation to the defendant: He is lying here too, comrades judges, that he did not swear // he swore //; Bulakov wanted to save his own skin, forgetting that only a frank confession can save it.
Violation of speech ethics by the speaker is evidenced by cases when he does not know exactly the names, confuses the defendant with the victim, the victim with witnesses: " Fedorova's son does not work, does not study, does not do anything, socially useful work, sorry, not Fedorov, but Moshkin" ; or: " One said Lisin in my opinion, if my memory serves me, which just got me curious about what others would do there. " The following examples express disrespect for victims: "We talked very carefully and for a very long time about the theft u like her, Sychevoy"; or:" The second episode of theft at this very Cup, uh, should be excluded. "
It is unethical to use in a judicial speech foreign words that are unfamiliar to the defendant and those present in the courtroom, since they violate the accessibility of speech, and the judicial speech must be clear to the audience from beginning to end. See how foreign words add ambiguity to speech: This insinuation caused a very, such a violent reaction on the part of the defendant; or: I hope that we will be able to inspire my client that he will still be able to take the path of correction.... The prosecutor and lawyer should not weaken their control over their speech behavior. An increase in the culture of justice depends on how respectful the court speaker is to the language, to those present in the courtroom, but first of all, the respect of citizens for the court, the strengthening of the educational impact of trials. In conclusion, let us recall the words of AF Koni: "The court, in a certain sense, is a school for the people, from which, in addition to respect for the law, lessons should be learned of serving the truth and respect for human dignity."
44. ... Dispute in the professional rhetoric of a lawyer: concept, types, rules of organization and conduct.
The 17-volume "Dictionary of the modern Russian literary language" contains the following meanings of the word dispute:
1. Verbal competition, discussion of something between two or more persons, in which each of. of the parties defends their opinion, their innocence. The struggle of opinions (usually in the press) on various issues of science, literature, politics, etc .; controversy. Spread. Disagreements, quarrels, bickering. Transferred. Contradiction, disagreement;
2. Mutual claim to possession, possession of something, resolved by the court.
3. Transferred. Duel, battle, single combat (mainly in poetic speech). Competition, rivalry.
General: dispute is the presence of disagreements, lack of consensus, confrontation.
In modern scientific, methodological, reference literature word, dispute serves to indicate the process of exchange of opposing opinions.
Dispute is a special type of speech communication. A dispute is understood as any clash of opinions, disagreement in points of view on any issue, subject, a struggle in which each of the parties defends its innocence.
In Russian, there are other words to denote this phenomenon: discussion, dispute, controversy, debate, debate. Quite often they are used as synonyms for the word dispute.
For example, discussion (lat. discussio - research, consideration, analysis) is called such a public dispute, the purpose of which is to clarify and compare different points of view, search, reveal a true opinion, find the right solution to a controversial issue. The discussion is considered effective way beliefs, since its participants themselves come to one or another conclusion.
Word dispute also came to us from the Latin language (disputar - to reason, disputatio - debate) and originally meant the public defense of a scientific work written for a degree. Today in this meaning layer dispute not used. This word is called a public debate on a scientific and socially important topic.
Debate- a clearly structured and specially organized public exchange of thoughts between the two parties on current topics. This is a kind of public discussion of the participants in the debate, directing to persuade a third party, and not each other, that they are right. Therefore, the verbal and non-verbal means that are used by the participants in the debate are aimed at obtaining a certain result - to form a positive impression of their own position among the listeners.
Another character is controversy . This is evidenced by the etymology (i.e., the origin) of this term. Ancient greek word polemikos means "belligerent, hostile". Polemics are not just a dispute, but one in which there is confrontation, opposition, confrontation between parties, ideas and speeches. Proceeding from this, polemics can be defined as a struggle of fundamentally opposing opinions on a particular issue, a public dispute in order to defend, defend one's point of view and refute the opinion of the opponent.
From this definition it follows that controversy differs from discussion, dispute exactly his target orientation.
The purpose of the dispute(discussion, dispute) - comparing conflicting judgments, they try to come to a common opinion, find a common solution, establish the truth.
The purpose of the controversy another: you need to defeat the enemy, defend and assert your own position.
Controversy is the science of persuading. She teaches to support thoughts with convincing and undeniable arguments, scientific arguments. Polemics are especially necessary when new views are being developed, universal human values and human rights are being defended, and public opinion is being formed. It serves to foster active citizenship.
The persuasiveness of a polemical speech largely depends on the arguments with the help of which the truth of the main idea is substantiated, as well as on the degree of use as evidence of facts and provisions that do not require substantiation of previously made generalizations, precise quotes and statements.
Disputes differ in the goals set for themselves by the parties to the dispute, and in the motives for which they enter into a dispute.
Dispute organization rules:
2 parties to the dispute (or more)
Disagreement (subject of dispute)
The presence of psychological techniques
Dispute forms:
Loyal
Intonation- these are various ratios of quantitative changes in tone, timbre, intensity, duration of sound, serving to express the semantic and emotional differences of the statement (according to RG-80)
Thus, building blocks intonations are:
Melody of speech,
The rhythm of speech,
Intensity of speech,
Timbre of speech,
Speech rate,
· Stress.
Melodic is a tonal contour of speech, i.e. modulation of the pitch of the main tone when pronouncing parts of a sentence, a whole sentence and over-phrasal unity. The tonal contour serves to express different semantic, syntactic and emotionally expressive meanings.
There are 4 contours of melody:
· descending melody(lowering the pitch)
· rising melody ( raising the pitch)
· ascending-descending(first rise, then decline)
· good melody or monochromatic(maintaining the same pitch of the main tone for a certain period of speech)
Rhythm of speech- alternation of stressed and unstressed long and short syllables. For example, in poetic and prose texts, the rhythm is different.
Intensity of speech- i.e. strength or weakness of pronunciation associated with increased or decreased exhalation. (For example, speech in the room and outside). Quantitative changes in the intensity of different sounds, and first of all, of vowels, are a property of intonation and, in combination with the tone of sounds, affect their loudness upon perception. Increasing the intensity of sounds with the same pitch increases their volume. On the other hand, at equal intensity, sound with a higher pitch is perceived as louder.
Speech rate- the speed of speech, the relative acceleration or deceleration of its individual segments (sounds, syllables, words, sentences and more voluminous fragments). The pace depends on the style of pronunciation, the meaning of speech, the emotional content of the statement. Fast pace- emotional speech. Average pace–Situation of information communication (lecturer's speech, business communication). Slow pace- fractional syntagmatic division, the limit of which is the coincidence of the syntagma and the word. Accordingly, the number of syntagmatic stresses increases, and individual words acquire special semantic weight. At a slow pace, solemn and important messages are pronounced.
Timbre- in intonation, a timbre is an additional coloring of the sound that communicates various emotionally expressive shades to speech. The timbre of sounds can change depending on the emotional state of the speaker (with fear in the voice, with anger, etc.) Timbre intonation means are different qualities of the voice, determined mainly by the state of the vocal cords. Allocate:
Relaxed,
Tense,
Squeaky,
Aspirated.
Stress- for intonation (as a component of intonation) of speech, verbal stress (highlighting one of the syllables in a word in the process of pronunciation) and semantic stress (syntagmatic (beat), phrasal and logical) are fundamentally significant. Often the action of stress is not only semantic, but also emotional. Along with the listed types, emphatic stress (Shcherba) is also intonationally significant.
Emphatic stress emphasizes, enhances the emotional side of the word or expresses the emotional state of the speaker. The means of expressing emphase in Russian is mainly the lengthening of the stressed vowel when expressing positive emotions (delight, admiration). Negative emotions (anger, annoyance) can be expressed by lengthening the initial consonant, as well as by emphasizing the reduction of the stressed vowel.
The main phonetic means in intonation include cessation of phonation, i.e. lack of sound (pause). Pause- this is a kind, most often not a sound intonation means. Pauses delimit syntagmas (/) and phrases (//) from each other. Interphase pauses are longer.
There are several opinions about what intonation is and there is still a problem of defining intonation. A narrow definition of intonation belongs to a number of foreign phoneticists such as Daniel Jones, O'Conner, and others: intonation- is the variations of the pitch of the voice. These phoneticians believe that this is only the melody of the utterance, although the pitch of the main tone of the voice is really very important in intonation.
The point of view of Soviet phoneticists such as Artemov V.A., Torsuev G.P., Vasiliev V.A. is as follows: intonation- is a complex unity of speech melody, sentence stress, tempo, rythm and voice timbre, which enables the speaker to express his thoughts, emotions and attitudes towards the contents of the utterance. Acoustically intonation is a complex combination of varying fundamental frequency, intensity and duration. Perceptually it`s a complex of speech melody, loudness, tempo and timbre.
Most researchers believe that the main function of intonation is to convey the speaker's emotional-modal attitude to the communicated. And when they say that any sentence was pronounced "without any intonation", this means in the first case that it was said with a monotonous intonation, and in the second - that the intonation was not expressive enough.
VA Artemov believes that the main function of intonation is to express the feelings of will, without the elements of which no vital communication is conceivable. The syntax has almost no means of encoding the modal emotional-volitional function. This role is played by vocabulary and intonation.
Artemov divides the syntactic meaning of intonation into two types:
- 1. division of sentences into syntagmas corresponding to its understanding by the speaker, depending on the situation of communication.
- 2.syntactic connection of parts of a sentence - logical plans and logical modality of thought expressed in a phrase (intonation of a causal conditional connection, intonation of certainty, uncertainty, opposition, comparison, introduction of thought, etc.)
Uncertainty in the interpretation of the concept of "function" has led to the emergence of systems of classification of functions and intonation, heterogeneous in principle and contradictory in content. Various authors distinguish emotional and intellectual, verbal and vocal, logical, emphatic and accentuating, emotional, emphatic and physiological, etc. functions.
Zinder L.R. gave an interpretation of the term "language function" - the function of this linguistic means should be considered “intended to be conveyed to the respective linguistic category”. In accordance with this interpretation, the following functions of intonation can be distinguished:
- 1.function of division into syntagmas
- 2.function of communication between syntagmas
- 3.function of distinguishing between communicative types (situation)
- 4.function of accent highlighting of syntagma elements
- 5.the function of expressing emotional meanings
- 6.Modal Relationship Transfer Function
The systemic nature of the considered functions of intonation, their relative independence and interconnection is revealed:
- 1.according to their ability to form special units
- 2. by the inventory and the quantitative expression of those phonetic means that are mainly used in the implementation of a given functional load of intonation.
Two aspects should be distinguished in intonation: one that can be called communicative, since intonation tells whether the utterance is complete or incomplete, whether it contains a question, an answer, etc. The example discussed earlier can illustrate this aspect. Another one that could be called emotional, consists in the fact that intonation contains a certain emotion, which always reflects the emotional state of the speaker, and sometimes his intention (though not always realized by him) to influence the listener in a certain way. The latter is meant when one speaks of "emphasis".
If we bear in mind the purposefulness of intonation, then we can speak, as Trubetskoy does, about its functions, but his classification of functions seems unconvincing. Trubetskoy proposes to distinguish three functions of the sound expression of speech: explicative, which coincides with what is called communicative above, appellative, which serves to influence the listener, and expressive, which makes it possible to identify the speaker's personality, his belonging to a particular social group, etc. It is hardly permissible to regard the three functions distinguished by Trubetskoy as phenomena of the same order. When, for example, we lower our voice towards the end of a sentence, then we can say that this is done precisely in order to show that we are ending it. When we say "affectionately" or "angrily", we want to show the listener our attitude towards him in connection with the content of the statement. When our speech contains signs by which it is possible to determine whether it is normative or not normative, or to find out exactly who is speaking, then this is not because we want to communicate this to the interlocutors. Thus, if we talk not about aspects, but about functions, then the reflection of the emotional state of the speaker must be excluded from the expressive function.
The emotional aspect of intonation is not necessarily related to the semantic content of the utterance. Will a sentence be said Petrov returned with joy or with regret, it will remain a message about the same fact of objective reality, in other words, it will have the same denotative meaning. This will not affect the syntactic structure of the sentence either. Therefore, until recently, the emotional aspect was practically excluded from linguistics, and the question of its meaning, from a linguistic point of view, of its linguistic function remains theoretically unexplored even today.
At the same time, the emotion of an utterance is undoubtedly associated with its modality, a category that is attributed great importance in modern linguistics. Indeed, each act of communication reflects not only what is in question(denotative aspect), but also the attitude of the speaker to the message (connotative aspect).
Some studies indicate that the forms of expression of emotions, having a psychophysiological basis, in this sense are universal. Along with this, there are facts that make it obvious that intonation differs from language to language. When we listen to a foreign language speech (even with a fairly good knowledge of the corresponding language), subtle shades of meaning often escaped us, conveyed by intonation means unfamiliar to us. It is well known how difficult it is, for example, to catch a joke and or irony in a foreign language, or to express different shades of surprise, irritation, contempt, trust, distrust, etc. etc., which in most cases are conveyed only by intonation. It is also well known that the most difficult thing for foreigners to learn is intonation. Persons who flawlessly pronounce individual words of a foreign language often make mistakes in intonation, especially when it comes to more significant segments of speech. We can say that intonation is the most characteristic phonetic feature of a given language.
Thus, the exclusion of emotion from the object of the study of linguistics cannot be justified. Recently, the study of emotions began to attract the attention of researchers, mainly in phonetic terms: a number of experimental phonetic works are devoted to the intonation of emotions. A significant obstacle to such studies is the lack of a rigorous and consistent classification of emotions.
In its communicative aspect, intonation has the following meanings
- 1. Intonation is a means of dividing speech into sentences. This is especially important in reading, which in our time, thanks to the development of radio and television, plays a huge role. This implies, in particular, the importance of the connection between punctuation marks in writing and intonation, studied in detail by Nikolaeva.
- 2. Intonation is involved in distinguishing between communicative types of sentences, being sometimes the only means of the so-called general question (cf. Peter goes home. Is Peter going home?). 3. The same can be said about the actual division of the proposal. So, depending on the emphasis on the logical stress of the word Peter or words home, respectively, one or another of them will denote a new ( bump), what is reported about this ( subject Consequently, in the first case, the sentence will mean that it is Peter, and not someone else, who is going home, and in the second, that he is going home and not somewhere else. 4. Only by intonation is the division into syntagmas carried out, which is determined by the meaning and is associated with the expression of one or another member of the sentence. If, for example, in a sentence: I entertained him with my brother's poems put the border of the first synthama after the word - his-, then it will be a direct complement; if you put it after the word - verses-, then the direct complement would be - my brother-. 5. Intonation marks whether a given segment of speech is a finite or non-finite syntagma (compare: He's coming home and He's coming home when the evening comes).
The examples given are enough to show the various functions of intonation, which are associated with the meaning and syntactic structure of the sentence. It should be noted that intonation as such only indirectly expresses syntactic role this or that word or syntagma. So, in last example we only learn by intonation that the first sentence does not end the utterance, but that it is the main one, we cannot judge by it: the intonation of the first part will remain essentially unchanged if the subordinate clause comes first.
From the recognition of the autonomy of intonation, it follows that languages must have a known set of intonation patterns, or, in other words, intonation must be discrete in the paradigmatic plane. This point of view is currently dominant. There is no single term for an intonation unit, just as there is no generally accepted definition of it. It is called both the intonational contour, and the intonational construction, and the intonation: among American descriptivists, it is called in some cases the phoneme of the tone, in others - the final phoneme.
The number of such intonation units in different languages, of course, may not coincide, but for one language, different authors establish a different number of them. So, at Peshkovsky, you can count more than 20 such units in Russian. Bryzgunova distinguishes only 7 basic intonation structures. In general, we can say that the question of intonation units remains theoretically not worked out, therefore, there are no clear criteria for distinguishing them.
The autonomy of intonation is also related to the question of whether intonation contours are signs. Trubetskoy, answering this question in the affirmative, wrote:
"... phrase-distinguishing means ... are fundamentally different ... then all ... word-separating means. This fundamental difference lies in the fact that phonemes and word-distinguishing prosodic signs are never in themselves<языковыми знаками>: they are only<часть языкового знака>... On the contrary, phrase-distinguishing means are independent signs: "warning" intonation denotes that the proposal has not yet been completed, downgrade denotes that this segment of speech is not associated with either the previous or the next, etc.
Against the point of view expressed here, the following considerations can be cited. First, the fact that this or that intonation unit, or even all of them, may be associated with a certain meaning, in itself is not yet proof of its such nature. The phoneme, which Trubetskoy contrasts in this respect with an intonation unit, can also be associated with meaning. Shcherba even considered it a sign of a phoneme. To prove this, it is enough to recall such one-phonemic words as the Russian a, y, s, k, etc. Secondly, there seems to be no reason to doubt that one and the same intonation contour can be used to form a declarative sentence in Russian - Peter goes home- and interrogative - When is Peter going home?- In general, I must say that if the principle is correct compensation, then the inevitability of such a situation follows from it. However, the observance of this principle must still be experimentally tested in a number of languages. Thus, the question of whether intonation means are linguistic signs, or whether they represent only a plan for expressing such a sign, remains unresolved.
Intonation consists of several components: 1) the frequency of the fundamental tone of the voice (high-pitched or melodic component); 2) intensity (dynamic component); 3) duration or pace (temporal, temporal component); 4) pauses; 5) timbre. All components of intonation, except for a pause, are necessarily present in an utterance, because no element of it can be uttered without some kind of pitch, etc. Therefore, all components of intonation closely interact with each other. However, it is possible, firstly, to establish a certain hierarchy of them, and secondly, there is evidence of some division of functions between them.
The word intonation from Latin is translated as "to pronounce loudly". It plays an important role in speech, helps to change the meaning of the sentence, depending on the selected timbre of the voice. The intonation of speech is the rhythmic-melodic part of the sentence, which performs syntactic and emotional functions during pronunciation.
Intonation is a prerequisite for oral speech, punctuation conveys it in writing. In linguistics, intonation is used to mean changing the tone of a voice in a syllable, word, and sentence. The intonation components are an integral part of human speech.
The intonation components are divided into:
- Timbre of speech. The timbre of speech helps to express the emotions and feelings of a person. The spoken speech in an emotional outburst changes depending on the experienced emotions or experiences.
- Intensity. The intensity of speech is articulatory and depends on the degree of effort during pronunciation. The intensity of speech depends on the work and direction of the muscles.
- Pause. Pause helps highlight phrases and syntagmas in speech. This is a stop in sound.
- Melody. This is the movement of the main tone, its increase or decrease.
The main elements of intonation are used in a combined form and are considered separately for study purposes only. The expressiveness and variety of speech is manifested through skillful verbal expression, its ability to change depending on intonation. Intonation plays an important role in language structuring. There are the following intonation functions:
- Division of speech into intonation and semantic parts of syntagmas.
- Creation of a syntactic structure in a sentence, intonation constructions are involved in the design of sentence types.
- Intonation helps a person express emotions, feelings, experiences.
- The sense-distinguishing function serves to distinguish lexical elements between sentences.
- Distinguish between the functions of intonation of a phrase - this is the modality of the phrase, its narrative, exclamatory and interrogative differences.
Intonation is the main component not only in Russian, but also in any oral speech. In writing, intonation is emphasized by punctuation: ellipsis, comma, question mark and exclamation mark. How the Russian speech sounded many centuries ago is no longer known for certain. The types of intonation in the Russian language are very diverse. There are 16 of them. But there are intonations that are used in the same way in all countries of the world.
What are the suggestions for the purpose of the statement:
- Narrative.
The last syllable of the utterance is pronounced in a raised tone. Narrative utterances contain an intonation peak and an intonation decrease. An intonation peak is a high tone, and an intonation drop is a low one. If a word or phrase is combined in a narrative form, then part of the phrase is pronounced in increased or decreased intonation. Most often, demotion is used during enumeration.
- Interrogative.
Interrogative types of intonations are used in two cases:
- When the question touched the whole statement. In this case, raising the voice to the extreme syllable of the interrogative statement is applied.
- When raising the voice is applied only to the words to which the question is addressed. Its intonation picture depends on the location of the word in the sentence.
- Exclamation point.
This type of human speech is divided into the exclamation form itself, where the intonation is higher in tone than in the narration, but lower than in the question. As well as incentive intonation, in which there is a request or order.
All types of intonation are combined in one concept - logical intonation. It is intonation that defines the characteristics of the expression, while remaining the opposite of emotional pronunciation.
Depending on life situations, people talk to each other in different ways, from tongue twisters and poems to a business speech. Intonation has an individual character, it is impossible to find the same timbre of voice and manner of pronunciation of a word.
There are also unfinished sentences for intonation:
- Contrasts. The opposition is in complex sentences... The letter is highlighted by punctuation or dashes.
- A warning. The warning intonation breaks the sentence into two parts with a long pause. The divided part of the sentence is pronounced in a raised tone.
- Water content. There are no pauses between words, stress in the introductory intonation. She has a fast pace of speech.
- Enumerations. The transfer is characterized by a pause between homogeneous members suggestions. During the listing of words in a sentence, a logical stress is placed. If there is a generalizing word before the enumeration, then it is highlighted during pronunciation.
- Segregations. Separation is separated in a sentence by a pause and emphasized. The first pause is long, the second is shorter.
Musical intonation
Musical intonation has theoretical and aesthetic meanings that are closely interrelated. It represents the organization of sound in music, their sequential arrangement. Musical and speech intonations are not interrelated and differ in pitch and location in the sound system. Intonation in music is also called the music of words. But the difference from the word it is that the musical intonation or singing does not conceal any meaning.
The expression of intonation in music derives from speech intonation. Listening to the conversation on foreign language you can understand not only the gender and age of the speaker, but also their relationship to each other, the nature of the conversation between them, the emotional state - joy, hatred, sympathy.
It is this connection with speech that musicians use consciously and sometimes unconsciously. The intonation of human speech transfers character, feelings, psychological subtleties of communication, which are then expressed in a piece of music.
Music with the help of intonation is able to convey and reproduce:
- gestures;
- body movement;
- harmony of speech;
- emotional condition;
- person's character.
Intonational musical expressions have a rich, centuries-old history. Simple intonation has evolved over time into numerous musical genres and styles. An example, arias of mourning, lamentation, written in the Baroque era. Tense or disturbing ballads, lyric pieces, and a solemn hymn are easily identified. Each composer has a unique musical and intonational handwriting and style.
Accent in intonation
Stress in intonation plays an important role, since the whole meaning of the statement depends on its setting. Stress implies emphasizing a word using basic phonetic elements. Word stress is not the only kind in the Russian language. In addition to verbal stress, there are other types:
- Syntagmatic. Syntagmatic or tact stress marks out the main semantic words in the speech tact of the syntagma in a sentence. Syntagma separates from the entire speech stream a separate syllable, parts of text or words. Semantic groups are obtained that have syntactic meaning.
- Logical. Logical stress helps to highlight important words from the statement, in a specific situation using the main means of intonation. In logical stress, any words from a sentence are highlighted.
Example, “Who was here? - I was here "
It arises when using intonation, the main role is played by the melody along with the increase in verbal stress.
- Emphatic. The phenomenon of emphatic stress was introduced and discovered by the Russian linguist L.V. Shcherba. It is used to express the emotional coloring of a word and expression, highlighting the state of the speaker during communication. Emphatic stress differs from logical stress by its emotional coloring of the word. In Russian, this stress lengthens the stressed vowel: a wonderful person, a wonderful day.
Working with intonation
A fast flow of speech, a monotonous text pronounced too loudly or quietly is uninteresting to listen to, it even repels strangers. Such a boring dialogue can only be observed between loved ones. In order for you to be heard and understood, it is not necessary to speak loudly, it is enough to learn to speak expressively, observing the rules of intonation.
People who work with a large number of listeners have to speak expressively, so the speech must be correct and interesting. Communication in everyday life between relatives or friends should be correctly constructed using appropriate intonation. The development of intonation is of great importance for human speech. Utterances that contain the wrong tone lead to conflict situations and disagreements.
Exercises and techniques for intonation staging have been developed:
- Reading aloud.
Read the poem aloud, with expression, record your voice on a dictaphone and listen to what happened. It is very important to hear a voice from the side, so it is easier to find speech and intonation errors, as well as to find out what its melody is. Reading exercises are designed to develop the timbre of speech and melody, the poem is read loudly, the intonation and tempo of speech change. When reading a poem, pay attention to the main phrases and words that are used there. Highlight them from the text with the necessary intonation.
- Relaxation exercises.
We read the text with a pen in our mouth, moving our jaws. We choose any text, when performing the exercise, it will also be remembered. Gymnastics is aimed at developing speech pronunciation and diction.
- When talking or reading a book, focus on positive, joyful intonations.
Use mostly joyful and positive expressions in speech, since they are more difficult than others. It is necessary to speak as simply as possible, as naturally as possible, enjoying the voice and intonation.
- Use gestures when doing exercises or talking to the other person.
They help to embellish speech, add emotional coloring. But gestures are used in moderation, knowing the meaning. Excessive gestures will make the intonation look uncertain or inappropriate.
Having worked out the rules in communication, it is worth practicing intonation exercises in life, not hesitating to show skill. The delivered speech with the correct intonation will interest the interlocutor, the main thing is to monitor the pronunciation when communicating with colleagues and relatives, improving speech every day.
