Material means of knowledge. Means of scientific research (means of knowledge). Funding search experiments
The process of cognition can be carried out with the help of empirical (theory and facts) and theoretical or rational (hypothesis and laws) of the method.
The empirical level is the object under study reflected by the external relationships available to living contemplation and expressing internal relations. An experienced study is directly directed to the object. Signs of empirical knowledge: Facts collection, their primary generalization, description of the observed data, their systematization and classification are the main techniques and means - comparison, measurement, observation, experiment that affect the flow of the processes under study. In this case, experience is not blind, it is planned and constructed by the theory.
Observation is a targeted and organized perception of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world. It relies on sensual knowledge. The object of observation is not only the objects of the outside world. This type of knowledge is characterized by another property as self-surveillance, when perceptions are experiencing experiences, feelings, mental and emotional states of the subject itself. Observation is usually not limited to mechanical and automatic facts noting. The main role in this process is performed by the consciousness of a person, that is, an observer, does not just record the facts, but it is purposefully looking for them, based on its search for hypotheses and assumptions, attracting already existing experience. The obtained observation results are used either to confirm the hypothesis (theory) or to refute it. Observations should lead to results that do not depend on the will, feelings and desires of the subject, that is, they should give objective information. Observations can be divided into direct (straight) and indirect, where the second are used when the subject of studies is the effect of its interaction with other objects and phenomena. The peculiarity of such observations is that the conclusion on the studied phenomena is made on the basis of the perception of the results of the interaction of unobservable objects with the observed. The same species is used in the study of the object itself, or any process associated with it.
Experiment is a method for studying some phenomenon under managed conditions. It differs from the observation of the active interaction with the studied object. Typically, the experiment is necessary for testing hypotheses, establishing causal connections between phenomena. The experimenter is consciously and purposefully interferes with the natural course of their flow, and the experiment itself is carried out by direct impact on the process under study or changing the conditions of its flow. Test results must be fixed and controlled. If you repeat the experiment, it will make it possible to compare the results obtained every time. This method is one of the best, since with the help of it in the last two centuries, huge successes have been achieved in many areas of various sciences. Also, "as a result of improving the technique of experimental research, the use of the most complex devices and equipment in it, an extremely wide range of application of this method will be achieved. Depending on the objectives, the subject matter of the study, the nature of the used technique has been developed by the classification of various types of experiment. "
For purposes, they can be divided into two groups:
I. - Experiments with which various theories and hypotheses are inspected;
II. - Experiments with which you can collect information to clarify certain assumptions.
According to the object being studied and the nature of the scientific discipline, they can be:
* physical;
* chemical;
* biological;
* Space;
* psychological;
* Social.
If you need to study any special phenomena or properties of the item, then their circle can be expanded.
Today, the nature of the experiment has changed a lot, as its technical equipment has increased. Therefore, a new method of empirical knowledge appeared - modeling. Models (samples, layouts, copies of the original object) replace the objects of the study when they are studied, for example, human health problems or the properties of an object occupying extensive spaces located quite remotely from the research center and so on.
According to the nature of the methods and the results of the study, they are subdivided like this:
1. "Qualitative experiments aimed at identifying the effects of various factors on the process under study, when you can neglect the establishment of accurate quantitative characteristics.
2. Quantitative experiments when the task of accurate measurement of the process parameters studied or object is put forward to the foreground.
Both species contribute to more complete disclosure of properties and signs of the subject, resulting in its integral knowledge. Today, the experiment does not seem to be in no prior planning, and the forecasts of the expected results occupies an important place at the same place.
Theoretical experience - based on abstract thinking, penetrates the essence of phenomena by rational processing of the experimental experience. Signs of theoretical knowledge: the creation of a theoretical model, a common picture and its in-depth analysis. At the same time, such cognitive techniques such as abstraction, idealization, synthesis, deduction, intra-scientific reflection are widely used.
Both levels of knowledge, that is, the empirical and theoretical, are interrelated, the boundary between them is conditional and mobile. And the absolutization of one of the levels to the detriment of the other is unacceptable.
Considering the theoretical knowledge, we define its structural components that determine the dynamics of scientific knowledge. These include scientific fact, problem, hypothesis, theory.
Scientific fact - the fact described in scientific terms and verifiable.
The problem is a form of knowledge born from the need to explain the fact. This is a kind of knowledge about ignorance - a question that requires a response. Commit to solve the problem - it means to put questions and determine the means of solving them.
The hypothesis is a form of knowledge that contains the assumption that is based on the facts, the true value of which is not defined and needs proof. The proven and proven hypothesis goes into the category of reliable truths and becomes a scientific truth.
The theory is the highest form of scientific knowledge, which gives a holistic mapping of natural and substantial bonds of a certain area of \u200b\u200breality (Newton's mechanics, evolutionary theory of Darwin, the theory of Einstein's relativity).
The theory should meet the two requirements: consistency and experimental verificationability. The following structural elements are distinguished in it:
1. The initial bases are concepts, principles, laws, equations, axioms;
2. Idealized object - an abstract model of the essential properties of objects ("perfect gas");
3. The logic of the theory;
4. A combination of laws of this theory;
The key element of the theory is the law.
The main functions of theory include functions: synthetic, explanatory, methodological, predictive, practical.
In improving the quality of scientific research, the correctly selected method is important.
Method (Greek. "The path to something") is a combination of certain rules, techniques, methods, norms of knowledge and action. In other words, the way, the tool with which knowledge is mined. The method is developed on the basis of a certain theory. And in knowledge acts as a system of regulators.
The variety of types of human activity causes a variety of methods.
Among the scientific methods of theoretical research allocate:
1. Formalization is the display of meaningful knowledge in a formalized language, where a formalized language is a system of specialized language tools or their characters with accurate compound rules.
2. Axiomatic method is a method for constructing scientific theory, the foundations of which are axioms. From the axiom, all the provisions of the theory are output with a logical way.
3. The hypothetic and deductive method is the method, the essence of which in the creation of a hypotheses system, of which the allegations of experimental facts are deductive.
Overheadings are widely used in scientific research:
1. Analysis - the real or mental separation of the object on the part, and the synthesis is their association into a single integer;
2. Abstraction - the process of distraction from a number of properties with the allocation of the properties of interest to the researcher;
3. Idealization is a mental procedure associated with the formation of abstract objects that do not actually exist;
4. Induction - the movement of thought from one (experience, facts) to the total;
5. Deduction - reverse induction process, that is, the movement of thought from the total to the private;
5. The analogy is the establishment of similarities in the sides, properties and relationships between the identical objects;
6. The systematic approach is a set of general scientific methods, which are based on the consideration of objects as systems.
All the named and other methods should be applied in gnoseological studies not to spoil, but in their close unity and dynamic interaction.
"Currently, the expansion of the subject of the theory of knowledge is simultaneously with the update and enrichment of its methodological arsenal: epistemological analysis and argumentation are beginning to include the rethinking results and methods of special sciences about knowledge."
empirical knowledge of truth
Means of scientific research (means of knowledge). In the course of the development of science, the means of knowledge are developed and improved: material, mathematical, logical, linguistic. In addition, recently, it is obvious to add information to them as a special class. All means of knowledge are specially created funds. In this sense, material, informational, mathematical, logical, language means of knowledge have a common property: they are constructed, create, develop, justify for certain cognitive purposes.
Materials Knowthis is, first of all, instruments for scientific research. In history with the emergence of material means of knowledge, the formation of empirical methods of research - observation, measurement, experiment is connected.
These funds are directly directed to the objects studied, it owns the main role in empirical testing of hypotheses and other results of scientific research, in the opening of new facilities, facts. The use of material means of knowledge in science in general - microscope, telescope, synchrophasotron, earth satellites, etc. - has a profound impact on the formation of the conceptual apparatus of sciences, on how to describe the subjects studied, ways of reasoning and ideas, on the generalizations used, idealization and arguments.
Information tools of knowledge. The mass introduction of computing equipment, information technologies, telecommunications funds fundamentally transforms research activities in many industries of science makes them means of scientific knowledge. Including, in recent decades, computing equipment is widely used to automate the experiment in physics, biology, in technical sciences, etc., which allows hundreds of, thousands of times to simplify research procedures and reduce data processing time. In addition, information resources make it possible to significantly simplify the processing of statistical data in almost all sectors of science. And the use of satellite navigation systems many times increases the accuracy of measurements in geodesy, cartography, etc.
Mathematical means of knowledge. The development of mathematical means of knowledge has an increasing impact on the development of modern science, they penetrate into humanitarian, social sciences. Mathematics, being science of quantitative relations and spatial forms abstracted from their specific content, developed and applied specific means of diverting from the content and formulated the rules for consideration of the form as an independent object in the form of numbers, sets, etc., which simplifies, facilitates and Accelerates the process of knowledge, makes it deeper to identify the connection between objects from which the form is abstract, to identify the initial positions, ensure the accuracy and rigidity of judgment. Mathematical means allow you to consider not only directly abstracted quantitative relations and spatial forms, but also possible, that is, those that are derived from the logical rules from previously known relations and forms. Influenced by mathematical means of knowledge undergoes significant changes in the theoretical apparatus of descriptive sciences. Mathematical means can systematize empirical data, identify and formulate quantitative dependencies and patterns. Mathematical means are also used as special forms of idealization and analogies (mathematical modeling).
Logic means of knowledge. In any study, the scientist has to solve logical tasks:
What logical requirements should satisfy reasoning, allowing to make objective and true conclusions; How to control the nature of these reasoning?
What logical requirements should be satisfied with the description of empirically observed characteristics?
How to logically analyze source systems scientific knowledgeHow to coordinate some knowledge systems with other knowledge systems (for example, in sociology and closely related psychology)?
How to build a scientific theory that allows you to give scientific explanations, predictions, etc.?
The use of logical means in the process of constructing reasoning and evidence allows the researcher to separate controlled arguments from intuitively or non-critical, false from true, conflict from contradictions.
Language tools of knowledge. An important linguistic means of knowledge are, including the rules for building definitions of concepts (definitions). In any scientific research, the scientist has to clarify the introduced concepts, symbols and signs, use new concepts and signs. Definitions are always associated with the language as a means of knowledge of knowledge and expression. The rules for using languages \u200b\u200bof both natural and artificial, with which the researcher builds its reasoning and evidence, formulates hypotheses, leads conclusions, etc., are the initial item of cognitive actions. Knowledge of them has a big impact on the efficiency of using language means of knowledge of scientific research.
Scientific research methods. Essential, sometimes defining role in building any scientific work is played by the applied research methods. The research methods are divided into empirical (empirical - literally perceived by means of senses) and theoretical.
Theoretical methods:
Methods - Cognitive Actions: Detection and resolution of contradictions, setting the problem, constructing hypothesis, etc.;
Methods-operations: analysis, synthesis, comparison, abstraction and concretization, etc.
Empirical methods:
Methods - Cognitive Actions: Examination, Monitoring, Experiment, etc.;
Methods operations: observation, measurement, survey, testing, etc.
Theoretical Methods - Operations are determined (discussed) by major thought operations, which are: analysis and synthesis, comparison, abstraction and concretization, generalization, formalization, induction and deduction, idealization, analogy, modeling, mental experiment.
Analysis - This is the decomposition of the extent studied in part, the allocation of individual features and qualities of the phenomenon, the process or relations of phenomena, processes. Analysis procedures are part of an organic component into any scientific research and usually form its first phase when the researcher moves from an unintended description of the object being studied to identify its structure, composition, its properties and signs. The same phenomenon, the process can be analyzed in many aspects. Comprehensive phenomenon analysis allows you to consider it deeper.
Synthesis - connection of various elements, sides of the subject in a single whole (system). Synthesis is not a simple summation, but a semantic connection. If you simply connect the phenomena, the communication system does not occur between them, only a chaotic accumulation of individual facts is formed. Synthesis is opposite to the analysis with which it is inextricably linked. Synthesis as a cognitive operation acts in various functions of theoretical research. Any formation process of concepts is based on the unity of the analysis and synthesis processes. Empirical data obtained in a particular study is synthesized with their theoretical generalization. In theoretical scientific knowledge, synthesis acts as the relationship between theories relating to one subject area, as well as the functions of the association of competing theories (for example, the synthesis of corpuscular and wave representations in physics). A significant role is played by synthesis in an empirical study.
Analysis and synthesis are closely related to each other. If the researcher has a more developed ability to analyze, the danger may arise that it will not be able to find places in detail in the phenomenon as a whole. The relative predominance of synthesis leads to superficiality, to the fact that it will not be observed substantial parts for research, which may be of great importance for understanding the phenomenon as a whole.
Comparison - This is a cognitive operation underlying judgments about the similarity or difference in objects. With the help of comparison, quantitative and qualitative characteristics of objects are detected, their classification, streamlining and evaluation are carried out. Comparison is a comparison of one with another. At the same time, grounds are played, or signs of comparisons that determine the possible relationships between objects. A comparison makes sense only in the totality of homogeneous objects forming a class. Comparison of objects in a particular class is carried out according to principles substantial for this review. In this case, objects comparable by one feature may not be comparable to other features. More precisely, the signs are estimated, the more it is possible to compare phenomena. The composite part of the comparison is always the analysis, since for any comparison in the phenomena, the corresponding signs of comparison should be determined. Since the comparison is the establishment of certain relations between phenomena, then synthesis is also used during comparison.
Abstraction - One of the basic mental operations, allowing to mentally be shedding and transformed into an independent object of consideration of individual parties, properties or state of the object in its pure form. Abstraction underlies the processes of generalization and the formation of concepts. Abstraction consists in exhausting such properties of the object, which by itself and independently do not exist. Such a deduction is possible only in a mental plan - in abstraction. Thus, the geometric body figure itself does not really exist and cannot be separated from the body. But due to the abstraction, it is mentally distinguished, fixed, for example, with the help of the drawing, and is independently considered in its special properties. One of the basic functions of abstraction is to highlight the general properties of a certain set of objects and in fixing these properties, for example, by means of concepts.
Specification - The process opposite to abstraction, that is, finding a holistic, interrelated, multilateral and complex. The researcher initially forms various abstractions, and then based on them by concretization reproduces this integrity (mental specific), but already on a qualitatively other level of knowledge of concrete. Therefore, the dialectic distinguishes in the process of cognition in the coordinates "Abstraction - specification" two processing processes: climbing from the specific one and then the process of climbing from the abstract to a new specific (G. Mr.). The dialectic of theoretical thinking and consists in unity of abstraction, creating various abstractions and concretization, movement to a specific and reproduction of it.
Generalization - One of the main cognitive thinking operations, consisting in the allocation and fixation on the sustainable, invariant properties of objects and their relationships. The generalization allows you to display the properties and relationships of objects, regardless of private and random conditions for their observation. Comparing the objects of some group from a certain point of view, a person finds, allocates and denotes them the same, general properties that can be the content of the concept about this group, the class of objects. The separation of common properties from private and designation by their word allows in a reduced, compressed form to cover all the variety of objects, reduce them into certain classes, and then by means of abstractions to operate with concepts without direct access to individual objects. The same real object can be included both in narrow and wide class classes, for which the scales of the generality of signs are built on the principle of generic relations. The generalization function is to streamline the variety of objects, their classification.
Formalization - Display of thinking results in accurate concepts or allegations. It is a matter of second-order mental operation. Formalization is opposed to intuitive thinking. In mathematics and formal logic, under formalization, the display of meaningful knowledge in a sign form or in a formalized language is understood. Formalization, that is, the distraction of concepts from their content, ensures the systematization of knowledge, in which individual elements coordinate it with each other. Formalization plays a significant role in the development of scientific knowledge, since intuitive concepts, although they seem clearer from the point of view of everyday consciousness, are little suitable for science: In scientific knowledge, it is often impossible not only to resolve, but even formulate and put problems as long as not The structure of the concepts relating to them will be clarified. True science is possible only on the basis of abstract thinking, consistent reasoning of the researcher who occur in a logical linguistic form through concepts, judgments and conclusions.
The scientific judgments establish links between objects, phenomena or between their specific features. In scientific conclusions, one judgment comes from the other, on the basis of the already existing conclusions is made new. There are two main types of conclusions: inductive (induction) and deductive (deduction).
Induction - This is a conclusion from private objects, phenomena to the overall conclusion, from individual facts to generalizations.
Deduction - This is a conclusion from common to private, from general judgments to private conclusions.
Idealization - mental design of ideas about objects that do not exist or impracticable in reality, but such for which there are prototypes in the real world. The process of idealization is characterized by distraction from the properties and relations inherent in the objects of real reality and the introduction of such signs into the content of the concepts of such signs, which in principle cannot belong to their real prototypes. Examples of concepts that are the result of idealization may be mathematical concepts "point", "straight"; in physics - " material point"," Absolutely black body "," perfect gas ", etc. On the concepts that are the result of idealization, they say that idealized (or ideal) objects are thinking. By forming the idealization of such a kind of objects with the idealization, it is possible to continue to operate with them in reasoning as actually existing objects and build abstract schemes of real processes that serve for their deeper understanding. In this sense, idealization is closely related to modeling.
Analogy, modeling. An analogy is a mental operation when knowledge obtained from consideration of a single object (model) is transferred to another, less studied or less accessible to study, less visual object, referred to as the prototype, original. The possibility of transferring information by analogy from the model to the prototype. This is the essence of one of the special methods of theoretical level - modeling (construction and research of models). The difference between an analogy and modeling is that if an analogy is one of the mental operations, then the simulation can be considered in different cases and as a thought operation and as an independent method - action method.
Model - auxiliary object selected or converted to cognitive purposes, giving new information about the main object. Modeling forms are diverse and depend on the models used and their applications. According to the nature of the models, the subject and iconic (information) modeling is distinguished. The subject modeling is carried out on the model reproducing certain geometric, physical, dynamic, or the functional characteristics of the modeling object - the original; In the particular case - analog modeling, when the behavior of the original and the model is described by single mathematical relations, for example, by uniform differential equations. With a sign modeling, models serve schemes, drawings, formulas, etc. Mathematical modeling is the most important type of such modeling.
Simulation is always used with other research methods, especially closely it is related to the experiment. The study of any phenomenon on its models is a special type of experiment - a model experiment, differing from the usual experiment in the fact that in the process of cognition, the "intermediate link" is included - a model that is both a means and an object of experimental study that replaces the original.
A special type of modeling is mind experiment. In such an experiment, the researcher mentally creates ideal objects, correlates them with each other within a certain dynamic model, imitating mentally that movement, and those situations that could take place in the real experiment. At the same time, ideal models and objects help to identify "in its pure form" the most important, significant relationships and relationships, mentally lose possible situations, cut off unnecessary options.
Simulation also serves as a way to design a new, not existing in practice. Researcher, having studied the characteristic features of real processes and their trends, is looking for their new combinations on the basis of the leading idea, makes their mental reconstruction, that is, the required state of the system being studied (as well as any person and even an animal builds its activities, activity based on Formed initially "models of the demand for future" - by N.A. Bernstein). At the same time, model-hypotheses are created that operate the communication mechanisms between the components of the studied, which are then checked in practice. In this sense, the modeling has recently spread widely in public and humanitarian sciences - in economics, pedagogy, etc., when various authors are offered various models of firms, industries, educational systems, etc.
Along with the operations of logical thinking to theoretical methods, the operations can also be attributed (possibly conditionally) imagination as a thought process for creating new ideas and images with its specific form of fantasy (creation of implausible, paradoxical images and concepts) and dreams (as creating images of desired).
Theoretical methods (methods are cognitive actions). The general philosophically, the general scientific method of cognition is the dialectic - the real logic of meaningful creative thinking, reflecting the objective dialectic of reality itself. The basis of dialectics as a method of scientific knowledge is the climbing from the abstract to a specific (G. Hegel) - from the general and poor conditions of forms to dismembered and richer content, to the system of concepts that allow you to comprehend the subject in its essential characteristics. In dialectics, all problems acquire a historical nature, a study of the development of the object is a strategic platform of knowledge. Finally, dialectics focuses in knowledge of disclosure and ways of resolution of contradictions.
Dialectics laws: the transition of quantitative changes to high-quality, unity and struggle of opposites, etc.; Analysis of paired dialectic categories: historical and logical, phenomenon and essence, general (universal) and single, etc. are inalienable components of any competently constructed scientific research.
Scientific theories, proven practices: Any such the theory is essentially in the function of the method when building new theories in this or even in other areas of scientific knowledge, as well as the function of the method that determines the content and sequence of experimental activities of the researcher. Therefore, the difference between the scientific theory as a form of scientific knowledge and as a method of knowledge in this case is functional in nature: forming as the theoretical result of the past study, the method acts as the initial clause and the condition of subsequent studies.
Proof - method - theoretical (logical) action, in the process of which the truth of any thought is justified with the help of other thoughts. Every proof consists of three parts: thesis, arguments (arguments) and demonstration. According to the method of conducting proof there are direct and indirect, in the form of conclusion - inductive and deductive. Rules of evidence:
1. The thesis and arguments must be clear and precisely defined.
2. The thesis should remain identical throughout the proof.
3. The thesis should not contain a logical contradiction.
4. The arguments given to the confirmation of the thesis themselves must be true not subject to doubt, should not contradict each other and be a sufficient basis for this thesis.
5. Proof must be complete.
In the aggregate of scientific knowledge methods, an important place belongs to the method of analyzing knowledge systems. Any scientific knowledge system has a certain independence relative to the reflected subject area. In addition, knowledge in such systems is expressed with the help of the language whose properties affect the relationship of knowledge systems to studied objects - for example, if any sufficiently developed psychological, sociological, pedagogical concept to translate on, admit, English, German, French - Will she definitely be perceived and understood in England, Germany and France? Further, the use of a language as a carrier of concepts in such systems involves one or another logical systematization and logically organized use of language units to express knowledge. And finally, no knowledge system does not exhaust the entire content of the object being studied. It always receives a description and explanation only defined, historically specific part of such a content.
The method of analyzing scientific knowledge of knowledge plays an important role in empirical and theoretical research tasks: when choosing a source theory, hypotheses for the resolution of the chosen problem; when delimiting empirical and theoretical knowledge, semi-empirical and theoretical solutions of the scientific problem; in justifying the equivalence or prioritization of the use of certain mathematical apparatus in various theories related to the same subject area; When studying the possibilities of spreading previously formulated theories, concepts, principles, etc. on new subject areas; justification of the new features of the practical application of knowledge systems; when simplifying and clarifying knowledge systems for learning, popularization; For coordination with other systems of knowledge, etc.
The deductive method (synonym is an axiomatic method) - a method for constructing a scientific theory, in which some initial positions of axioms (synonym - postulates) are put on its basis (synonym - postulates), of which all other provisions of this theory (theorem) are purely logical through evidence. The construction of the theory on the basis of an axiomatic method is usually called deductive. All concepts of deductive theory, except for a fixed number of initial (such initial concepts in geometry, for example, are: a point, straight, plane) are introduced by definitions expressing them through previously introduced or derived concepts. The classic example of deductive theory is the geometry of Euclidea. The deductive method are built theories in mathematics, mathematical logic, theoretical physics;
- The second method in the literature did not receive the name, but it certainly exists, because in all other sciences, besides the above, the theories are built according to the method, which is called inductive-deductive: the empirical basis is accumulated on the basis of which theoretical generalizations (induction) are built, which They may be built in several levels - for example, empirical laws and theoretical laws - and then these generalizations can be distributed to all objects and phenomena covered by this theory (deduction) - see Fig. 6 and fig. 10. Most theories in the sciences of nature, society and a person are built an inductive deductive method: physics, chemistry, biology, geology, geography, psychology, pedagogy, etc.
Other theoretical methods of research (in the sense of methods - cognitive actions): identifying and resolving contradictions, setting the problem, building hypotheses, etc. Up to the planning of scientific research, we will consider lower in the specifics of the temporary structure of research activities - the construction of phases, stages and stages Scientific research.
Empirical methods (Methods-operations).
Studying literature, documents and results of activities. Questions of work with scientific literature will be discussed below separately, since this is not only a research method, but also the mandatory procedural component of any scientific work. The source of the actual material for the study also serves as a variety of documentation: archival materials in historical studies; documentation of enterprises, organizations and institutions in economic, sociological, pedagogical and other studies, etc. The study of the results of activity plays an important role in pedagogy, especially when studying the problems of vocational training of students and students; in psychology, pedagogy and sociology of labor; And, for example, in archeology when conducting excavations, analysis of the results of people's activities: on the remnants of labor instruments, dishes, dwellings, etc. allows you to restore the image of their lives in one or another era.
Observation - In principle, the most informative research method. This is the only method that allows you to see all the parties studied phenomena and processes that are affordable by the perception of the observer are both direct and using various devices.
Depending on the purposes that are prosecuted during the observation process, the latter may be scientific and unscientific. The purposeful and organized perception of objects and phenomena of the outside world, associated with solving a certain scientific problem or the task, is customary to be called scientific observation. Scientific observations suggest a certain information for further theoretical reflection and interpretation, for approval or refutation of any hypothesis, etc.
Scientific observation consists of the following procedures:
Determining the objective of observation (for what, for what purpose?);
Selection of an object, process, situation (what to observe?);
Choosing a method and frequency of observations (how to observe?);
The choice of ways to register the observed object, phenomena (how to fix the information received?);
Processing and interpretation of the information received (what is the result?) - See, for example,.
Observed situations are divided into:
Natural and artificial;
Managed and not driven by the subject of observation;
Spontaneous and organized;
Standard and non-standard;
Normal and extreme, etc.
In addition, depending on the organization of observation, it can be open and hidden, field and laboratory, and depending on the nature of fixation - the statement, assessing and mixed. By a method for obtaining observation information, divided into direct and instrumental. In terms of coverage of the objects under study, solid and selective observations are distinguished; By frequency - permanent, periodic and one-time. A special case of observation is self-surveillance, quite widely used, for example, in psychology.
Observation is necessary for scientific knowledge, because without it, science would not have been able to obtain initial information, would not have scientific facts and empirical data, therefore, it would be impossible to be theoretical construction of knowledge.
However, observation as a method of knowledge has a number of significant drawbacks. The personal features of the researcher, his interests, finally, his psychological state can significantly affect the results of observation. An objective surveillance results are further susceptible to distortion when the researcher is focused on obtaining a certain result, to confirm the hypothesis existing ones.
To obtain objective observation results, it is necessary to comply with the requirements of intersubjectivity, that is, these observations must (and / or may) be obtained and recorded by other observers.
Replacing direct observation by devices unlimitedly expands the possibilities of observation, but also does not exclude subjectivity; Evaluation and interpretation of such indirect observation is carried out by the subject, and therefore the subject's constituent influence can still take place.
Measure. Measurement is used everywhere in any human activity. So, almost every person spends measurements during the day, depending on the clock. The general definition of measurement is: the measurement is a cognitive process that consists in comparison ... of this value with some of its meaning adopted for the reference standard.
Including, the measurement is an empirical method (method-operation) of a scientific study.
You can select a specific measurement structure, which includes the following items:
1) a learning entity measuring with certain cognitive objectives;
2) measurement tools, among which can be both instruments and tools designed by man and objects and processes, data from nature;
3) the measurement object, that is, the measured value or property to which the comparison procedure is applicable;
4) a method or measurement method, which represents a set of practical actions, operations performed using measuring instruments, and includes certain logical and computational procedures;
5) The measurement result, which is a named number expressed using appropriate names or signs.
The gnoseological substantiation of the measurement method is inextricably linked with a scientific understanding of the ratio of qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the object being studied (phenomenon). Although with the help of this method, only quantitative characteristics are recorded, these characteristics are inextricably linked with the qualitative definition of the object being studied. It is due to qualitative certainty that the quantitative characteristics to be measured can be distinguished. The unity of the qualitative and quantitative sides of the object being studied means both the relative independence of these Parties and their deep relationship. The relative independence of quantitative characteristics allows them to learn them in the measurement process, and the measurement results are used to analyze the quality of the object.
The problem of measurement accuracy also relates to the gnoseological bases of measurement as a method of empirical knowledge. The accuracy of measurement depends on the ratio of objective and subjective factors during the measurement process.
These objective factors include:
Options for the discharge in the studied facility of certain stable quantitative characteristics, which in many cases of research, in particular, social and humanitarian phenomena and processes is difficult, and sometimes it is not possible;
The possibilities of measuring means (the degree of their perfection) and the conditions in which the measurement process takes place. In some cases, finding an accurate value of the value is fundamentally impossible. It is impossible, for example, to determine the electron trajectory in the atom, etc.
Subjective measurement factors include the choice of methods of measurement, the organization of this process and a whole complex of cognitive capabilities of the subject - from the qualification of the experimenter to its ability to correctly and competently interpret the results obtained.
Along with direct measurements, the method of indirect measurement is widely used in the process of scientific experimentation. With an indirect measurement, the desired value is determined on the basis of direct measurements of other values \u200b\u200bassociated with the first functional dependence. According to the measured values \u200b\u200bof the mass and volume of the body, its density is determined; The specific resistance of the conductor can be found on the measured resistance values, the length and the cross-sectional area of \u200b\u200bthe conductor, etc., especially the role of indirect measurements in cases where the direct measurement in objective reality conditions is impossible. For example, the mass of any space object (natural) is determined by means of mathematical calculations based on the use of these measurement data of other physical quantities.
Interview. This empirical method is applied only in public and humanitarian sciences. The survey method is divided into an oral survey and writing survey. Oral survey (conversation, interview). The essence of the method is understandable from his name. During the survey, the requested personal contact with the responding person, that is, he has the opportunity to see how the responding responds to one or another question. The observer may if necessary, set various additional questions and thus receive additional data on some unlited issues.
Oral polls give specific results, and with their help, you can get comprehensive answers to complex issues of interest to the researcher. However, the questions of "delicate" character are respondents responsible in writing much frankly and the answers are given more detailed and solid.
An oral answer responds to less time and energy than on a written one. However, this method has its own negative sides. All respondents are in different conditions, some of them can be obtained through the supplies of the researcher's additional information; The expression of the face or any gesture of the researcher has some impact on the responding.
Questions used for interviews are planned in advance and a questionnaire is drawn up, where the place is left to recording (logging).
Basic requirements for issues:
1) the survey should not be random, but to be a planned; At the same time, questions more understandable questions are asked earlier, more difficult - later;
2) questions must be concrete, specific and understandable for all responding;
3) questions should not contradict ethical standards.
Poll rules:
1) During an interview, the researcher must be with the responding alone, without foreign witnesses;
2) each oral question is read from a questionnaire (questionnaire) literally, unchanged;
3) exactly follows the procedure for the issues; The answer should not see the questionnaire or be able to read the following questions following the next questions;
4) the interview should be short-term - from 15 to 30 minutes depending on the age and intellectual level of the respondents;
5) the interviewing should not affect the corresponding one in any way (indirectly suggest the answer, swing heads in the sign of disapproval, nodding head, etc.);
6) The interviewing may if necessary, if this answer is unclear, to ask additionally only neutral questions (for example: "What did you want to say?", "Explain some more details!").
7) Answers are recorded on the questionnaire only during the survey.
In the future, the answers are analyzed and interpreted.
Written poll - Questioning. It is based on a pre-developed questionnaire (questionnaire), and respondents' responses (respondents) for all positions of the questionnaire constitute the desired empirical information.
The quality of empirical information obtained as a result of the survey depends on factors such as the formulation of questionnaire issues that must be understood by the respondent; Qualification, experience, conscientiousness, psychological peculiarities researchers; Survey situation, its conditions; emotional state of respondents; customs and traditions, performances, everyday situation; And also - the relation to the survey. Therefore, using such information, it is always necessary to make amendment on the inevitability of subjective distortions due to the specific individual "refraction" of it in the consciousness of the respondents. And where we are talking about fundamentally important issues, along with a survey, they also address other methods - observation, expert estimates, analyzing documents.
Special attention is paid to the development of the questionnaire - questionnaire containing a series of issues required for information in accordance with the objectives and hypothesis of the study. The questionnaire must meet the following requirements: to be informed about its use goals, that is, to ensure the search for the information; have stable criteria and reliable scores of estimates that adequately reflect the situation under study; The formulation of issues should be understood by the interviewed and consistent; Questions questionnates should not cause negative emotions from the respondent (responding).
Questions can wear a closed or open form. A closed is a question if the questionnaire is given a complete set of answer options. The respondent only notes that the option that coincides with his opinion. This form of the questionnaire significantly reduces the fill time and makes a questionnaire suitable on a computer simultaneously. But sometimes there is a need to know directly the opinion of the respondent on the issue, excluding pre-prepared options for answers. In this case, they resort to open issues. Responding to an open question that is guided only by its own ideas. Consequently, such an answer is more individualized.
Enhance the accuracy of the answers contributes to the observance of a number of other requirements. One of them is that the respondent will be provided with the opportunity to avoid response, express indefinitely. For this scale, the estimates should include options for answers: "hard to say", "I find it difficult to answer", "sometimes", "when how", etc. But the prevalence in the answers of such options is evidence of either the respondent's incompetence, or the unusability of the formulation of the issue for obtaining the necessary information.
In order to gain reliable information about the studied phenomenon, the process, not necessarily interview the entire contingent, since the object of the study may be numerically very large. In cases where the object of the study exceeds several hundred people, selective questionnaires applies.
Expert assessment method. Essentially, this type of survey associated with attracting studied phenomena, the processes of whose most competent people, the opinions of which complementing and rechecking each other make it possible to objectively evaluate the studied. The use of this method requires a number of conditions. First of all, it is a careful selection of experts - people who know the estimated area, studied object and capable of objective, unbiased evaluation.
An essential value also has the choice of an accurate and convenient assessment system and the corresponding measurement scales, which streams the judgments and makes it possible to express them in certain values.
Often it is necessary to train experts to use the proposed scales for an unequivocal assessment to minimize the error, make estimates comparable.
If the experts act independently from each other consistently give coinciding or close estimates or express close opinions, there is reason to believe that they are approaching objective. If the estimates differ greatly, it says either about the unsuccessful choice of estimates and measurement scales, or on the incompetence of experts.
The species of the method of expert estimates are: the method of commissions, the brainstorming method, the Delphi method, the method of heuristic forecasting, etc. A number of these methods will be considered in the third chapter of this work.
Testing - The empirical method, the diagnostic procedure consisting in the use of tests (from the English Test - task, sample). Tests are usually asked by the subject or in the form of a list of questions requiring brief and unambiguous answers, or in the form of tasks, the solution of which does not occupy a lot of time and also requires unambiguous decisions, or in the form of any short-term practical work of subjects, such as qualification trials in professional education, in the labor economy, etc. Tests differ on the base, hardware (for example, on a computer) and practical; For individual applications and group.
Similar information.
Topic 5 Methodology of theoretical studies
Methodology (from Greek. Μεθοδολογία - the doctrine of methods; from other-grade. Μέθοδος of μετά- + ὁδός, letters. "The way for anything" and other Greek. Λόγος - thought, reason) , ways and strategies of subject research.
Structure of methodology
The methodology can be considered in two cuts: both theoretical, and it is formed by the section of philosophical knowledge of gnoseology and practical, - oriented practical problems and targeted conversion of the world. Theoretical tends to the model of perfect knowledge (in the conditions given by the description, for example, the speed of light in vacuo), the practical program is a program (algorithm), a set of receptions and methods of how to achieve the desired practical purpose and not to sneak against the truth, or that We consider true knowledge. Quality (success, efficiency) of the method is checked by practice, solving scientific and practical problems - that is, the search for the principles of achieving the goal implemented in the complex of real affairs and circumstances.
In the methodology, you can select the following structure:
Based on methodology: philosophy, logic, systemology, psychology, informatics, systemic analysis, science studies, ethics, aesthetics;
Characteristics of activity: features, principles, conditions, norms of activity;
Logic structure of activity: subject, object, subject, form, means, methods, result of activity, solving problems;
Temporary structure: phases, stages, stages.
Technology performing work and solving problems: means, methods, methods, techniques.
The methodology is also divided into substantive and formal. The substantive methodology includes the study of laws, theories, the structure of scientific knowledge, criteria for the scientific relations and systems of the research methods used. The formal methodology is associated with the analysis of methods of study from the point of view of the logical structure and formalized approaches to the construction of theoretical knowledge, its truth and argument.
Methods in science are called ways, techniques of studies of phenomena that make up the subject of this science. The use of these techniques should lead to the correct knowledge of the studied phenomena, i.e., adequate (corresponding to reality) reflects in the consciousness of a person inherent in their characteristics and patterns.
The research methods used in science cannot be arbitrary, selected without sufficient grounds, just on the whim of the researcher. True cognition is achieved only when the methods used in science are built in accordance with the objectively existing laws of nature and public life, which have found their expression in the philosophy of dialectical and historical materialism.
In constructing methods of scientific research, it is primarily necessary to rely on the following from these laws:
a) all the phenomena of the surrounding reality are in mutual communication and conditionality. These phenomena exist are not isolated from each other, and always in organic communication, therefore the correct methods of scientific research should be examined by the studied phenomena in their mutual communication, and not metaphysically, as existing allegedly torn apart from each other;
b) all the phenomena of the surrounding reality are always in the process of development, changes, therefore the right methods should investigate the studied phenomena in their development, and not as something stable, frozen in their immobility.
At the same time, scientific research methods should proceed from the correct understanding of the development process itself: 1) as consisting not only in quantitative, but, most importantly, in qualitative changes, 2) as having its source the struggle of oppositions, internally inherent contradictions. The study of phenomena outside the process of their development is also one of the significant mistakes of the metaphysical approach to the cognition of reality.
The logical structure includes the following components: subject, object, object, shape, means, activity methods, its result.
Gnosheology is the theory of scientific knowledge (synonym - epistemology), one of the components of philosophy. In general, Gnosheology studies the patterns and possibilities of knowledge, examines the steps, forms, methods and means of the process of knowledge, conditions and criteria for the truth of scientific knowledge.
The methodology of science as a teaching on the organization of research activities is that part of the gnoseology that studies the process scientific activity (its organization).
Classification of scientific knowledge.
Scientific knowledge is classified on different grounds:
- in groups of subject areas, knowledge is divided into mathematical, natural, humanitarian and technical;
- According to the method of reflection of the essence of knowledge, classified on phenomeentalist (descriptive) and essentialist (explanatory). Fenomeentist knowledge is high-quality theories that are predominantly descriptive functions (many sections of biology, geography, psychology, pedagogy, etc.). Unlike them, essentialistic knowledge is explanatory theories under construction, as a rule, using quantitative means of analysis;
- in relation to the activities of certain subjects of knowledge are divided into descriptive (descriptive) and supplement, regulatory - containing regulations, direct instructions to activities. We will discuss that the material contained in this subsection from the field of science studies, including gnoseology, is descriptive, however, it is, firstly, necessary as a reference point for any researcher; secondly, it is in a certain sense the basis for further presentation of the pressing basis for the methodology of science of normative material relating directly to the scientific activity methodology;
- according to the functional purpose, scientific knowledge is classified for fundamental, applied and developments;
Empirical knowledge is the established facts of science and formulated on the basis of their generalization. Empirical patterns and laws. Accordingly, an empirical study is directed directly to the object and relies on empirical, experienced data.
Empirical knowledge, being the absolutely necessary stage of knowledge, since all our knowledge arise ultimately from experience, still not enough to know the deep internal laws of the emergence and development of a learned object.
Theoretical knowledge is a pattern formulated for this subject area, allowing to explain previously open facts and empirical patterns, as well as predict and foresee future events and facts.
Theoretical knowledge transforms the results obtained at the stage of empirical knowledge, in deeper generalizations, revealing the entities of the phenomena of the first, second, etc. orders, patterns of occurrence, development and changes of the object being studied.
Both types of research - empirical and theoretical - organically interrelated and determine the development of each other in the holistic structure of scientific knowledge. Empirical studies, revealing new facts of science, stimulate the development of theoretical studies, put new tasks before them. On the other hand, theoretical studies, developing and specifying new prospects for explanation and prediction of facts, orient and direct empirical research.
Semiotics - Science, which studies the laws of construction and functioning of iconic systems. Semiotics is naturally one of the grounds of the methodology, since human activity, human communication makes it necessary to develop numerous signs of signs with which people could convey to each other a variety of information and thereby organize their activities.
In order for the content of a message, which one person can convey to another, passing the knowledge gained by them about the subject or their attitude to the subject, was understood by the recipient, such a broadcast method is necessary, which would allow the recipient to disclose the meaning of this message. And this is possible if the message is expressed in the signs that have trusted importance, and if the transmitting information and receiving it equally understands the relationship between the meaning and sign.
Since communication between people is unusually rich and versatile, humanity requires many iconic systems, which explains:
- features of the transmitted information that are forced to prefer then one language, then the other. For example, the difference of the scientific language from the natural, the differences of the languages \u200b\u200bof art from scientific languages, etc.
- features of the communicative situation that make more convenient use of one or another language. For example, the use of the natural language and gesture languages \u200b\u200bin a private conversation; natural and mathematical - at the lecture, for example, in physics; language of graphic characters and light signals - when regulating traffic, etc.;
- the historical development of culture, which is characterized by the consistent expansion of the possibilities of communication between people. Up to today's gigantic capabilities of systems mass communicationbased on printing, radio and television, computers, telecommunications networks, etc.
Issues of application of semiotics in the methodology, as well as in the whole science, and in practice, how to say, they are understood completely insufficient. There are many problems here. For example, the overwhelming majority of researchers in the field of public, humanitarian sciences do not apply mathematical modeling methods, even when it is possible and appropriate, simply because they do not speak the language of mathematics at the level of its professional use. Or another example - today many studies are conducted "at the junction" of sciences. Suppose pedagogy and technology. And here it often arises confusion due to the fact that the researcher uses both professional languages \u200b\u200b"in the afternoon." But the subject of any scientific research, for example, the dissertation, can only lie in one subject area, of one science. And, accordingly, one language should be the main, pass-through, and the other is only auxiliary.
Norms of scientific ethics.
A separate question to be affected is a question of scientific ethics. The norms of scientific ethics are not formulated in the form of any approved codes, official requirements, etc. However, they exist and can be considered in two aspects - as internal (in the community of scientists) ethical standards and as external - as the social responsibility of scientists for their actions and their consequences.
The ethical norms of the scientific community, in particular, were described by R. Merton back in 1942 as a set of four basic values:
– universalism: The truth of scientific statements should be evaluated regardless of race, gender, age, authority, the ranks of those who formulate them. Thus, science is originally democratic: the results of a large, well-known scientist must be subjected to equally strict checking and criticism than the results of a novice researcher;
– community: Scientific knowledge must freely become a common property;
– disability, impartiality: The scientist must look for the truth disinterestedly. Remuneration and recognition must be considered only as a possible consequence of scientific achievements, and not as an end in itself. At the same time, there is both scientific "competition", which consists in the desire of scientists to obtain a scientific result faster than others and the competition of individual scientists and their teams for receiving grants, state orders, etc.
– rational skepticism: Each researcher is responsible for assessing the quality of what has been made by his colleagues, it is not exempt from liability for the use of data from other researchers in its work, if he himself has not checked the accuracy of this data. That is, in science it is necessary, on the one hand, respect for what predecessors did; On the other hand, a skeptical attitude to their results: "Plato I friend, but the truth is more expensive" (saying Aristotle).
Features of individual scientific activities:
1. The scientist must clearly limit the framework of its activities and determine the goals of his scientific work.
In science, as well as in any other area of \u200b\u200bprofessional activity, there is a natural division of labor. A scientific worker cannot engage in "science in general", but must make a clear direction of work, put a specific goal and consistently go to its achievement. We will talk about the design of research below, and here it should be noted that the property of any scientific work is that the most interesting phenomena and the facts that themselves are constantly "come across" great value And who want to explore more. But the researcher risks to get away from the core bed of his scientific work, to study these side for its study of the phenomena and facts that new phenomena and facts will open, and it will continue without end. Work in this way "blossoms". In the end, no results will be achieved. This is typical error Most beginners researchers about which you need to warn. One of the main qualities of the scientist is the ability to focus only on the problem he is engaged in, and all the others are "side" - to use only to the extent that they are described in the modern scientific literature.
2. Scientific work is built "on the shoulders of precursors."
Before proceeding to any scientific work on any problem, it is necessary to study in the scientific literature, which was made in the field of predecessors.
3. The scientist must master the scientific terminology and strictly build its conceptual apparatus.
It's not just to write in a complex language as often mistaken, consider many novice scientists: what is more complicated and incomprehensible, the alleged scientist. The advantage of this scientist is what he writes and talks about the most difficult things in simple language. Business and other. The researcher must hold a clear line between the ordinary and scientific language. And the difference is that by the ordinary spoken language Special requirements for the accuracy of the terminology used are not presented. However, as soon as we begin to talk about these same concepts in the scientific language, I immediately arise questions: "And in what sense is such a concept, such a thing is that, etc.? In each concrete case The researcher must answer the question: "In what sense he uses this or that concept."
In any science, there is a phenomenon of parallel existence of various scientific schools. Each scientific school builds its own conceptual apparatus. Therefore, if a novice researcher takes, for example, one term in understanding, the interpretation of one scientific school, the other - in the understanding of another school, the third - in the understanding of the third scientific school, etc., will turn out a complete difference in the use of concepts, and no The new system of scientific knowledge is therefore the researcher will not create, because he would not speak or wrote, he will not be beyond the fondiest (everyday) knowledge.
4. The result of any scientific work, any study should be defined in "writing" form (printed or electronic) and published - in the form of a scientific report, a scientific report, abstract, articles, books, etc.
This requirement is due to two circumstances. First, only in writing can be set out their ideas and results on a strictly scientific language. In oral speech, it is almost never happening. Moreover, the writing of any scientific work, even the smallest article, for a novice researcher is a great difficulty, since what is easy to pronounce in public speeches or mentally says "to himself", it turns out to be "incomprehensible". Here the same difference as between ordinary, everyday and scientific languages. In oral speech, we ourselves and our listeners do not notice the logical flaws. The written text requires a strict logical presentation, and it is much more difficult to do. Secondly, the goal of any scientific work is to get and bring new scientific knowledge to people. And if this "new scientific knowledge" remains only in the head of the researcher, no one can read about him, then this knowledge, in essence, will disappear. In addition, the number and volume of scientific publications are an indicator, however, formal, productivity of any scientist. And each researcher constantly leads and replenishes a list of his published work.
Features of collective scientific activity:
1. Pluralism of scientific opinion.
Since any scientific work is a creative process, it is very important that this process is not "registered". Naturally, the scientific work of each research team can and should be planned and quite strictly. But at the same time, every researcher, if he is addressed enough, has the right to his point of view, his opinion, which should certainly be respected. Any attempts of dictate, imposing to all common uniform point of view never led to a positive result. Recall, for example, at least a sad story with etc. Lysenko, when domestic biology was dropped for decades ago.
There is even a term "Lysenkovschyna" - a political campaign for the persecution and shelf group of genetics, denial of genetics and a temporary ban on genetic studies in the USSR (despite the fact that the Institute of Genetics continued its existence). He received its popular name by name T. D. Lysenko, who has become a symbol of the campaign. The campaign was deployed in scientific biological circles around the mid-1930 to the first half of the 1960s. Its organizers were party and government figures, including I. V. Stalin himself. In the figurative sense, the term Lysenkovschina can be used to designate any administrative persecution of scientists for their "politically incorrect" scientific views
Including, the existence in the same industry of science of various scientific schools is due to the objective necessity of the existence of various points of view, views, approaches. And life, practice then confirm or refute various theories, or reconcile them, as, for example, reconciled such jar of opponents as R. Guk and I. Newton were in their time in physics, or I.P. Pavlov and A.A. Ukhtomsky in physiology.
1675, the meeting was just founded by the London Royal Society, discussion of the work of the thirty-one-year-old Cambridge Isaac Newton "Theory of Light and Flowers" ...
So, in advance confident in success, a young scientist sets out its essence in detail. Provisions, it confirms the results of a brilliant series of experiments. Experiments with glass prisms are striking the gathered surprise and novelty. He is already ready to handle how a well-known specialist in optics Robert Gook and everything turns up upside down as a reviewer suddenly rises.
He, without hiding sarcasm, declares that the accuracy of experiments does not cause him any doubts, because before Newton ... he spent them for himself, about what, fortunately, managed to report in his scientific work "Micrography". Carefully reading the content of this work, it is not difficult to note that there are the same data only with other conclusions, which GUK is ready to convince the gathered right on the spot, reading some excerpts from it. It is strange that it came out of ten years ago, she incomprehensiblely slipped out of the attention of Newton's fascinated optics. Well, yes the demon with him, this plagiarism. The main thing is that newton's material borrowed without supply was very ineptly took advantage of, because of what came to an erroneous conclusion about the corpuscular nature of light. Another conclusion of Newton regarding the presence of seven color components in a white light beam and an explanation of the eye of this phenomenon due to their necromance does not climb into any gate at all. "Taking this conclusion for the truth, the indignant GUK grabbed," it is possible to declare with great success that the musical sounds are hidden in the air to their sound. "
Huk himself adhered to an absolutely different concept in the view of the nature of the world. He was convinced that the light should be considered in the form of transverse waves, and its strip color can be explained only by reflection of the refracted beam from the surface of a glass prism.
Imagine how the Newton has been angry with his reviewer! In the response word, he sharply condemned the throat for an unability for a scientist of such rank tone, and the plagiarism charge called the vile slander dictated by envy to his person and scientific achievements.
The Guk, of course, did not forgive this audacity to Newton and, after time, it broke out a number of angry accusatory letters, which Newton did not fail to respond in the same spirit. All these letters have been preserved and published. Reading them, you just blush from shame for these figures of science. Before such promsion, perhaps, no one ever reached its history. Apparently, both great scientists believed that thought sounds convincing when it is accompanied by a strong senior.
The most curious thing is that, loudshot of each other, verbal assimios, but nothing and without providing one another, the rivals have risen.
Nevertheless, the time judged their dispute - currently the corpuscular theory of Newton and the presence of seven color components in a white light beam are studied in the school course of physics.
A. A. Ukhtomsky entered the history of domestic and world science and culture as one of the brilliant continuents of the St. Petersburg physiological school, the birth of which is associated with the names of I. M. Sechenov and N. E. Vednited. This school existed simultaneously and in parallel with the School of I. P. Pavlov, however, its discoveries and achievements, as it were, "laid" wide popular works by I. P. Pavlov and his schools recognized by the Soviet government "the only right" look at the development of scientific thought.
Nevertheless, both domestic physiological schools - School I.P. Pavlova and School A.A. Ukhtomsky in the 30s of the 20th century combined efforts and brought together their theoretical views in understanding the mechanisms of behavior management.
2. Communications in science.
Any scientific research can be carried out only in a specific community of scientists. This is due to the fact that any researcher, even the most qualified, always need to be discussed and discussing his ideas with colleagues, the facts obtained, theoretical construction - to avoid mistakes and delusions. It should be noted that among beginner researchers, it is often an opinion that de "I will be engaged in scientific work by myself, but when I get great results, then I will publish, discuss, etc.". But, unfortunately, this does not happen. Scientific Robinsonads never ended with nothing - the man "buried", confused in his quest and, disappointed, left scientific activities. Therefore, scientific communication is always necessary.
One of the conditions for scientific communication for any researcher is his immediate and mediated communication with all colleagues working in this field of science - through specially organized scientific and scientific and practical conferences, seminars, symposia (direct or virtual communication) and through scientific literature - articles in printed and electronic magazines, collections, books, etc. (indirect communication). And in the same case, the researcher, on the one hand, speaks or publishes its results, on the other hand - listens and reads what other researchers are engaged in, his colleagues.
3. Implementation of research results
- The most important moment of scientific activity, since the ultimate goal of science as the industry of the national economy is, naturally, the introduction of the results obtained into practice. However, it should be warmed from widely extinguishing among people who are far from science, the idea that the results of each scientific work must be implanted. Imagine this example. Only on pedagogy every year more than 3,000 candidate and doctoral dissertations are defended. If we proceed from the assumption that all the results obtained should be implemented, then imagine a poor teacher who should read all the dissertations, and each of them contains from 100 to 400 pages of machine-visiting text. Naturally, no one will do this.
The mechanism of implementation is different. The results of individual studies are published in theses, articles, then they are summarized (and thus, as it were, "are reduced") in books, brochures, monographs as purely scientific publications, and then in even more generalized, abbreviated and systematized form fall into university textbooks. And already quite "pressed", the most fundamental results fall into school textbooks.
In addition, not all studies can be implemented. Often research is carried out to enrich the science itself, the arsenal of its facts, the development of its theory. And only on the accumulation of a certain "critical mass" of facts, concepts, there are high-quality jumps of the implementation of achievements of science into mass practices. The classic example is the science of mycology - the science of mold. Who only for decades neither mocked mycologists' scientists: "The mold must be destroyed, and not to study." And it happened until that time, while in 1940 A. Fleming (Sir Alexander Fleming - British bacteriologist) did not open the bactericidal properties of penicillas (mold varieties). The antibiotics created on their basis allowed only during the Second World War to save millions of human lives, and today we do not imagine yourself how medicine did without them.
Modern science is guided by three basic principles of knowledge: the principle of determinism, the principle of compliance and the principle of additionalness.
Principle of determinismAs general scientific, organizes the construction of knowledge in concrete sciences. Determinism protrudes, first of all, in the form of causality as a set of circumstances, which precede in time, any given event and cause it. That is, there is a connection between phenomena and processes, when one phenomenon, the process (reason) under certain conditions with necessity generates, produces another phenomenon, the process (consequence).
The principal disadvantage of the former, classical (the so-called Laplas) determinism is that it was limited to one directly active causality, interpreted purely mechanism: the objective nature of the accident was denied, probabilistic bobes were output beyond determinism and opposed to material determination of phenomena.
A modern understanding of the principle of determinism assumes the presence of various objectively existing forms of the relationship of phenomena, many of which are expressed in the form of ratios that are not directly causing nature, that is, directly containing the time of the generation of one other. This includes spatial and temporal correlations, functional dependencies, etc. Including in modern science, in contrast to the determinism of classical science, the ratios of uncertainties, formulated in the language of probabilistic laws or the ratio of fuzzy sets, or interval values, etc., are particularly important.
However, all forms of real relationships of phenomena ultimately consist on the basis of universal causality, outside which there is no reality phenomenon. Including such events called random, in the aggregate of which statistical laws are detected. Recently, probability theory, mathematical statistics, etc. increasingly being introduced into research in public, humanitarian sciences.
Principle of conformity. In its original form, the principle of compliance was formulated as an "empirical rule", expressing a natural bond in the form of a marginal transition between the theory of an atom based on quantum postulates, and classical mechanics; and also between the special theory of relativity and classical mechanics. Thus, for example, four mechanics are distinguished: the classical mechanics of I. Newton (corresponding to large masses, that is, the masses, much larger mass elementary particles, and low speeds, that is, speeds, a lot of less light speed), relativistic mechanics - the theory of relativity A. Einstein ("big" masses, "big" speeds), quantum mechanics ("small" masses, "small" speeds) and relativistic Quantum mechanics ("small" masses, "big" speeds). They are fully consistent with each other "on the joints". In the process of further development of scientific knowledge, the truth of the principle of compliance was proved for almost all the most important discoveries in physics, and after that, in other sciences, after which his generalized wording was possible: theories that are experimentally installed for a particular field of phenomena, with The appearance of new, more common theories are not discarded as something false, but retain their value for the previous area of \u200b\u200bphenomena as a limit form and private case new theories. The conclusions of the new theories in the area where the old "classic" theory is valid, go into the conclusions of the classical theory.
It should be noted that strictly implementing the principle of compliance takes place within the framework of the evolutionary development of science. But, the situations of "scientific revolutions" are not excluded when the new theory refutes the previous and replaces it.
The principle of compliance means, in particular, the continuity of scientific theories. At the need to follow the principle of conformity, it is necessary to pay the attention of researchers, since recently work in humanitarian and social sciences began to appear, especially those performed by people who came to these industries from other, "strong" areas of scientific knowledge, in which attempts to create new theories are made, Concepts, etc., few connected or not related to previous theories. New theoretical buildings are useful for the development of science, but if they are not correlated with the same, then science will cease to be whole, and scientists will soon cease to understand each other.
Principle of complementality. The principle of complements arose as a result of new discoveries in physics also at the turn of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, when it turned out that the researcher, studying the object, contributes to it, including through the applied device, certain changes. This principle was first formulated by N. Bor (Nils Henrik David Bor - Danish physicist theoretics and a public figure, one of the creators of modern physics): reproduction of the integrity of the phenomenon requires the use of the mutually exclusive "additional" classes of concepts. In physics, in particular, this meant that obtaining experimental data on some physical quantities is invariably associated with a change in data on other values, additional to the first (narrow - physical - understanding of the principle of complementarity). With the help of additional, the equivalence between the classes of concepts comprehensively describes the contradictory situations in various areas of knowledge (general understanding of the principle of complementarity) is established.
The principle of complementarity significantly changed the whole system of science. If the classical science has functioned as a whole education focused on obtaining a knowledge system in the final and completed form, on a uniquely study of events, an exception from the context of the science of the impact of the activities of the researcher and the funds used by them, to evaluate the knowledge of the knowledge of the science of knowledge as absolutely reliable, The appearance of the principle of complementarity has changed.
The following is important:
- The inclusion of the researcher in the context of science led to a change in the understanding of the object of knowledge: they were now not the reality "in its pure form", but some of its slice given through the prisms of adopted theoretical and empirical means and methods of developing the subject of the subject;
- The interaction of the object being studied with the researcher (including by means of instruments) cannot but lead to various appearance of the properties of the object, depending on the type of interaction with the crignitory subject in various, often mutually exclusive conditions. And this means the legitimacy and equality of various scientific descriptions of the object, including various theories describing the same object, the same object area. Therefore, obviously, Bulgakovsky Woland says: "All the theories of one another".
It is important to emphasize that the same subject area may, in accordance with the principle of complementarity, are described by different theories. The same classical mechanics can be described not only according to the physics of Newton's physics known in school textbooks, but also by the mechanics of U. Hamilton, the mechanics of the city of Hertz, K. Yakobi mechanics. They differ in the initial positions - which is taken for the main uncertain values \u200b\u200b- power, impulse, energy, etc.
Or, for example, many socio-economic systems are investigated by constructing mathematical models using various sections of mathematics: differential equations, probability theory, game theory, etc. At the same time, the interpretation of the results of modeling the same phenomena, processes using different mathematical The means gives although close, but still different conclusions.
Funds of scientific research (means of knowledge)
In the course of the development of science, the means of knowledge are developed and improved: material, mathematical, logical, linguistic. In addition, recently, it is obvious to add information to them as a special class. All means of knowledge are specially created funds. In this sense, material, informational, mathematical, logical, language means of knowledge have a common property: they are constructed, create, develop, justify for certain cognitive purposes.
Material means of knowledge - This is primarily instruments for scientific research. In history with the emergence of material means of knowledge, the formation of empirical methods of research - observation, measurement, experiment is connected.
These funds are directly directed to the objects studied, it owns the main role in empirical testing of hypotheses and other results of scientific research, in the opening of new facilities, facts. The use of material means of knowledge in science in general - microscope, telescope, synchrophasotron, earth satellites, etc. - has a profound impact on the formation of the conceptual apparatus of sciences, on how to describe the subjects studied, ways of reasoning and ideas, on the generalizations used, idealization and arguments.
In the course of the development of science are developed and improved funds knowledge :
- material,
- mathematical,
- brain teaser,
- Language,
- informational.
All means of knowledge are specially created funds. In this sense, material, informational, mathematical, logical, language means of knowledge have a common property: they are constructed, create, are developing, justify for certain cognitive purposes (Fig. 4.6).
Material resources Cognition is, first of all, instruments for scientific research. In history with the emergence of material means of knowledge, the formation of empirical methods of research - observation, measurement, experiment is connected. These funds are directly directed to the objects studied, it owns the main role in empirical testing of hypotheses and other results of scientific research, in the opening of new facilities, facts. The use of material means of knowledge in science in general - microscope, telescope, synchrophasotron, earth satellites, etc. - has a profound impact on the formation of the conceptual apparatus of sciences, on how to describe the subjects studied, ways of reasoning and ideas, on the generalizations used, idealization and arguments.
Figure 4.6 - Research Tools
Information tools knowledge. The mass introduction of computing equipment, information technologies, telecommunications funds fundamentally transforms research activities in many industries of science makes them means of scientific knowledge. Including, in recent decades, computing equipment is widely used to automate the experiment in physics, biology, in technical sciences, etc., which allows hundreds of, thousands of times to simplify research procedures and reduce data processing time. In addition, information resources make it possible to significantly simplify the processing of statistical data in almost all sectors of science. And the use of satellite navigation systems many times increases the accuracy of measurements in geodesy, cartography, etc.
Mathematical means knowledge. The development of mathematical means of knowledge has an increasing impact on the development of modern science, they penetrate into humanitarian, social sciences. Mathematics, being a science of quantitative relations and spatial forms, abstracted from their specific content, developed and applied specific means of diverting from the content and formulated the rules for consideration of the form as an independent object in the form of numbers, sets, etc., which simplifies, facilitates and Accelerates the process of knowledge, makes it deeper to identify the connection between objects from which the form is abstract, to identify the initial positions, ensure the accuracy and rigidity of judgment. Mathematical means allow you to consider not only directly abstracted quantitative relations and spatial forms, but also possible, that is, those that are derived from the logical rules from previously known relations and forms. Influenced by mathematical means of knowledge undergoes significant changes in the theoretical apparatus of descriptive sciences. Mathematical means can systematize empirical data, identify and formulate quantitative dependencies and patterns. Mathematical means are also used as special forms of idealization and analogies (mathematical modeling).
Logic tools knowledge. In any research, the scientist has to be addressed logic tasks:
- What logical requirements should satisfy reasoning, allowing to make objective and true conclusions; How to control the nature of these reasoning?
- How should the description of the empirically observed characteristics be satisfied with the logical requirements?
- How to logically analyze the source systems of scientific knowledge, how to coordinate some knowledge systems with other knowledge systems (for example, in sociology and closely related psychology)?
- How to build a scientific theory that allows you to give scientific explanations, predictions, etc.?
The use of logical means in the process of constructing reasoning and evidence allows the researcher to separate controlled arguments from intuitively or non-critical, false from true, conflict from contradictions.
Language funds knowledge. An important linguistic means of knowledge are, including the rules for building definitions of concepts (definitions). In any scientific research, the scientist has to clarify the introduced concepts, symbols and signs, use new concepts and signs. Definitions are always associated with the language as a means of knowledge of knowledge and expression.
The rules for using languages \u200b\u200bof both natural and artificial, with which the researcher builds its reasoning and evidence, formulates hypotheses, leads conclusions, etc., are the initial item of cognitive actions. Knowledge of them has a big impact on the efficiency of using language means of knowledge of scientific research.
Equipically with the means of knowledge are the methods of scientific knowledge (research methods).
Under research methods It is understood by the methods of studying phenomena, obtaining scientific information in order to establish natural relations, relations, constructing scientific theories.
In research work, the undergraduate, as a rule, use the well-known methods of psychological and pedagogical, sociological and economic research. The choice of research methods depends on the determination of the theme, problems, hypothesis, objectives and objectives of the study. This question is fully covered in special literature. At the same time, it makes sense to briefly describe the basic methods.
All research methods can be divided into theoretical, empirical and mathematical (statistical and econometric).
Methods of theoretical research(Theoretical methods) are necessary to identify problems, formulating hypotheses and to assess the collected facts.
Theoretical analysis - This is the allocation and consideration of individual parties, features, features, properties of phenomena. The analysis is manifested in mental dismemberment of the whole (phenomenon, properties, process or relationship between objects) to the components performed in the process of cognition, and allows you to obtain information about the structure of the research object.
The analysis is accompanied by synthesis and allows you to penetrate the essence of the question of the question.
Synthesis - the process (as a rule is targeted) compounds or uniting previous things or concepts into something qualitatively new, an integer or representing set. In addition to the analysis, the synthesis method allows to obtain ideas about the relationship between the components of the study object.
Inductive method - The method of knowledge built on induction involving the movement of thought (the process of logical conclusion) from private judgments to the general.
Deductive method – the method of building scientific theories based on the use of deductive technology (deduction) is a system of logical conclusions from general judgments to a particular conclusion. At the beginning (parcels) of deduction are axioms, postulates or simply hypotheses that have the nature of common statements, but the end is the effect from the parcels, theorems, conclusions. If the premises of the deduction are true, then its consequences are true. Deduction is the main means of evidence.
Comparison– the method of cognition underlying judgments about the similarity or difference of objects. Using the comparison, high-quality and quantitative characteristics of objects are detected.
Generalization– the method of cognition leading to the allocation and means of relatively stable properties of the object. In term papers, it is often resorted to the use of this method when generalizing the concepts - a logical operation, by which, as a result of the exclusion of the species, the concept of wider volume is obtained, but less content.
Abstraction – this is the method of knowledge, which is a mental allocation of essential properties and bonds of the subject and distinguishing from its other properties and connections recognized by private, insignificant. This theoretical generalization allows you to reflect the basic laws of the objects under study or phenomena, study them, as well as predict new, unknown patterns. It can be said that the abstraction allows you to mentally distract from the insignificant properties of the subject and allocate the essential, basic properties, signs, links.
Specification– filling a schematic cognitive picture of any subject with private features, due to which it turns out to move from one scheme to another, more optimal to solve specific tasks.
Systematization– the method of combining, information of homogeneous groups according to some signs of units (parameters, criteria) to a certain hierarchiezed unity in functional purposes based on existing connections between them and / or complementary connections with the outside world.
Classification– the method of grouping objects of research or observation in accordance with their general features. As a result of the developed classification, a classified system (classification) is created.
Modeling - study of any objects on their models(from lat. Modis, Fr. Modele is a sample), that is, on conditional images, schemes or physical structures similar to the object under study using the methods of analogy and the theory of similarity when conducting and processing experimental data. Modeling is applied when for any reason it is difficult or not possible to study the subject in vivo, or when it is necessary to facilitate the process of researching the object.
The model reflects the main, from the point of view of the task, the properties of the modeling object in a simpler, reduced form. At the same time, the model reflects the structure, properties, relationships and relationships between the elements of the object under study. The object under study, in relation to which the model is manufactured, is called original, sample, prototype.
In sociological studies, modeling is carried out using signs, symbols, drawings (schemes).
Theoretical methods are associated with studying and analyzing the relevant literature, allowing you to find out what problems in the area under study and in what aspects are already sufficiently studied, which scientific discussions are being conducted, which is outdated, and what questions have not yet been resolved.
Work with literature assumes such methods as:
bibliography -list of sources selected for work due to the problem under study;
refpering -compressed crossing the main content of one or more work on general subjects;
abstract- the maintenance of more detailed records, the basis of which is the allocation of the main ideas and provisions of the work;
annotation -a summary of the general content of the book or article;
citation -the literal record of expressions, the actual digital data contained in the literary source.
Empirical methods – these are research methods based on the description of facts, practical activities, actually developing the experience of organizing something (without subsequent conclusions and theoretical generalizations, because these are theoretical research methods).
Conversation - It is carried out according to a predetermined plan with the allocation of issues requiring clarification, but at the same time improvisation is allowed, that is, a slight separation from the plan, therefore the conversation is carried out in free form without recording respondents' answers.
Interview(It is a type of conversation) - the researcher adheres to predetermined and recorded issues specified in a certain sequence, and records respondents.
Questioning - Method of mass collection of material using a questionnaire in which questions are interviewed in writing. When surveying, you can use both questionnaires developed by other authors and own, independently developed.
Studying documentation - The research method in which various documentation of the organizational and practical nature is studied, regulatory and guidance and methodological documents. At the same time, generalizations are made, conclusions, attention to the structure of the document is drawn, the main provisions are indicated, relevant to this study, etc.
Scientific observation– the general scientific method of collecting primary information by direct registration by the researcher of events, phenomena and processes occurring under certain conditions. Obtaining empirical information occurs using human sense organs, various types of scientific instruments and operational tools for fixing and quantifying incoming information. Scientific observation is characterized by the clarity of the target, systematically, if necessary, the use of instruments. This method also includes learning and summarizing experience.
Experiment - The method of scientific research, with the help of which in natural or artificially created conditions (controlled and managed), the phenomenon is investigated, a new, more efficient way to solve any problem. The experiment is a specially organized verification of this or that method, the reception of the work of a specialist. He involves active interference in the real system, so his essence lies in changing the conditions in which the subject is being studied, and basic function - Check the effectiveness (or inefficiency) of this intervention. At the same time, the control and management of all experimental factors is carried out systematically, the effects (positive or negative) changes of the object must be measured using a reasonable qualimetric toolkit and are interpreted scientifically. We note the leading difference of the experiment from observation. In the course of the experiment, the researcher introduces new factors in the process and observes, fixes and describes the consequences of its intervention, and during the observation, the researcher only observes, fixes and describes what happens in real reality without any intervention. The experimental method is aimed at studying the causal relations between the studied objects. It contains features characteristic of theoretical knowledge: allocation of the side of the object (phenomenon) of the researcher who is interested in, and abstraction from its other parties. In the process of knowledge, the experiment and theory interact: the experiment confirms or refutes the theory at the hypothesis stage, gives material for its development.
The dissertation requires:
- imagine experimental program (Develop a research methodology and experiment plan, methods for collecting and processing results obtained);
- Conduct and describe stating experiment (the cash state of the object of the study is studied, the real state of affairs is established in order to obtain primary material for further understanding and organization of the formative experiment);
- if necessary to spend trial (pilot) experiment allowing you to check individual aspects and readiness for basic (forming, transforming) experiment , in the course of which will be checked by the hypothesis, its introduced conditions and their influences on the object of study, expediency;
- Conduct, describe and give an estimate to the main experiment, if necessary, to conduct and evaluate the delayed experiment.
Results and description of the main experiment, quantitative and qualitative analysis, the interpretation of the facts received, the formulation of conclusions and practical recommendations is a mandatory element of the thesis.
Statistical methodsor, in a different way, methods of statistical processing of experimental data,it is used to process the survey and data experiment obtained by methods and experiment, as well as to establish quantitative dependencies between studied phenomena (see Table 1).
If a new subject of the tourism is being developed in a master's thesis (for example, a new tourism), then the effectiveness of its implementation is checked using econometric methods (See Table 2).
Table 1 - Table of statistical methods of summary and processing of the results of the experiment
| Name scale | Scale ordinal | Scale interval | |
| Methods of primary processing of experimental results | · Registration · Ranzhiro-via · Frequency · Fashion | · Registration · Ranking · Frequency · Fashion · Median | · Registration · Ranking · Frequency · Fashion · Median · Average Value · Dispersion · Camefficient of variation |
| Methods of secondary processing of experimental results | · Association coefficient · CTC criterion · McNamar criteria | · Spearman coefficient · Callee coefficient · Calida C² · Sign criteria · Medicated criterion · Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney criterion · Kolmogorov-Smirnov's criterion | · Linear correlation (by pester) · Calida C² · Fisher's criterion · Student criterion · Wilcoxon criterion |
Table 2 - The table of econetic methods of summary and processing the results of the experiment
We give a brief description of the second group of mathematical methods - econometric.
Expert review -the method of conducting intuitive-logical analysis of the problem. It includes: methods of delphi, heuristic methods, brainstorming, "collective notebook" method, syktics method.
Detailing -
Detailing -the dismemberment of the consolidated indicators into the components of their factors that affect the formation of the overall size of the process or phenomenon. It is done in time specific weight, location. In service and tourism allows you to establish the effect of seasonality on the cost level; form the cost calculation of the cost of production; Other.
Accounting -this is the documentation, interchange, accounting or financial statements. Allows: to carry out continuous monitoring of economic processes, for example, to fix the execution time; compare values, resources, obligations, etc. with credentials; To summarize information about the economic activity of the enterprise.
Quantitative and cost expression -digitized amount of demand, suggestions, prospects for the development of the process or phenomenon.
SWOT analysis -abbreviation designation of the first letters of English words: power, weakness, possibilities, threats. Allows you to carry out a detailed study of the internal and external environment of the enterprise. The signals identified using this method are the basis for developing and making management decisions.
Construction of forecast scenarios -the method of consistent removal of uncertainty. It is possible in realization only when using intelligent information systems within neural network technologies. Script should be understood as a hypothetical picture of consistent development in space and event time. This is some possible assessment of the development of the system, reflected by the trajectory of parameters, states, the conditions of its existence. Methods for building forecasts includes two stages: preparatory and scenario. They include: Development of a hypotheses, a system description of the forecasting object, the definition of the "tube" of possible trajectories, the development of matrices "Situations-factors", calculations for basic scenarios, nomination of alternatives to the development, execution of the final document.
Graphic reflection of the dynamics of the process under study(Column or linear diagram, histogram) - This is an illustration of the results of the study (the point of intersection of the curves of supply and demand, etc.).
Causal analysis -method for removing uncertainty, identifying a symptom problem. To solve the problem, it is necessary to eliminate its cause (axiom). The results of identifying and eliminating causes are reflected on the consequence screen. During the implementation of the method, the concepts of "entry" in the problem and "output" of it are used.
Guide control -observation from the start of practical activity before it is completed. It includes: measurement, comparison of actual data, targets, graphs.
Filtering control -differs from the preliminary guide and subsequent. It is implemented in case the deviation of the observed data from the planned plan is observed.
Measurement of efficiency -in other words, the effectiveness of any process, the success of its organizers and performers, profitability. Economic efficiency is the ratio of the result to costs. Social - degree of satisfaction of consumer demand for goods or services. In the socio-cultural sphere, the assessment of social efficiency prevails, however, best way To fully measure the result is a measurement of social and economic, as well as environmental, legal and ethical efficiency. It is possible to evaluate the effectiveness according to the final results of the process. The means of its description should be quantitative and qualitative indicators. Efficiency measurement criteria: the number and quality of goods or services; culture of production; Activity, initiative, personality promotion.
Functional and cost analysis (FSA) -the method of comprehensive study of object functions at all stages of its life cycle, aimed at assessing minimum costs. The function is activities, duty, work, appointment, role, external manifestation of the properties of any object. Value analysis - cost analysis. FSA: Function Analysis, Cost Analysis, Performance Resource Analysis of Functions. The methodological basis of the method is a functional approach as part of a system-functional approach. FSA stages: preparatory, information, analytical, creative, research, recommendation, implementation and control of results. The most effective reflection of the FSA results is FAST diagram. The FAST method allows you to answer questions: what functions are an analysis object, which is supposed to be done to implement this function, which affects the function who performs it, so on.
"Tree" solutions -schematic reflection of the solutions system, hierarchically ordered within the framework of the base coordinate system. The main structural elements are "branches", "nodes". "Branches" are options for solutions, possible consequences solutions. "Nodes" - places where and when solutions should be performed. The conservation of the coordinate system with the logical-temporal or spatial ordering of solutions is used.
Scientific knowledge is impossible without a certain conscious and unconscious use of historically established means of knowledge. Nowadays, when science becomes direct productive strength, and the scientific and technical revolution is becoming more widely scope, the study and development of these funds is the urgent task Gnoseology and philosophy of science. Refer to the means of scientific knowledge language of science, Special scientific equipment (appliances) and methodsThrough which science reveals and studies its objects.
For the purposes of science, to describe the objects studied by it, the natural language turns out insufficient. As is known, a messenger language, possessing such advantages as universality, expressiveness, high combinatoriality, etc., is not free at the same time from a number of features that impede the canonical use. These include multivarility of words and expressions, bulky and the ability of some revolutions, the fuzziness of the syntactic and semantic rules, the diversity and uncertainty of pragmatics. The language of science is also built with such a calculation to overcome or minimize some of the above features of the natural language.
Science language can be divided into specialized languages \u200b\u200band special formalized languages. Specialized languages Sciences achieve accuracy (i.e. unambiguities and quantitative definiteness) with the help of scientific definitions and applying mathematics. Thus, the dictionary of any science (specialized language), which includes its main terms, can be divided into two unequal parts. The first is a small number of so-called basic "words", with which all other, derivatives are determined. The latter are almost completely unequivocal. For example, in the dictionary of classical kinematics as the initial uncertain terms, the "path", denoted by the symbol S, and "Time" - T. They are enough to build other terms ("speed", "acceleration", etc.). At the same time, in connection with the requirement of compactness, the convenientness and grace of the science language, the newly introduced derivative terms are always, when possible, are not determined by the initial, but through the nearest derivatives of terms (for example, "acceleration" is determined through the "speed", and not through the "path " and time"). The terms "equals" "fold", "divide", etc., which are widely used in kinematics, physics in general and other sciences, are defined in the mathematics dictionary and perform a service role in the definitions and statements of special sciences.
Language of mathematics It differs from natural the fact that the transition from some expressions to another is performed according to some predetermined and strictly defined rules. Moreover, mathematics (especially its variables) allows you to be distracted (abstract) from the substantive content of its language expressions and focus on operations, links and terms of expressions used in mathematics. Mathematics has formal rules for the transformation of some mathematical expressions to others, but the relationships and the relationship of mathematical expressions ultimately reflect the relationships and relationships of objects and phenomena of objective reality. In the language plan, the transformation of mathematical expressions is based on a general-voice phenomenon - synonymy, and in transitivity (transitional) of mathematical expressions, the continuity of thinking and the continuity of the meaning (meaning) is manifested.
In its abstractness and formalities of rules for building and transforming expressions formalized languages Go further mathematics. These specially created artificial languages \u200b\u200bdiffer from the natural not only as a particular nature of their signs, but also a completely special syntax. When constructing a formalized language, its dictionary is exactly established, or an alphabet containing signs of a certain species. Then the rules for constructing from the signs of the alphabet of proposals considered in this language meaningful or correct are indicated. And finally, the conversion rules are formulated and listed, allowing other proposals from some correct proposals. In such a fully formalized language there is no place for language intuition, there is no obscure, implied rules.
The advantage of formal iconic systems is the possibility of implementing the study of the learned objects a purely formal way (by operating signs) without direct access to real objects. However, it should be borne in mind that formalized iconic systems represent (represent) certain provisions of the theory. Consequently, ultimately, such systems (formalism) are not fully connected with reality, with empiricals. Formalism should have an empirical interpretation, while not necessarily the only one. The latter circumstance testifies to the heuristic possibilities of formalized systems. And the construction and use of such systems in knowledge is called formalization method. It is using the formalization method, with the help of Maxwell's mathematical equations, such a kind of matter was theoretically open, as the field (we have already mentioned).
Modern science, especially natural science, is unthinkable without such material means of knowledge, as instrumentsWith the help of which decisive facts are mined and the truth of scientific theories is proved. The devices enhance the cognitive power of the senses, allow a person to go far beyond its natural capabilities. Using devices, a person began to penetrate into such areas of the world that are unavailable without them. This is primarily micro and megair. So, with the help of automatic interplanetary stations "Mars", Mariner and Phoenix, scientists have learned more about Mars over the past few decades than in the entire previous history of civilization.
With the complication of the cognitive process, scientific devices are complicated. This is natural and natural. However, it is important that in connection with this, the role of the device in knowledge is significantly changed, and this in turn creates certain gnoseological Difficulties. Previously, the devices did not have a significant effect on the subject or the object. They were to a certain external to the informational process. This can be depicted with this scheme (Fig. 6), where
S - Subject, O - Object, P - Device:
Currently, devices have become authentic intermediaries between the subject and the object. They are included in the structure of the cognitive process, having an impact on the subject and object of knowledge. Accordingly, the scheme (Fig. 7) will look like this:
Due to the essential role of the device in knowledge there is a problem objectivity of knowledgeobtained using the device. In cases where the effect of the device is impossible to neglect, develop the theory of interaction of the device and an object. And calculating the appropriate amendments, mentally restore the object as it was before the instrument is turned on. Unfortunately, it is currently feasible only in relation to macroscopic objects. For microscopic objects (elementary particles, individual atoms, etc.) due to the statistical nature of the relationship between the theory and data of experience, the individual effects of the instrument on the object is not yet possible. Absoluting the specified difficulty, some natural resources (including those known as V. Heisenberg and N. Bor) began to be inclined to interpret the role of the device in knowledge to a special kind of "physical" idealism: to "selective" (in the terminology of Eddington), or " instrument "idealism. Some opponents of materialism even declared the "fundamental non-controlness" effects of the device on microjects and that nature (external world) is fabricated using the device. In other words, the microworld is created by the will of the observer or as a collection of particles, or as a variety of waves. Overcome this form idealism and get the right philosophical solution to the problem of the ratio of the device and the object can only be relying firstly, on the recognition of the objectivity and inexhaustibility of the object of the study, and secondly, deep and comprehensive accounting of the function of the device in the experiment.
The devices can really create a medium to generate object properties that are manifested only when it interacts with the device. These are the so-called properties of a disposition character. Academician V.A. Fock notes that the electron contains the properties of being a particle or wave not in reality (relevant), but only in the possibility. Depending on which type of device is selected for observation, either one or another possibility is implemented. But these features are objective. They are determined nature., structural organization of the object. There is no nature, strictly speaking, sour, sweet, etc., but there are substances with a certain structural organization, which, when interacting with certain human senses, generate these properties. It is also no doubt that, as our ideas about microjects and expansion of technical capabilities will be built more "sensitive" devices that can fix the possible properties of objects. And will definitely be created deeper and comprehensive theories that take into account specific acts of interaction between the device and the object.
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Samsonov, V.F.
With 17 philosophy: studies. Handbook for universities / V.F. Samsonov. - Chelyabinsk: Chelyab Publishing House. State Ped. University, 2010. - 498 p. ISBN 978-5-85716-821-9 In the manual set forth in
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Information for reflection
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The value of ontological issues in philosophy
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Understanding being in dialectical and materialistic philosophy
For Marxist-Leninist philosophy, it is characterized by the removal of traditional ontology as a separate part of philosophy due to the extreme abstractness of the very concept of being. But she does not negotiate
The problem of existence in a logical linguistic aspect
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Information for reflection
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Methodological role of materialistic dialectics
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Metaphysics as an alternative to dialectics
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Information for reflection
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The problem of consciousness in the history of philosophy
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Material basis and the ideal nature of consciousness
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Consciousness as a form of reflection. Social essence of consciousness
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Information for reflection
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Definition of thinking and language
The problem of the relationship of language and thinking belongs to the number of ancient and "eternal" problems. This is a classic problem. And now the disputes around her (see, eg: thinking - without language? .. //
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Practice as a criterion of truth
In dialectic and materialistic gnoseology, social and historical practice acts as criterion of truth because it is like material activities of people have
Does the category of truth need modern thinking?
Despite the fundamentality of the correspondent concept of truth compared to other theories, it still faces serious difficulties. Firstly,
Opinion, faith, misleading like gnoseological phenomena
The phenomena title is directly related to the process of knowledge and comprehension of truth. Terms "Opinion" and "Vera" are meaningful. Opinion in a broad sense representing
Information for reflection
1. Russian writer and philosopher A.I. Herzen rightly noticed: "Truth does not always have to be the whole and for the safe." Explain what the property of the truth indicates this note
The role of the method in scientific knowledge
By itself, language and instruments as material means of knowledge are insufficient for knowledge. And in some areas of knowledge, these funds play a non-essential role. Explain scientific facts and
Methodological role of dialectical and materialistic philosophy in scientific knowledge
The methodological function of philosophy is manifested in the fact that it formulates the most general laws, principles, categories in which the experience of human interaction is concentrated.
Basic forms of scientific knowledge
Effective use of the entire totality of scientific methods gives new knowledge. But this knowledge does not occur immediately in the finished and completed form. Knowledge is the process during which the obrises
Information for reflection
1. "No matter how perfect the theory, it is only approaching the truth" (A. Butlers). Prove the truth of this judgment. 2. Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky noted: "Scientific hypothes
Subject of social philosophy and specificity of knowledge of society
The central category of social philosophy is the concept of "society". The word "society" and the word "social" associated with him, as well as correlated terms with them inener
Major interpretation of the nature of society in the history of philosophy
Philosophical views on the nature and essence of society developed and improved together with the real history of humanity. So, already philosophers of antiquity tried to comprehend and re
About the specifics of social laws
The question of social determinism is the question of how far the functioning and development of society is predetermined by objective factors and to what extent they are
Information for reflection
1. "Society is nothing but a result of a mechanical equilibrium of coarse forces" (I. TEN). Does this judge reflect the essence of public relations? Answer argue. 2. Al.
The concept of nature and the relevance of its analysis
The interaction of nature and society is one of the actual problems of social philosophy and all humanitarian knowledge. It covers the most different areas of social real
The main historical forms of the relationship of society to nature
With antiquity and to this day, people did not cease to reflect on nature and improve their ability to influence the environment. And, of course, each of the stages public Development
Geographic environment and development of society
The concept of "geographical environment" is closely due to the terms "Nature", "Natural Wednesday", "Environment", but in their content it is not reduced. It is
Ecology and education
The biosocial nature of a person and his relationship with nature give rise to a specific form of consciousness - ecological consciousness. The latter is a reflection of the interaction of two relatives.
Information for reflection
1. According to the French philosopher Blaze Pascal, nature - "This is an infinite sphere, which has no center everywhere, and there is no circumference anywhere." What did the author mean by that? 2. "Nature lighter
Society material and industrial
The prerequisites of society and its history are people, their activities and material conditions of their lives. These are the main components of the elements of society and its structure. With dialectic-mate
Social sphere of public life
In the diverse life of society, a specific area is distinguished, which is called the social sphere. It covers that area of \u200b\u200bsocial reality, which is associated with the structur
Political life of society
The political sphere of public life appeared naturally as a result of the complication of this life, the emergence of social differentiation and social inequality in it. IN
Spiritual sphere of public life
As is known, the human activity is conscious, and, as they say, "a person is not alive with bread." Society cannot exist and develop without spiritual sphere.
Information for reflection
1. "The economy is the physiology of the state" (V. Krotov). How do you understand this expression? Give it a rational philosophical interpretation. 2. Jean-Jacques Rousseau noted: "If it were not
Specificity of philosophical culture understanding
The relevance of a concrete-scientific and philosophical analysis of the problems of culture is determined by the progress of social development itself, especially in our country at the present time. After all, many pr.
The main historical models of culture and modern approaches to its analysis
In the history of philosophical understanding of culture, some basic models (concepts) of culture can be distinguished. So, the "naturalistic" model reduced culture to objective and real
The structure of culture. Typology of cultures
Three main and most common aspects of culture can be stated: (1) Culture is a value attitude towards objective reality; (2) Culture is artificial, created
Unity, diversity and contradiction of culture
The culture of all mankind is diverse, sandt and inexhaustible in their specific manifestations. However, the diverse forms of culture coincide in their essence as methods e
Functions of culture
The main (general) culture function is humanistic. This is a system-forming function. Culture as a whole acts as a human-forming phenomenon. She is humanistic and positive.
Information for reflection
1. "Culture is approximately all that we do and what monkeys do not make" (L. Raglan). Is this a judgment in principle true? 2. "Talents - no nobility to transmit
The concept of value and the relevance of axiological issues
Value is a significance (real or possible role, function) of natural or cultural objects (physical or spiritual) for people's lives. Values \u200b\u200bhave pain
Development of axiological issues in the history of philosophy
Although the axiology as a special area of \u200b\u200bphilosophical knowledge has developed in the middle of the XIX century, and the term "axiology" was first applied by the French philosopher P. Lapi in 1902 (then
Modern approach to the problem of values
Soviet philosophy for a long time ignored the value issues and after Marxist philosophy did not recognize the axiology of the status of a special philosophical discipline. Revival of interest
Typology and hierarchy of values. Value systems
Values \u200b\u200bare diverse. Their classification can be represented as follows. The content is distinguished by the values \u200b\u200bcorresponding to the subsistence
Information for reflection
1. The Indian thinker Mohandas Gandhi noted: "The value of the ideal is that it is removed as we approach it." What is the real (practical) significance (useful
Problems of the philosophy of history and their relevance
Civilization has developed three main forms of theoretical attitude to history - the theology of history, the philosophy of history and scientific historiography. The object of these forms of historical
Philosophy of history in the history of philosophy
Essentially, the philosophy of history begins in the antiquity of the works of Herodota Fukidid. They tried to figure out the driving forces of the historical process, torture
On non-traditional approaches to the problems of the philosophy of history
In the second half of the 20th century, we face an irrationalistic approach to society and its history in the person of the so-called postmodernism. This direction is philosopher
Information for reflection
1. German philosopher Wilhelm Humboldt wrote: "To get closer to the historical truth, you need to go at the same time with two roads - thoroughly, impartially, critically study the events and, binding
Social progress and its criteria
The question of social progress is the question of the nature of social change, the issue of the direction of changes and development of society. In modern era, the question of essence
Global problems of modernity
The controversial nature of social progress was especially bright in the 20th century during the scientific and technical revolution. In the 70-80s, scientists and philosophers, public figures and
Social forecasting and scientific forecast
One of the important functions of philosophy as a scientific worldview is a heuristic function regarding the forecasting of the development of reality. And forecasting theory I
Information for reflection
1. "Modern civilization: exchange of values \u200b\u200bfor convenience" (E. LET). Argument the truth of this judgment. 2. Russian poet S.I. Kirsanov wrote: When you understand you
The essence and importance of anthropological issues in modern philosophy
Man as a generic creature is a representative of the highest level of living organisms on Earth, a subject of social and historical activities and culture. Section of philosophy that is engaged in a problem
Image of a person in the history of philosophical thought
In various historical periods and in various concepts of philosophers, various images of a person were painted. But if we generalize the mosaic of paintings of a person in accordance with the dominant anthropologiche
Main methodological principles and categories of modern philosophical and anthropological understanding of man
As already noted, a particular understanding of a person is largely determined by the methodological position of the scientist and philosopher. Man as the most complex phenomenon on Earth requires and appropriate, adequate
Information for reflection
1. "A person is not able to comprehend himself: he will always remain a clamp, secretly for himself" (P. Buast). Express your opinion on this. 2. "It is impossible to man yes
Dialectics of human integrity
For an adequate understanding of a person, it is important to find out the ratio of biological and social in it. The biological in man belongs to him
Major Aspects of Genesis
The method of human existence is activities, and the main activities, in our opinion, are labor, game and creativity. In the main aspect
Information for reflection
1. The philosopher Erich Fromm noticed: "Character is the deputy missing instincts." Give the philosophical interpretation of this statement. 2. Determine the philosophical cat
Relevance of the problem of the meaning of life
The meaning of life in the most common plan can be characterized as a value (assignment) of life and a certain way of its implementation (implementation). In essence, this concept involves a certain answer.
Basic concepts of life sense
In connection with the difference in worldview positions, various concepts of life arise and arise. The meaning of life can be interpreted by both rationalistic and irrationalist
Strategy of Life and Modern Humanism
The general line of realization of a certain meaning of life is a vital strategy. In the most general form, the life strategy is manifested in the ability to connect their individual
Information for reflection
1. "The meaning of being is the person" (V. Makushevich). How do you understand this expression? 2. "The meaning of life is experiencing to the end sometimes individually, but only understood by generations in geo
Antique philosophy
The subject of history is philosophyte the emergence and development of philosophical thought delesship from ancient times to modern times. This is the history of confrontation with
Medieval philosophy
Medieval philosophy refers mainly to the era of feudalism (V-XV centuries. N. E.). This is the time of the domination of religion and church, in particular the domination of Christianity in Europe. Respectively
Philosophy of the Renaissance
The Middle Ages are replaced by the Renaissance (XV-XVI centuries). This is the time of the beginning of the formation of a bourgeois society and the development of industry, the time of great geographical discoveries (Colum
Russian philosophy
Russian philosophy is one of the important and original components of domestic and world culture. It was embodied in the hopes and search for the Russian people, peculiar features of the National
Information for reflection
1. Why "in philosophy live, not fading, and Plato, and Aristotle, and Descartes, and Spinosa, and Hegel, etc." (M. Rubinstein)? 2. Plato and Aristotle believed that the beginning of philosophizing in UD
The general nature of modern Western philosophy
Modern Western philosophy formally refers to the post-classical stage of its development (the second half of the XIX-XX century). To understand its features, it is necessary to compare this philosophy with
Positivist tradition: nestosistribution and analytical philosophy
Positivism as a philosophical direction originates in the 1930s of the XIX century. The focus of positivists has always been the issue of the relationship of philosophy and n
Anthropol-Humanistic Trend: Existentialism
Existentialism, or the philosophy of existence (from Latin Existentia - existence), arose in the mid-20s of the twentieth century. Especially great distribution he received
Philosophical and theological tradition: neo-billism
Nertovism is a modern religious philosophy, the official philosophy of the Vatican. The theoretical foundation of neo-dials is the modernized philosophy of medieval philosophers
Information for reflection
1. "Philosophy is a struggle against the occlusion of our mind with the means of our language." Representative of what direction of Western philosophy owns this statement? 2. Nazitsit
Personal Dictionary
ABELARPIER (1079-1142) - French philosopher, theologian and poet, creator of conceptualism. Abramian Lev Arutyunovich (r. 1928) - Arm. philosopher, special. in the field of semi
In any philosophical system, definitely reflects the mood of the soul of its creator. " Who is the author of this judgment?
a) V. Vernadsky; b) Ch. Darwin; c) I. Mechnikov; d) D. Mendeleev; e) A. Chizhevsky. 10. The desired object is American psychologist and philosopher B.F. Skinner, joking, but not without base
What method of thinking is the foreign ones in this list of terms?
a) dogmatism; b) dialectic; c) relativism; d) sophistic; e) eclecticism. 3. Category expressing an internal source of development: a) harmony; b) denial;
What is the common theory of iconic systems?
a) Azbuka Morse; b) semantics; c) semiotics; d) synergetics; e) syntaxi. 2. In the 20th century, only one case of the revival of the dead tongue as a conversational is known. Determine
What does the expression "confidence without evidence" (A. Amiel)?
a) axiom; b) faith; c) courage; d) intuition; e) self-confidence. 4. Position, believing that sensual reflection is the only basis for reliable knowledge:
What the term "extra" in this list (i.e. does not comply with the basis of other terms)?
a) analogy; b) deduction; c) measurement; d) induction; e) modeling. 2. The general scientific theory of self-organization of systems is: a) automation; b) semiotics; in
Ethics is limitless responsibility for everything that lives. " Who is the author of these lines?
a) A. Schweizer; b) M. Sherle; c) L. Shestov; d) M. Shlik; e) A. Shopenhauer. Topic 11. Society as a structural and functional system 1. Public life spheres in
Which of the philosophers believed that the goals and norms of behavior of people determine values?
a) N. Berdyaev; b) M. Weber; c) U. Rosto; d) A. Toynby; e) O. Spengler. Theme 14. Philosophy of history 1. Religious interpretation of the historical process as
Who of these philosophers argued that hermeneutics is a method of historical interpretation?
a) L. Wittgenstein; b) V. Diety; c) J. Dewey; d) E. Zhilson; e) E. Makh. 5. Roman historian who is attributed to the authorship of the winged words concerning the study of history: "B
What, according to the English writer Joseph Addison, "the most significant elevates one person over the other"?
a) wealth; b) arrogance; c) knowledge; d) beauty; e) physical abilities. 5. Maxim Gorky rightly believed: "You need to love what you do, and then work is even with
If you suddenly found the meaning of life, time is the time to visit the psychiatrist. " Who is the author of these words?
a) A. Ayer; b) A. Adler; c) P. Bale; d) Frege; e) Z. Freud. 5. The highest goal of man's aspirations: a) wealth; b) education; c) ideal; d) S.
Everything is valid reasonably, everything is reasonable indeed. " Who is the author of these words?
a) G. Hegel; b) P. Golbach; c) I. Fichte; d) F. Nietzsche; e) A. Schweitzer. 5. One of the philosophers wrote: "All my philosophy can be formulated in one expression: the world is with
Which Russian philosophers first began to talk about the "soul of Russia"?
a) N. Berdyaev; b) A. Losev; c) N. Fedorov; d) P. Florensky; e) P. Chayadaev. 10. Russian philosopher, whose ideas actively influenced the formation of the worldview of Alexander Blok, and
