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Analytical method in psychology. The main methods of psychology. How to observe

3. Introduction

a. Introduction

b. The emergence of psychodiagnostics, as the sciences and the main stages of its development

4. Methods of research in psychology

a. Maintenance

b. Auxiliary

6. List of references

SUMMARY

Psychodiagnostics establishes a psychodiagnity diagnosis - a description of the state of objects, which can perform a separate personality, group or organization.

The history of modern psychodiagnostics begins with the first quarter of the hih century. At this time, such methods of psychodiagnostics appear as observation, survey, document analysis.

The main methods of scientific research in psychology are observation and experiment, and auxiliary - communication and analysis of the results of activities.

Experiment - One of the main, on a number of observation, methods of scientific knowledge in general and psychological research in particular. It differs from the observation primarily by the fact that it implies a special organization of the study situation, active interference in the situation of a researcher, a systematic manipulating one or more variable factors and registering the appropriate changes in the behavior of the test operator. The dignity of the experiment lies in the fact that it is possible to specifically cause some mental process, trace the dependence of the psychological phenomenon from the changeable external conditions. However, despite these shortcomings and restrictions, the experiment occupies one of the most important places in the practice of engineering and psychological research.

Conversation method, questionnaire. Certain importance and methods of psychological research related to the collection and analysis of verbal testimony (statements) of the subjects are: a conversation method and a questionnaire method. With their correct conduct, they allow to identify individual-psychological features of the personality: inclinations, interests, tastes, attitudes towards life facts and phenomena, other people, to themselves.

Questioning is a list of questions that are given to those studied to persons for a written response. The advantage of this method is that it allows you to relate to easily and quickly get a massive material. The lack of this method in comparison with the conversation is the lack of personal contact with the subject, which does not allow to vary the nature of the questions depending on the answers. Questions should be clear, clear, understandable, should not inspire one or another answer.

The material conversations and questionnaires is value when it is supported and controlled by other methods, in particular supervision.

Tests. A test is a special kind of experimental study, which is a special task or task system. The subject performs the task, the execution time of which is usually taken into account. Tests are used in the study of abilities, the level of mental development, skills, the level of learning, as well as in the study of the individual characteristics of mental processes.

Interview - The method of psychological research, which consists in freedom of information obtained in the form of answers to the questions. The survey is usually preceded by the preface that creates the atmosphere of trust and understanding the unity of the objectives of the researcher and the respondent. The ability to not specify your surname on a questionnaire in some cases allows you to get more complete information.

So, psychology use a number of methods. Which one is rational to apply, solve in each individual case depending on the tasks and object object. At the same time, not one method is usually used, and a number of methods, mutually complementary and controlling each other.
Introduction

Introduction

Psychodiagnostics is not only a direction in psychology, but also theoretical discipline. Psychodiagnosis in a practical sense can be determined as the establishment of a psychodiagnostic diagnosis - a description of the state of objects, which can be a separate personality, a group or organization.

With the help of psychodiagnostic methods, an analysis of the activity of the operator (or its individual parties) in real or laboratory conditions is carried out, an assessment of the influence of various factors on the activity of the operator and its results.

Every science is based on facts. It collects facts, compares them and draws conclusions - establishes the laws of the area of \u200b\u200bactivity that is studied. Methods for obtaining these facts are called scientific research methods. The main methods of scientific research in psychology are observation and experiment, and auxiliary - communication and analysis of the results of activities.

The emergence of psychodiagnostics, as the sciences and the main stages of its development

The history of modern psychodiagnostics begins with the first quarter of the nineteenth century, i.e. Since the beginning of the clinical period in the development of psychodiagnostic knowledge. Doctors - psychiatrists began to lead in clinics systematic observations of patients, recording and analyzing the results of their observations.

At this time, such methods of psychodiagnostics appear as observation, survey, document analysis. But these methods were qualitative, therefore, according to the same data, different doctors often had different conclusions.

Only in the second half of the nineteenth century, when the German psychologist WUNDT created the first psychodiagnostic laboratory in the world, where technical devices and instruments began to use technical devices and instruments, psychodiagnostic methods have become quantitative.

Then the main (basal) psychophysical law of Weber was opened.

Conducting experiments on the distinction of weights, the length of the lines and the height of acoustic tone, Weber found that the ratio of the hardly noticeable change in the irritant Di to its initial value I is the value constant, i.e. di / i \u003d constanta.

According to Weber's law, the differential threshold of sensitivity - there is a certain constant part of the initial stimulus of which it should be increased or reduced to get a hardly noticeable transformation of the sensation.

The opening of the Weber law gave the possibility of measuring psychodiagnostic phenomena. In accordance with this law, the main object of measurement of the human sensation was, and for a long time, practical psychodiagnosis was limited to measuring sensations.

Modern methods of psychodiagnostics relating to the main psychodiagnostic processes, properties and states of a person began to appear at the end of the XIX - early twentieth century. At this time, probability theory and mathematical statistics are actively developing, for which they later began to rely scientific methods Quantitative psychodiagnostics.

In 1884, the English psychologist Galton founded an anthropometric laboratory, one of its goals was to obtain statistical data on human abilities. About 10,000 people passed through this experiment. In 1877, he proposed to use the correlation method in psychodiagnosis.

The contemporary of Galton Fisher invented the dispersion analysis, and the other Englishman spirmen is a factor analysis.

The first statistically substantiated Bina test appeared in 1905-1907.

New psychodiagnostic, including intellectual and personal tests, which allow psychodiagnostics of various processes and the properties of a person.

By the 50-60s, twentieth century. There is a major number of different psychodiagnostic techniques.

Modern psychodiagnostics stand out in a separate area of \u200b\u200bscientific and practical psychodiagnostic knowledge. Modern methods of mathematics and physics are becoming more and more widely used in psychodiagnosis, as well as electronic psychodiagnostics.

Research methods in psychology

Maintenance

Observation - The method of psychological research consisting in deliberate, systematic and targeted perception and fixation of the manifestations of behavior, obtaining judgments on the subjective mental phenomena of the observed. Observation has the following main applications: 1) analysis of behavior in systematic changes; This allows you to trace the character of the sequence of actions, ways to plan and control the activities, accuracy of playing instructions, the frequency of use of certain devices, etc.; 2) monitoring the work of one operator in various situations, which makes it possible to estimate the impact of various situations on the quality of activity; 3) monitoring the behavior of various operators in the same conditions; Such observation allows you to identify individual features of operators, give a comparative characteristic of the quality of activity. By the nature of the organization, observation may be random or systematic. Observation is usually complemented by a number of ways of objective registration of studied phenomena. These include, in particular, photographing or filmmaking of working poses and expressions of the operator's face, the testimony of the instruments and indicators observed to them and the directions of the gaze and working movements. Observation can be clarified by measurements. It can be measurements of the geometric size of the workplace, measurement of time and sequence of labor and recreation, measurement time of individual actions and movements. In the process of observation, measurements of human physiological indicators are widely carried out: the frequency of the pulse and breathing, blood pressure, the electrical activity of the heart, brain, muscles, etc. Of great importance in observation belongs to the analysis of erroneous actions of a person, which allows you to hide the reasons for their occurrence and outline their removal paths.

For mining in the science of the desired knowledge, various methods and techniques use. Initially, find out what is called methods and methods of research.

The method of scientific research is a generalized way of scientific knowledge of a particular group of phenomena.

The methods of scientific research can be attributed to theoretical and experienced study of the relevant phenomena, their knowledge on a logical or intuitive basis, a quantitative or qualitative analysis of the data obtained, the organization and conduct of experiments, etc. In turn, if you consider separately the method of empirical (experienced) study of psychological phenomena, it includes a lot of private methods, to which you can, for example, include observation, survey, document analysis, psychological tests and many others. It follows that methods can be general and private, and in general are a complex, interconnected system of scientific research methods that can be applied in different sciences to solve many tasks.

In contrast, the research methodology is a private reception or method of studying a particular phenomenon that has a limited scope of application and, as a rule, does not go beyond separate science or even a separate psychological phenomenon. The difference between methods and methods of scientific research is also as follows. Methods of research in most cases directly to obtain specific information about studied phenomena are not applied. This uses their private research techniques.

Strictly speaking, such a separation of methods and methods of research is very conditional,

there is mainly only in the field of general reasoning related to

todology of scientific knowledge. In some sciences, it is usually strictly observed. There, the concept of "method" and "technique" of research is often used as interchangeable. This is to a certain extent concern and psychology. Comparatively rarely in the scientific and educational psychological literature, where methods of knowledge of mental phenomena are considered, methods and methods of research are also submitted and discussed.

Following such a tradition, we will also not strictly distinguish between them in this textbook, using these two concepts, depending on the situation in different ways: in some cases, separately - as methods and research methods, in others - using the corresponding concepts as synonyms .

The phenomena studied in psychology are so complex and peculiar, so difficult for scientific research, which throughout the history of the existence of psychology as science representing sectors has been concerned about the search for methods that would allow to obtain objective, reliable and reliable knowledge about these phenomena. The successes of psychology at all times depended directly on the quality of the research methods used in it.

Psychologists tried to develop these methods and independently, and turned to other sciences for help, borrowed everything that could be useful in the study and knowledge of the phenomena of interest. Over time, many methods of research attracted from a wide variety of sciences turned out to be accumulated in psychology. These are methods of philosophy, history, sociology, mathematics, physics, physiology, medicine, biology and a number of others. In addition, psychologists have created a lot of their own, original research methods, including varieties of observation, used only in psychology, psychological tests, objective methods of studying mental phenomena and a special psychological experiment.

Methods of research with which modern science has, can be divided into groups using various bases. As such grounds, such as sciences, of which are borrowed by the relevant research methods, methods of training, organizing and conducting scientific research, procedures for collecting and processing empirical material are borrowed.

If we share the research methods in those sciences, where they first arose and from which were borrowed by psychologists, then the research methods used in psychology can be divided into the following main groups: philosophical, historical, medical, biological, physical, engineering, mathematical, etc.

The philosophical research methods include general, abstract (speculative) logical arguments, where common philosophical concepts and categories are used. To the same group of methods can be attributed to such that are a theoretical analysis of the problem based on philosophy, and not on specific scientific psychological concepts or data related to psychology. With the help of such methods, different points of view are compared at the level of common theories. Sometimes such research methods are called metapsychological, as they go beyond psychology and rise to the level of philosophical generalizations.

Historical methods are the methods of research, when using the history of the occurrence and development of any phenomenon, a hundred early, historically existing forms, the dependence of this phenomenon from certain historical facts, events, conditions are found.

Such methods are widely used, for example, in cultural historical psychology. L. S. Vygotsky, studying the process of formation in the person of higher mental functions, used the historical method of their analysis, i.e. related formation and development of higher mental functions with cultural and historical conditions of people's existence.

Medical research methods are methods borrowed from medicine, and used both in modern medicine and in psychology.

For example, in clinical psychology, a psychological diagnosis similar to a medical diagnosis is often raised, etymology (origin) of a mental disorder (as disease in medicine) is often raised. Psychotherapy is also used in medicine, and in practical psychology.

The biological methods of the study include an evolutionary method, with which one or another mental phenomenon is related to the general evolution of living forms.

For example, with the help of this method, the mental development of animals in different steps of the evolutionary ladder is studied. At one time, this method took advantage of, for example, A. N. Leontiev, presenting the process of the emergence and development of the psyche in animals. Another example of the application of biological research methods in psychology can serve as the Genetic method developed and first used in genetics, then transferred to differential psychology and further to psychogeneration.

As for the physical research methods, it is, firstly, physical instruments that register and evaluate the physiological processes with which mental phenomena are related (for example, human sensations), secondly, the methods of accurate changes in the relevant processes adopted in physics are related.

Such methods are widely used, for example, in psychophysics and in the process of studying human cognitive processes, such as vision and hearing.

Engineering methods of research are widely used in the fields of psychology in which scientists have to design and test devices and instruments intended for psychological research, develop and verify recommendations related to human interaction and technology.

For example, in engineering, cosmic psychology, labor psychology and security psychology. These include the test and assessment of certain engineering and psychological solutions, such as the design of instrument panels or technological control panels, taking into account the psychological capabilities of a person.

Mathematicals are called methods borrowed, respectively, from mathematics. These are, first of all, methods of mathematical analysis, theory of probabilities, mathematical statistics, linear algebra, higher geometry and a number of other sections of modern mathematics.

Of course, the bulk of the research methods used in modern psychology is the methods developed by the psychologists themselves. Examples of the actually psychological research methods are tests, various types of mental phenomena, meaningful analysis of texts, interpretation of dreams and many others.

From the point of view of organizing and conducting scientific research, methods can be divided into the following types: prepared, organizational, methods for collecting information, processing and interpretation of the data obtained.

Preparatorycalled research methods,used in the preparation of scientific research.

These include, for example, the choice and refinement of the study themes, acquaintance with the content of publications on the chosen topic in order to assess its degree of its development, determining solved and unresolved problems.

Organizationalcalled research methods,which provide direct organization and relevant research.

These include the refinement of the objectives and objectives of the study, formulating hypotheses, selection and testing techniques, which will be used in a study for testing proposed hypotheses, determining the sample of the subjects, on which research will be conducted, clarify the plan and program of the upcoming study. To the same group of methods can be attributed to those used in the study itself. This, for example, the choice of the form of the study (theoretical or empirical, descriptive or explanatory, experimental or not experimental), the establishment of a procedure for practical application of selected diagnostic tools, the choice of methods of fixing obtained during the study of data, application during the study of certain special, such as , technical means, etc.

Methods for collecting information are a variety of methods, with the help of which a scientist in the course of the research conducted by him collects the information you are interested in. These, in particular, can include all psychodiagnostic techniques used in psychology: observations, surveys, objective methods, psychological tests, experimental methods.

TO methods of processing received informationmethods of quantitative or qualitative analysis of the obtained data can be attributed.

An important point of the final part of the study can be determined by the method of presenting the data obtained (table, graphic, pattern, textual, etc.). In this regard, one can separately select the subgroup of the representation methods of the data obtained.

Interpretation methods- These are the ways to explain the obtained data from the point of view of goals, the objectives of the study tested in it hypotheses, in particular, to solve the question of how important the data obtained during the study are in common.

To the same group of methods, it is possible to include the selection of the logic of reasoning to confirm or refutate the hypotheses checked in the study, as well as the presentation of the results of these arguments in a generalized form in the conclusions. Finally, this group of methods can include the consideration of the data obtained from a point of view of one or another scientific theory.

According to the method of obtaining (and processing) empirical data, psychological research methods can be divided into the following groups.

1. Methods of observation.
2. Poll methods.
3. Objective or physiological methods.
4. Tests.
5. Experimental methods.
6. Mathematical methods.

Observation methods are based on the acquisition of human psychology or by direct observation of the mental phenomena themselves in which they are presented in human consciousness, or observing those signs in which the corresponding phenomena appear.

In the first case, the conclusions about mental phenomena are made on the basis of the analysis of how the mental phenomena studied directly act in the consciousness of the person's experienced. In the second case, the findings on human psychology are made on the basis of the analysis of external manifestations of human psychology, for example, its statements, actions, reactions and actions.

The group of observation methods includes introspection, self-observation, observation by side, free observation, standardized observation, open observation, hidden observation and observation included.

The introspection is a direct or direct observation of mental phenomena at the moment when they occur and are represented in human consciousness. Speech, for example, can go about the observation of a person behind the progress of his thoughts, for their feelings, images, experiences, etc. Immediately at the end of the introspection or in the process, its person describes the phenomena observed.

Those who at one time introduced into the scientific circulation of the introspection method and used it in scientific research, led to the rationale of this method the following arguments.

1. Through the introspection, it is possible to directly establish causal relationships between mental phenomena arising in human consciousness.
2. In the introspection, the studied phenomena are presented in the so-called "clean", not distorted form.
3. Special and long-term training The introspection method, as well as the requirements and restrictions imposed on its practical use, can make this method of scientific knowledge of mental phenomena.

Indeed, the practical use of the introspection method in experimental psychological studies of the end of the XIX - early XX centuries. accompanied, for example, the following requirements:

- introspection should be directed to the allocation of the simplest elements of consciousness, i.e. sensations and elementary experiences (feelings);
- Those who use this method should avoid in their verbal reports of terms describing the external objects in relation to the content of consciousness. You can talk only about sensations and experiences associated with these objects (caused by them).

The introspection as a method of directly studying mental phenomena for a long time was considered the only method with which it was possible to explore them. This method was proposed in the XVII century. R. Descarte, but received distribution and recognition only in the XVIII century, when psychology began to turn into an experienced science. In the second half of the XIX century. The introspection becomes the main method of the study in experimental psychology and remains the only method of cognition of mental phenomena until the beginning of the 20th century.

Comparative consideration of the history of different sciences, with which psychology supported close connections, suggests that the initial method of introspection was borrowed by psychologists from physics and physiology of the senses, where it was used to study the perception by a man of light, sounds and other sensory incentives. In psychology, this method first became actively used in the Leipzig Laboratory V. Wundt, and from the very beginning with the strictest observance of the basic rules for its use under experimental purposes.

Throughout the history of psychology, the introspection method has repeatedly criticized both by the philosophers involved in the problem of finding and justifying the methods of cognition of mental phenomena and from psychologists, for example, behaviorists who believed that this method is not scientific. Philosopher O. Cont, for example, argued that with the help of introspection it is impossible to obtain true scientific knowledge about the psyche, because the real introspection in the form in which it was used in practice is not at all - by the method of direct and direct knowledge of mental phenomena and Moreover, in principle, it is impossible. O. Cont, for example, wrote and said that an attempt to turn an introspection into a psychological knowledge method is "an attempt to see yourself" or "a person's attempt to look out the window to look from the outside, as he himself passes down the street."

Man, according to contact, or really something worries in this momentOr watching what is happening in it. In the first case, actually no one to observe, since the subject of observation is absorbed by its experience; In the second case, there is nothing to observe, since the subject configured to observe, at this time anything else, except for his mood, is not worried.

The introspection, in terms of the touch, is impossible because it is difficult to imagine the split person into two parts: the subject of knowledge and the object of observation. Consciousness of man, using the term "notch of consciousness" introduced later by an American psychologist W. Jams, is a single and continuous current process. The assumption of the possibility of introspection in the above sen understanding means recognizing the existence of at least two different "streams of consciousness", i.e. Again, its actual split.

Psychological scientists who noted the difficulties of conducting and unreliable introspection, put forward the following considerations against it. FirstlyThe observation of the content of your own consciousness is not so much introspection as retrospection, not so much the immediate perception of what is happening at the moment in consciousness, how much is the restoration in the memory of the previously perceived.

Secondly, in the introspection, the observation object is assumed to be stable, independent of the observation process. Observing this or that phenomenon of consciousness, we thus change the very condition of consciousness, and therefore it is not eliminated that with the help of introspection we make imaginary discovery, i.e. "Open" for myself what they themselves did shortly before that they contributed to the content of their consciousness as a result of focusing on it.

Thirdly, the introspection is practically impossible to be used where the subject of psychological study becomes the unconscious, emotions or personality of man. The unconscious, in principle, inaccessible introspection by definition. Emotions with direct observation of them, especially if we are talking about affects, quickly disappear quickly, change or turns not to what they were at first (before the introspection).

Another good objection extended against the introspection was as follows. If you recognize the introspection by the only source of reliable knowledge about the human psyche, then the fact of the very fact of the existence of such industries of scientific psychology, as children's psychology or psychology of animals, where the use of the introspection method is limited or is impossible at all. If it is strictly followed by the introspection methodology, then, using it, the psychologist will be able to conduct experiments only on themselves, and the psyche of other people will be almost inaccessible to it.

It does not have a convincing justification and the assumption from which introspection comes - that the psyche of all people is the same, and therefore, observing what happens in the consciousness of one person, the scientist can make confident conclusions about the processes occurring in the minds of other people. This assumption seems to be doubtful even when it comes to studying with the help of introspection of cognitive processes of people. Different people perceive the world in different ways, pay attention to different, think differently and understand what is happening in different ways, and each of them only transfers in words individually. Even more individuality (and subjectivism) is found in an introspective study of the individual. It is well known that, first of all, the majority of the person's personal properties in his sensations and experiences are not presented; Secondly, almost all people perceive and evaluate themselves as personalities, not as they are in fact, how they are perceived and evaluated.

Nevertheless, despite the reasoned and convincing criticism of the introspection, modern scientists recognize that where the verbal description of the direct experiences of a person can serve as an additional source of knowledge about his psyche, the use of introspection is possible and appropriate, for example, in the field of psychology of consciousness, sensations and perception , but together with other, objective methods of research. In this regard, modern cognitive psychology partially restored the method of introspection, recognizing, however, the limited possibilities for its use in the field of studying the processes related to memory, imagination and human thinking.

Self-surveillance is, in contrast to introspection, observing a person for himself from the outside, as if by the parties, i.e. Observation of your states, actions, statements and actions. Such an observation will not give direct knowledge about the psyche of a person, but provides material for self-analysis conducted with the aim of self-knowledge of human psychology. For example, noticing one or another reaction to the actions or statements of another person, a person can make a certain conclusion about his mental state at the moment of time or about its attitude to the interlocutor.

Observation from the side is observation of external signs In the behavior of another person, those in which they can manifest themselves or with which the psychic phenomena characteristic of it are regularly connected. This, for example, observing the active actions of a person or for its physical (physiological) reactions to external influences. This species Observations can be carried out with a naked eye or using special devices that register appropriate actions or reactions, such as audio or video technical recording tools.

Opencall it observationin which a person knows that he is currently observed at the moment. Hidden - this observation, in which the observed does not know about what is observed.

The possibilities of conducting hidden surveillance in psychology are limited both by existing laws guarding the secrets of the personal life of people and the Code of Ethics of a Professional Psychologist. For an adult man without his personal consent, in most cases, with the exception of the psychologist's professional ethics, the Code of Ethics specified or norms, it is impossible to conduct hidden observation, especially in cases where the results of observation can be used to harm human. Deciding on such an observation, a psychologist in all cases is obliged to be guided by at least the universal declaration of the man, adopted in many countries of the world and approved in our country.

Freecall observationin which issues related to observation are solved during the observation itself. This includes the following questions: What to observe how to observe how to fix the results of observation, how to interpret them (explain, to make conclusions based on them).

Standardizedcall it observationin which all these questions are in advance known, standard answers, and observation is carried out but a pre-thought out plan or program.

Includedcall it observationin which the observer himself participates in the process, which he leads to observation. For example, a psychologist, together with children, can take part in any game, and at the same time lead to monitor the behavior of children in the game, making conclusions about their psychological features.

Survey methodsthey call such research methods in which the information necessary for the conclusions about the human psychology is obtained based on the study of their responses to certain issues. In turn, the survey methods are divided into oral and written, open and closed, free and standardized.

With an oral survey, questions are asked directly to the very subject, and the answers to them are in oral form. With a written survey, formulated questions are used or writing, or written answers to them, or even taken together.

Free and standardized surveys are similar to free and standardized observation, with the only difference that, with such a survey, free or standardized is, respectively, the procedure for organizing and conducting a survey.

During the survey, special questionnaires often use. The basis of the psychological questionnaire is a targeted selected set of issues or judgments, which should answer or somehow respond to the subject. The issues contained in the psychological questionnaire can be asked to be tested both orally and in writing, but most often they are offered in writing (in the form of a form with questions). The psychological questionnaire is a relatively simple and convenient method of psychological research, used both in scientific and practical psychology. His advantages are simplicity to use, the speed of receiving answers from the subject and the comparative ease of their processing. However, this research method has significant disadvantages, for example, the fact that the answers of the subjects for the questions specified are not always possible can be trusted. This is due not only to the fact that many people do not quite sincerely respond to the questions asked them, but also that far from all their psychological properties a person realizes, wants or can correctly appreciate.

Physiological is called such methods to study mental phenomena, which suggest the use of various physiological reactions of the body to obtain information on the mental phenomena associated with them. When using physiological research methods, special physical instruments are often used and special physical devices that allow you to register and process data on the relevant physiological processes and the body's reactions. These, for example, include devices that record and machining the electrical activity of the brain, muscle system, activity of cardiovascular and respiratory systems, skin-galvanic and a number of other physiological reactions.

At first, when this kind of methods began to apply in psychology, they were called the objective methods of studying mental phenomena and were contrasted with the so-called subjective methods to which, for example, were observed and survey. However, it should be borne in mind that the term "objective" can mean "true", "reliable", "correct", and the word "subjective" can be interpreted as "visible", "incorrect" or "erroneous".

Such an understanding of the objective and subjective, when comparing between psychological and physiological research methods, the study is not entirely correct. All scientifically based, proven on validity and reliability methods of psychological research, even if they are based on observations or surveys (are subjective in the sense of the word that the estimates of studied phenomena will give a person with their use), allow you to obtain quite reliable information about the mental phenomena. At the same time, many objective physiological research methods are often inferior to subjective psychological methods in terms of obtaining reliable and reliable information about studied phenomena with their help. When using physiological research methods, it is assumed that the corresponding responses of the body are uniquely related to the studied mental phenomena that their analysis allows you to make unambiguous and reliable conclusions about studied phenomena. This is not so. For example, by registering the electrical activity of the brain or the skin-galvanic reaction, we can not always definitely say with what particular psychological phenomenon (or phenomena) are actually connected.

One of the widely used physiological methods of studying mental phenomena is called method of implanted electrodes. It is a method, electrodes are introduced into those or another structures of the animal brain, and the activity of the brain is used for indirect conclusions about mental processes occurring in it. For example, with the help of this method, the electrical activity of individual neurons can be recorded and the electrical potential is recorded with the help of the appropriate microelectrode. When using the method of implanted electrodes, microelectrodes are applied close to the individual electrodes of a brain structure, and through a special amplifier of electrical potentials on the appropriate device with other means of recording displays the activity of this neuron.

Another physiological research method is based on the record of the electric activity of the brain, on obtaining and analyzing the overall picture of a hundred electrical activity, called the electroencephalogram. The electroencephalogram is the record of the electrical activity of the brain as a whole or its individual, sufficient large blocks.

In the electroencephalogram visually (visually), the following main rhythmic oscillations of the electrical activity of the brain are distinguished: 1) alpha rhythm (it consists of a fairly right form with a frequency of oscillations from 8 to 13 Hz and with an amplitude of 50-100 μV). This rhythm is usually observed in a state of rest, meditation, with calm, monotonous activities. With the inclusion of human attention to anything, the deynchronization of alpha rhythm, and it is replaced with low-amplitude, high-frequency activity (activation, awakening response). Alpha Rhythm is most pronounced in the occipital fields of the cerebral cortex, and the blind from the birth of people it is missing; 2) beta-rhythm. These are oscillations with a frequency of 14-30 Hz and with an amplitude of 5-30 μV. This rhythm is most pronounced in the frontal areas of the cerebral cortex; 3) gamma rhythm. It is oscillations in the frequency range above 30 Hz, and its amplitude does not exceed 15 μV. This rhythm is observed in solving problems requiring maximum focus of attention; 4) theta rhythm with a frequency of 4-8 Hz and amplitude from 20 to 100 μV and more; 5) Delta Rhythm. It is a rhythm with a frequency of 1-4 Hz and amplitude of hundreds of MKV and more. It usually appears during sleep, and is also associated with rAM A man working in wakefulness. There are other rhythmic fluctuations in electrical activity registered in the electroencephalogram in various but localization of electric potential leads: MJ RIGM, Cappa Rhythm, Gamma Rhythm and others. According to the nature of the rhythmic electromagnetic activity of the cortex of the brain, it is possible to judge the processes occurring in it, including psychological.

A number of physiological research methods, including the skin-galvanic reaction, are used in the so-called "lies detector". "Lie Detector" (his scientific name is a polygraph) Special device (along with an appropriate psychological test), with which you can install, whether the person says the truth or deceives, consciously or unconsciously hiding the true state of affairs. The mechanism of action of the "Lie detector" is based on the fact that, in general, a person usually experiences increased voltage, which involuntarily manifests itself in a hundred physiological reactions to keywords - incentives that have a direct or indirect attitude towards the truth hidden. This voltage or excitement can manifest itself in changing the reaction time to such key words compared with the reaction time to relatively neutral words.

With the help of a "lies detector", moreover, individual physiological reactions associated with the emotional experiences of a person about the events associated with perceived words meaningful for it are quite subtly. In this case, it is about fixing such reactions with sufficiently sensitive physical instruments. They record even the most minor changes in the frequency of heartbeat, blood pressure, respiratory rhythm, the skin-galvanic reaction.

The name "Lie Detector" can, however, misleading and is very conditional, since in fact the corresponding technique (device) only fixes and highlights especially significant events for humans and objects against the background of other events and facilities on specific reactions to related They say words (see "Lie Detector (Polygraph)" in the terms of the terms).

Thanks to the development of electronic equipment in the second half of the XX century. It became possible to significantly improve objective methods of research of mental phenomena, using modern electronic devices for this. These devices, like old objective research methods, are intended mainly for the microelectrode lead and the study of the activity of individual neurons (groups of neurons), or to register and analyze the overall electromagnetic activity of the brain.

As part of these two main approaches to the use of electromagnetic activity of the nervous system, a number of private methods used to study mental phenomena developed depending on the solid research task. Among them can be called method of registration of the caused brain potentials, method of microelectrode disorder of the activity of individual neurons or their groups, the method of three-dimensional computer mapping of the total electromagnetic activity of the brain and etc.

Method of registration of induced potentialsrepresents the following procedure. When using this method, the subject is repeatedly presented the same stimulus, which causes the brain reaction in the form of electrical potentials. Then the numerous brain reactions for this stimulus are generalized, and on the basis of such a generalization, the integral, typical brain reaction or its individual structures for this incentive is determined. It includes a positive or negative deviation of the brain potentials occurring at certain time intervals. According to these deviations, which indicate the activation of the relevant brain structures, one can judge the processing processes occurring in the brain, including psychological, including cognitive processes and human states.

This method has the following undoubted advantage: it allows you to register the electromagnetic activity of the brain, without interfering with its normal activity, without disturbing its integrity, registering this activity with the help of appropriate sensors from the surface of the human head. Therefore, this method can be widely used in a variety of psychological studies conducted in humans. This method, however, has a significant drawback. It allows you to register only the total electromagnetic activity of the brain on its surface, but does not make it possible to judge the processes occurring in the deep structures of the brain. This disadvantage is deprived of the following objective method of physiological research of mental processes - the method of microelectrode discharge of the electromagnetic activity of individual neurons or their groups.

This method allows you to work with individual neurons, and with close to each other (functionally interconnected) groups of neurons localized in the deep structures of the brain.

The method of three-dimensional computer mapping of the brain is one of the modern methods for the study of the electromagnetic activity of the brain, which includes the display of this activity on the monitor screen with its subsequent analysis by special computer Program. There are several options for this method based on the use of various physical and chemical phenomena, for example positron-emission tomography of the brain, magnetic resonance tomography of the brain.

When using positron-emission tomography of the brain into the blood, a special slightly caused solution is introduced with unstable isotopes, which quickly disintegrate and therefore are not dangerous to the body. In blood streams passing through various structures of the brain, the radioactive substance in the blood is decayed, and its decay is recorded using the appropriate sensors located on the surface of the human head. The disadvantage of this species of the method of three-dimensional computer mapping of the brain is just the need to introduce a radioactive substance into the blood of the test radioactive substance every time, although this method itself has a sufficiently high resolution.

The physical basis of the method of magnetoresonance tomography of the brain

it is the radiation effect of a radio wave of a certain frequency by individual atoms located in a variable magnetic Iol. This field, in turn, is artificially created and is supported by a multi-torque bulk magnet located around the subject. The corresponding method also has a high resolution, but is expensive and requires the use of complex and cumbersome equipment.

The most perfect and most suitable for psychological studies is also considered to be based on a three-dimensional computer mapping of the brain, the technique of functional magnetic resonance tomography, in which the amount of oxygen in the blood in the brain is used as an indicator of the processes occurring in the brain, in particular hemoglobin molecule. This indicator clearly correlates with neural activity in the corresponding brain areas.

In modern cognitive psychological studies, the magnetic field began to apply not only to register with its help the processes occurring in the brain, but also to actively change the dynamics of the physiological processes themselves, followed by the study of how scientist mental processes are mentioned as a result. For this, in particular, powerful magnetic effects rendered on the brain are used. They lead to a short-term change in the activity of certain sites that are presumably related to those or other mental processes. This method was called transless magnetic stimulation.

In general, magnetoesephalography, i.e. The study of the activity of the brain through registration or impact on the magnetic fields associated with its work is considered one of the most productive methods for the study of mental processes. Magnetorencephalography is used, for example, to clarify the psychological functions of individual structures of the brain, to study the physiological processes associated with various mental phenomena.

Methods of objective study of mental processes and phenomena similar to those described above continue to be improved on the basis of the latest achievements of physics, physiology, computer equipment and medical equipment. However, the problem associated with these methods is characteristic of early objective (physiological) methods of studying mental phenomena, still remains unresolved. It is still about the lack of convincing and satisfactory answers to the following questions.

1. As specific mental processes and phenomena, which are interested in psychologist scientists, are associated with those or other structures of the brain, the activity of which is recorded using the appropriate instruments? This refers to the presence of accurate knowledge about the anatomical representation (localization) in the brain of well-known mental phenomena.
2. As described in psychological science, processes and phenomena correlate with the physiological processes recorded with the help of appropriate instruments? Here are the knowledge concerning the ratio of mental phenomena and physiological (physical) processes characterizing the activity of the brain.

The lack of convincing and unambiguous responses of PA These key for psychology issues of modern psychologists to doubt the objectivity of everyone without exception so-called "objective" methods, in the possibility of obtaining accurate and reliable data on psychological phenomena with their help, which is already It is known in psychological science and life practice before these research methods appear. We, for example, still do not definitely do not know how well known, studied and in detail described in the psychology of the phenomenon are connected with the fact that even the most modern electronic devices and the newest computer equipment are registered and represent us. Despite the emergency complexity of instruments and devices, psychologists still can not fully trust them in terms of obtaining information about mental processes and phenomena.

Representatives of modern cognitive psychology, where the newest technique is widely used in scientific research, it is believed that this technique will allow them to go further to the study of mental phenomena than before them they managed to make many generations of psychologists scientists who studied mental phenomena without relevant instruments, such as methods observations, survey, tests or experimental psychological methods. This is an obvious misconception, which is easy to refute, if we compare the content, depth and breadth of information about mental phenomena, which has the traditional, reinforcement psychology, with information obtained over the past half century in the most cognitive psychology. The first is much more informative, richer and more diverse, and this undoubted fact convinces us that no devices are so far (and, probably, in the foreseeable future) is not able to replace traditional, exhaust methods for the study of mental phenomena on hardware. Information on these phenomena, which has traditional psychology, was obtained by hundreds of heychologists with the help of a "technical device" in the world - the human brain, a "live computer", human mind and consciousness, which in terms of knowledge of reality, including Mental phenomena will never be able to fit the technique.

Tests There are standardized methods of psychological research that allow to obtain accurate quantitative and standard qualitative descriptions of data on the studied mental phenomena.

The word "test" in English to Russian means "test", "check" or "sample". Consequently, when the method of psychological research is characteristic as the test, it is understood that with the help of this method you can study and accurately assess the level of development in a person of a psychological property.

Tests are the main group of psychological research methods. With their help, many psychological properties of a person are successfully evaluated, starting with sensations, and ending with personality features and interpersonal relations of people. The most common groups of psychological tests are intellect tests and personality tests. With the help of intelligence tests, the level of intellectual development of a person (the level of development of a hundred thinking) is estimated, and with the help of personal tests - the degree of development in the person of certain personal properties, for example, abilities, properties of temperament, character traits, behavior motives, needs.

Psychological tests are divided into tests-Questionnaires, Test Tests, projective And other tests. The basis of questionnaire tests make up questions for which the subjects must respond, or judgments that they must respond in a certain way, for example, to express their consent or disagreement with them. Tests tasks include tasks that need to be solved, or the tasks that need to be executed.

Projective tests are those in which the subjects perform some kind of indefinite, but thematically directed task. In the process of performing such a task or solution of the appropriate (projective) task, the subject manifests certain psychological properties. Using a special procedure for a meaningful analysis of the results of the relevant task, it is concluded about its psychological features.

In the projective test, the test may be proposed standardized, unstructured set of incentives and the recommendation is given to respond freely, T.S. React to the corresponding stimuli first images, thoughts, experiences or actions that come to mind. Then this "projective products" - oral statements, written records or drawings are subject to a special meaningful analysis, as a result of which conclusions are made about the psychological state or the personality of the relevant person.

The well-known examples of projective tests that have received widespread are the Rorschah test and the thematic appeping test (abbreviated - TAT) of Merreya. In the first of the named tests, the tests interpret shapeless ink stains, and in the second - the situations depicted on plotically uncertain pictures (see "Rorshah Test" and "Thematic Apperception Test (TLT)" in the terms of the terms).

There are many varieties of projective psychological tests: picturesque (in them the subjects get a task to draw something) themed-apperception (here the subjects must come up with stories on plot-uncertain pictures), tests of unfinished tasks (in them subjects are given tasks to complete a series of phrases or proposals), tests of free associations (They are based on the so-called free associations, which first arise from the test in response to an experimenter spoken by the experimenter, the situation, etc.) and others. Projective psychological tests are considered one of the best, valid psychological tests, as they allow to obtain reliable information On little realized or not realized, as well as about the psychological characteristics of the studied person who are consciously hidden from the people of others.

True, it is low that the reliability of the results obtained using many projective psychological tests, especially if they are reused on the same group of tested at a short time interval between the next test presentations. This, however, is due not to the low reliability of the psychological test itself, but by the fact that its presentation changes the psychological state of the subject. Often, besides the sign of equality between psychological test and projective technique. This is not entirely correct, since not all types of projective equipment are standardized psychological tests.

A large number of varied psychological tests can be divided into groups in different ways. To classify tests, you can apply, for example, the following features (criteria):

1) the purpose of the test, one hundred target (psychological property studied and evaluated using this test);
2) the contents included in the task test;
3) type (specificity) of the property test under this test;
4) the presence or absence of test norms (see "Test Norm" and other articles on this topic in the terms of the terms);
5) type of indicators obtained using the test;
6) The method of presenting the test test.

For purpose, tests are divided in accordance with the peculiarities of psychological properties studied with their help. For example, there are tests of cognitive, processes: sensation tests) perception tests, attention tests, memory tests, tests imagination, thinking tests and speech tests. There are also tests with which a variety of mental states are estimated, for example, tension, relaxation, anxiety, installation, mood, etc. There are tests through which the properties of the personality are studied and evaluated (they are called personality tests).

The above tests are used in general psychology. In other psychological sciences, for example, in social, engineering, clinical and other

psychology, other psychological tests can be applied.

By type (specific) studied using the test test, they can be divided into tests achievements and procedural tests. In the first time, the results of a person or one hundred achievements in the appropriate form of activity are studied using the test. In the second case, an estimate is subject to any process, and not its end result.

According to the presence or absence of test norms, psychological tests are divided, respectively, on those that have such norms, and those in which there are no norms or not provided for. Under test standards are the average indicators obtained by a large number of people on the appropriate test. Such norms are set using the following procedure. By means of a test for which the corresponding norm is determined, a large number of people are being studied (usually beats and thousands), calculated average, obtained by these people on the appropriate test, it is taken for the test rate.

With this indicator, in the process of practical use of the test, the indicators received by individual people are compared and as a result of the comparison, it is concluded that at what level of development in the relevant people has a studied psychological property (corresponds to the norm, the norm is developed above or is located below the norm). Examples of tests that have similarly established norms are intelligence tests and some identity tests. As examples of tests, whose norms are usually absent, are projective tests, such as the Rorschah test or the thematic apperception test (TAT).

But the title of indicators obtained using tests, they are divided into those that allow you to obtain quantitative estimates of the property being studied, and those as a result of the use of which is given a qualitative description of the relevant property (sometimes there are tests that allow both types of indicators: quantitative and high-quality).

In turn, tests through which one can receive quantitative indicators of the property under study can be divided into two groups: on those that provide standardized indicators, and those by which are not standardized indicators. Standardized test indicators, norms for which are equal, respectively, 1 or 100%.

By the method of presentation of the test, psychological tests can be divided into the following types: oral, written, practical, tests "Pencil and paper», technical (Secured by the appropriate equipment).

Oral tests are subject to the subject in the form of questions or judgments that a person, respectively, must give an oral answer. Written tests are imposed in the form of writing formulated tasks (questions, judgments), and the answers to them are also supposed to be given in writing. Practical is called tests that suggest testing any real actions with material objects or, accordingly, the decision practical tasks. Tests "Pencil and paper" are such tests that use paper only and any means of recording information manually. Such tests do not suggest the use of any special equipment. Technically, tests are called tests, during which special equipment is used, for example, computers, devices, etc. Of course, there are also combined test options that may include two or more of the signs listed above. In addition, in each of the named test groups, their numerous private varieties can be distinguished.

We also note that test names can be given or on the name of those psychological properties that are studied and evaluated using the appropriate test, or named the author of the corresponding test. For example, on the psychological properties studied with their help, the tests can be divided into tests of mental processes, tests of mental states and tests of psychological properties. In turn, each separate test depending on which property it estimates can be clarified, specified by the title.

Since the creation and inspection of psychological test is a complex and time-consuming creative and technical work, which usually requires high time spent, psychological tests are considered as the inventions of their authors, are protected by law and often receive relevant author names. This is necessary not only to note the personal merit of the author of the test in a hundred creating, but also in order to distinguish the tests among themselves. There is, for example, more than a dozen intelligence tests and no less personality tests, which differ from each other by authorship, although in fact are intended to evaluate the same psychological properties (see "Test Psychological", "Projective tests" and other Articles related to tests in the terms of the terms).

In conclusion, briefly consider some well-known tests and we estimate them from the point of view of the signs described above, which are the basis for the classification of tests, i.e. We define what group of tests they can be attributed in accordance with the signs of their classifications presented above.

Test Bina - Simon. Other names of this test - fault - Simona scale or Bina - Simone scale of mental development. The test was intended to study the mental abilities of school children and was developed by A. Bina and T. Simon in France in 1905. With the help of the Bina - Simon test, such cognitive functions of a person as attention, memory, imagination and thinking were evaluated. It was the first standard intelligence test developed in psychology. He was also the first of the psychological tests that was aimed at studying the highest human mental abilities, in contrast to the methods of assessing simpler actions, individual sensory functions, reaction time, the ability to distinguish between stimuli, etc. (These were sent to the tests developed and used earlier, for example, in the scientific psychological laboratories V. Wundt and F. Galton).

Test Bina - Simon was enhanced twice, in 1908 and in 1911, including

due to the introduction of age rules into it. On the sample and similarity of the test beaker -

Simon subsequently created many other intelligence tests. During the existence and use of the Test Bina - Simon was revised many times and adapted in various countries, in particular in the United States, in Stenford University A. Termep. Nowadays, the Test Bina - Simon is already practically not applied. Instead, other, more modern and perfect intelligence tests are created and used.

According to the above classification options, this test can be assessed as a test of achievements intended to evaluate intelligence, which includes practical tasks to obtain quantitative indicators of the level of development of intelligence, and present in writing.

Test intelligence Aizenka* This is one of the most popular intellect tests, developed by the English psychologist Y. Aizenk. The basis of the Aizenka test is eight raise, designed to estimate the level of development in a man of common intelligence, as well as a number of special types of intelligence: mathematical, verbal-logical and figurative and logical. Accordingly, to mive from the eight raise of the Aizenka's intelligence test are common and in general comprehensively assess the types of thinking (intelligence), three raised - special, evaluating each of the named thinking (intelligence), individually. In turn, each of the Aizenka intelligence test of the intelligence test includes several dozen special tasks. At the execution of the test of the intelligence Aizenka is given 4 hours (30 minutes per random). The level of intellectual development of the test of the Aizenka's intelligence test is determined as a percentage of the norm comprising from 90 to 100%.

This test can be classified as an intelligence test, aimed at assessing achievements (solving the tasks included in the test). It allows you to obtain standardized quantitative indicators of the level of development of the general and some private types of intelligence: verbal, mathematical, figurative-logical and is presented in writing (see also "Waxes Test" and other articles about the species of this test, "equal to the test", " School test Mental Development (History) "in the terms of the terms).

Test Benneta. This is a special intelligence test, designed to estimate the level of development of human physico-technical thinking. The Bennett Test includes 70 tasks, each of which concerns the solution to a physico-technical task and has three solutions, and only one of them is correct. The subject, having familiarized to the verbal description of the task and the technical pattern, corresponding to the conditions of the task, must choose the correct solution from its point of view of this task. The level of development of physico-technical thinking on this test is determined by the total number of tasks that solved for the allotted time (25 minutes). Teeth Bennett use in the practice of professional counseling and professional orientation in order to assist the person in choosing a profession and prepare for the development of the future (physical or technical) profession.

This test can be classified as follows. It is a test designed to estimate the level of development of physico-technical thinking, contains practical tasks and, accordingly, is a test of achievements. With it, it is possible to obtain quantitative data characterizing the level of development of intelligence, although these indicators are not normalized. The test is imposed on the subject in writing.

Test Vygotsky - Sakharov. This test was developed by L. S. Vygotsky and L. S. Sakharov and is intended for experimental study of the process of forming concepts in children, as well as to assess the level of development of conceptual thinking. The same test can be used in the clinic to study the process of forming concepts in adults who have certain deviations in the psyche.

In the process of practical use of the test, Vygotsky - Sakharov, a person is proposed a set of volumetric geometric shapes of various shapes, colors, widths and heights (stimulous material to the Vygotsky - Sakharov test is usually a combination consisting of 32 geometric shapes.) On the lower surface of each figure, invisible for The subject, there are three-letter meaningless combinations, performing artificial concepts in the appropriate experiment. In the standard case of such words-concepts. One of them means only high figures, the other is wide figures, the third is high and narrow figures, and the fourth - low and wide figures. The content of the formable concepts may include the above features: shape, color, height and width in any combination of them. The task of the subject is to determine independently and as soon as possible, which specific signs are included in the artificial concept specified by the experimenter, and to give this concept with an accurate verbal definition.

The subject during the test of Vygotsky - Sakharov can be tipped during the task, and by how successful it uses these prompts, it is possible to draw conclusions about his zone of nearest development. Another name of this test is a double stimulation technique. Currently, there has several varieties of Dough Vygotsky - Sakharov, created and improved after publishing the initial version of this test.

Formally, from the point of view of the above criteria for the classification of tests, the Voztsky test - Sakharov can be assessed as follows. This is a procedural test and at the same time a test achievement. It is intended for studying the process of forming concepts (it was for this that this test was used by L. S. Vygotsky immediately after its creation) and to estimate the degree of formed ™ concepts. The test is based on the performance of practical tasks and in the appropriate form is subject to the subject. The test does not have firmly established norms and, therefore,

with a service station, non-normalized, non-standardized indicators of both quantitative and qualitative plan are obtained.

Test Rorschaha. This is one of the famous projective personal tests developed by the German psychiatrist G. Rorshah. Stimulus for this test are shapeless symmetric black and white Or colored ink spots. In the classic version of the Rorschah test, both black and white and colored spots are used. Five of them are black and white, two are filled in one, and the remaining three are in several colors. The subject receives a task, carefully distinguished into each spot, answer the question of what, in his opinion, is depicted in it, and then in detail, orally or in writing states the answer. This test is the oldest of all projective psychological tests. Based on the principles incorporated into the Rorsaha Test, many other projective tests of personality were created.

Answers received from the subjects are analyzed by a special program, and as a result of the analysis, the individual (personal) features of the appropriate subject are concluded. According to the classical interpretation of the test responses, the reaction to color reflects the features of the emotional state of the person; The form and localization of "seen" - signs of the so-called general life orientation; "Vision" of movements - the tendency to the intrinsration; The originality of the interpretation is a sign of developed intelligence; The strangeness of the proposed interpretation is the neurotic indicator.

The Rorschah Test is currently mainly used in clinical studies to determine if there are any disorders or disabilities in the psyche characteristic of a particular disease.

Despite the fairly widespread use of the Rorschah dough, convincing evidence of its validity, including various modifications of the test, have not yet been received. Rorschah Test users who believe in his psychodiagnostic opportunities prefer not to pay attention to this circumstance, and critics use it for doubt about the scientific validity of the test. Nevertheless, many recognize that the Rorschah test allows a clinician to a conversation with the patient, during which an additional opportunity to receive useful information on the nature of the patient and its illness.

According to the classification criteria described above, this test can be determined as intended for studying the person's unconscious in the psyche in terms of personality theory 3. Freud. This projective type test, it includes tasks but the interpretation of an unstructured pattern. The test allows a quantitative data processing, however, the main conclusions are made on the basis of a qualitative analysis of the interpretations offered by the subject.

Test oltel (Other, the detailed name is a sixteentiforous qettel test). This is one of the first known personality tests, often used in psychodiagnostic practice. It was developed by R. ketto in the 30s. XX century And he became the first in the history of psychology a mathematically substantiated personal test, intended for studying and evaluating the psychology of healthy people. It is used to assess and examine a person as a person to sixteen different factors (sixteen personality traits).

The kettel test has two options: children's and adult. An adult test version includes 187 judgments, each of which the subject, the appropriate appropriate judgment, should give one of the following answers: "Yes", "no", "I don't know", i.e. Rate yourself. As a result of the analysis of the responses of the subject on the appropriate judgments, it is concluded about the development of his personality traits. Children's option of the kettel test includes 55 judgments and, in turn, has two options: for boys and girls.

Evaluating this test with the help of classification criteria, the following can be said about it. It is intended for simultaneous evaluation of several features, is a written text with closed-type questions. With it, you can get quantitative, standardized indicators of the degree of development of the corresponding identity properties and build a personality profile, i.e. Offer a person as a personality qualitative individual characteristic.

Manenesotian Multifactor (Multi-Parameteric) Personal Questionnaire (from English. MMPI, in Russian abbreviation - MMO). The test is one of the well-known psychological tests of questionnaires intended for the assessment of the personality. For the first time, MMPI was published in 1942, and its initial version included 550 judgments with which the subject should have expressed consent or disagreement. Initially, MMPI was intended mainly for clinical purposes (its norms were established on populations of visitors to a psychiatric clinic, alcoholics and drug addicts), including to identify common clinical syndromes of a nervous or mental illness.

Although MMPI tests showed that it does not allow to obtain a completely objective clinical picture of a particular disease, the NA less, this test was useful in research on the study of socio-personal problems. Based on the combination of judgments included in the MMPI, more than 200 separate scales were created for measuring such features such as anxiety, strength "I", Masculinity - femininity, the internality and expancy and many others. In 1980, a modern version of MMPI was proposed, which included 567 judgments belonging to 15 different scales.

The MMPI test can be classified as follows. This is a personal test, designed to simultaneously evaluate several personal features. By content, this test is a questionnaire with standardized responses. In addition, it is normalized, i.e. Putting test standards. Each person studied with its help can be estimated quantitatively and, as in the case of a oltethel test, according to the results obtained, the personality profile obtained.

Experimental is called such research methods that suggest the creation or use of an unusual (experimental) situation to study this or that psychological properties of a person. We are talking about the situation in which the property studied is best manifested, and therefore, it can be carefully studied carefully and deeply.

There are three varieties of experiments used in psychology in research purposes. These experiments, respectively, are called laboratory, polevoy and natural. The laboratory experiment is organized and is carried out in a specially equipped room, in a scientific laboratory equipped with research equipment. Field experiment is carried out in real life. Naturally called an experiment, which organizes life itself. It is carried out without interference from the scientist, and its role is to observe what is happening, fixing and analyzing it (see "Scientific Experiment" and other articles on the experiment in the terms of the terms).

Mathematicals are called research methods borrowed from mathematics and used in psychology in order to give the data to the exact quantitative expression received. In turn, mathematical research methods are divided into two main groups: methods of mathematical statistics and methods of mathematical modeling.Methods of mathematical statisticians allow quantitative calculations to obtain quantitative indicators and find out mathematically expressed patterns hidden on those data that a psychologist mined during the study. Methods of mathematical modeling calls such methods with which psychological laws are presented in the form of mathematical formulas and expressions.

Mathematical research methods began to be used in psychology with the second halves XIX. in. when psychology turned into an independent, experimental science. They began to be used to measure psychological phenomena and obtain reliable data on the bonds of mental phenomena, as well as with other phenomena. A great contribution to the solution of the possibility of application in the psychology of mathematical methods was made by German scientists, physicists in basic education, E. Weber and the city of Féhner. They formulated the main psychophysical law - the first law of psychology, presented in the form of an accurate mathematical equation, connecting the power of human sensations with the magnitude of their physical incentives. G. Fehner, in addition, proposed sufficiently accurate methods for measuring the threshold values \u200b\u200bof various sensations.

A significant role in the introduction of mathematical methods into psychological studies also played English scientists. F. Galton In 1884, an anthropometric laboratory was organized at the International Industrial Exhibition in London, where he and his employees took up measurements of the elementary sensory and motor abilities of people. With F. Galton Ohm in this laboratory, two famous mathematics, Ch. Speirman and R. Fisher cooperated in this laboratory. They offered the first methods of mathematical statistics, which were then widely used in experimental psychological studies. These are methods of correlation, dispersion analysis, factor analysis, etc.

These methods, in turn, relied on mathematical statistics developed by A. Ketle (1835). Ch. Spearmen and R. Fisher among the first applied it to study mental phenomena. In 1890, the article D. Kettel "Mental Tests and Measurements" was published with the afterbirth of F. Galton. It laid the beginning of the practical use of methods of mathematical statistics for estimating intellectual abilities.

Later, in 1905, the French psychologist A. Bina created the first intelligence test, improved, a year later, another French scientist - Simon. Soon after that, the German psychologist Munsterberg developed mathematically sound tests for measuring professional abilities, and then the tests of the intelligence of the American psychologist D. Waxler were created.

The main and most common method of mathematical evaluation of studied phenomena used in psychology is called scalery.It is a variety of measuring instruments, with which quantitative estimates of the studied phenomena are produced. For this, special psychological measuring scales are applied. The main varieties of psychological measuring scales nominal, ordinal and interval. They have different capabilities and allow the indicators different in the degree of accuracy. Depending on whether the scale was performed with a psychological phenomenon, certain methods of mathematical statistics were measured (see "Scale" and other related concepts in the terms of the terms).

Consider some of the most well-known methods of mathematical statistics intended to identify dependencies that exist in quantitative empirical data.

Correlation method (or correlation method). It establishes a statistical relationship between two or several rows of indicators. As a result of the use of this method, it turns out how closely connected with each other or, on the contrary, not dependent on each other (in the mathematical sense of the word) are the corresponding ranks of indicators. When using this method for the characteristic of the links of communication between compared rows of indicators is used correlation coefficientwhich is a standardized quantitative indicator of the respective rows of indicators from each other.

The correlation coefficient value may vary in the range from - 1 to +1. The correlation coefficient equal to -1, suggests that there is a reverse dependence between compared variables: a greater value of one of the variables always corresponds to a smaller value of another variable, and vice versa. The correlation coefficient, component of +1, indicates a direct relationship between the corresponding variables: the greater value of one of them always corresponds to more important Another variable, and vice versa. The correlation coefficient equal to 0 indicates the absence of any statistical dependence between the indicators compared to each other. In general, the larger the absolute value of the correlation coefficient approaches one, the stronger the connection between the compared rows of values; The closer the correlation coefficient value is to zero, the weaker the statistical relationship between the corresponding values \u200b\u200b(see "Correlation" and all other articles on this topic in the terms of the terms).

Factor analysis. This is a method of mathematical statistics that allow to identify groups of indicators, statistically related (correlated) among themselves and, at the same time, not related (non-correlating) with other indicators. The purpose of using this method is to reduce the plurality of pair correlations between the variable values \u200b\u200bstudied by several generally explaining their reasons that are called the factors in mathematics. Factor analysis is a method of mathematical statistics, which includes a set of mathematical procedures, with the help of which several basic measurements, factors around which corresponding facts are grouped in a plurality of private facts. In turn, the factors allocated using factor analysis are considered as alleged causes underlying the statistical relationships (correlations) between private facts.

The factor analysis procedure comes down to the following. Initially, a large number of diverse data relating to a significant number of people receive an experimental way. These data can be obtained using any methods of psychological research. Then it is applied to the technique of correlation and factor analysis in order to identify the factors underlying them. When conducting a factor analysis procedure, a limited number of factors responsible for a variety of variations of studied facts are determined. After that, the relative weight is set - the value of each factor, i.e. The contribution that this factor contributes to the variations of the appropriate private facts. This weight is sometimes called a factor load. In conclusion, each of the dedicated factors receives its psychological designation (interpretation). When factor analysis is used to study the personality structure, the factors allocated are psychologically interpreted as certain features of the person. The main ideas of factor analysis are proposed by an English psychologist Ch. Spearmen (1904), and its technique was further improved by L. Torthone (1931).

One of the tasks of factor analysis in experimental psychology is to replace many different methods designed to study various private phenomena, one or more techniques that allow measurement and evaluate factors explaining the corresponding private phenomena. Many pair correlations between facts are served by material for factor analysis. It is believed that the facts lies with statistically significantly correlating the factors. In turn, the factors isolated as a result of factor analysis are considered independent (orthogonal) if the facts associated with them are not correlated between themselves (see Factor Analysis and other articles related to the concept of factor in the terms of the terms) .

Sometimes in front of the researchers there is a task to compare the two averages of any indicators to answer the question, differ or not differ from each other corresponding averages. In this case, enjoy many methods, one of which is called t-criterion or Studyite criterion.

The criterion formula of the stubster looks like this:

If the indicator calculated according to this formula t. It turns out to be large or equal to the table value of this indicator for certain level Significance, the hypothesis about the existence of statistical differences between compared samples is considered confirmed with this level of significance (given the probability of a valid error). Otherwise, the corresponding hypothesis is rejected as insolvent.

Fisher's criterion for dispersions - This is a statistical criterion with which the reliability of differences in dispersions of two independent samples is established. This criterion was proposed by the German mathematician E. Fisher. The formula of the corresponding criterion is as follows:

In the event that the indicator F.The calculated on this formula will be large or equal to the corresponding table value for a given level of significance, the hypothesis about the existence of reliable differences between compared dispersions is considered proven at this level of significance. Otherwise, the corresponding hypothesis is deflected as incorrect.

Criterion X-Square - Statistical criterion that allows you to establish the importance of differences in data distributions (expressed as a percentage or in the fractions of a unit) between two or more independent samples. The formula of the criterion / -kvadrat for two samples is as follows:

If the value of the criterion / -kvadrat, calculated according to this formula, will be large or equal to the table value of this criterion with a given level of significance, the hypothesis about the existence of reliable statistical differences between compared samples is considered confirmed. Otherwise, this hypothesis is rejected as insolvent.

All described above methods for obtaining and processing experimental (empirical) data are schematically, in a single system can be represented as shown in Fig. 3.3.

In addition to the described methods that are common to all psychological sciences, there are also special research methods used in certain areas of psychological knowledge. Most often, such methods are used in applied sectors of psychology and borrowed from sciences that are associated with the study of activities to which the relevant applied psychological sciences relate. So, for example, in pedagogical psychology often applied forming pedagogical experiment, in psychogenesis - gemini method, in engineering psychology - technical research methods, in medical psychology - clinical method.

In scientific research, the phrase "Clinical Method" represents the general name of the methods and procedures for the diagnosis, classification and treatment of nerve disorders and other diseases. The clinical method is also called an approach to the study of psychological phenomena based on an intuitive, subjective analysis of the available data. In medical psychology, a clinical method is a method of detailed, versatile study of causes and consequences, as well as the dynamics of changes in the psychology and human behavior due to those or other diseases, followed detailed description of this. In this interpretation, the clinical method is an alternative to the statistical method.

In the framework of the terminology proposed by J. Piaget, the clinical method at one time meant a method for collecting data based on the so-called quasi-meteable interaction of an adult with a child in which the experimenter offered a child some subject or a task or asked him any questions. At the same time, the child was allowed to respond freely, and the experimenter is as free to interpret the child's responses and, at its discretion, move from some tasks and questions to others. Introducing the definition of "clinical method", J. Piage wanted to draw attention to the fact that this method of collecting primary information about a person has a lot in common with a talk of a psychiatrist in a patient's clinic.

So, let's summarize what was said in this paragraph of chapters.

1. In a methodological relation (in terms of finding and substantiating scientific research methods), psychology has long overcome the crisis state. Currently, it has a large number of diverse methods of studying mental phenomena, allowing to obtain reliable, reliable and fairly accurate information about these phenomena.
2. Each individual method of psychological research does not make it possible to obtain such results that can be completely and unconditionally trusted. However, the use of several methods in the same study at once to study the same psychological phenomenon with success solves this task, since the data obtained using some methods is monitored and rechecked by data obtained using other methods.
3. The best methods of research are psychological tests. Using them in practice, it is necessary, however, to take into account the following two circumstances: a) Any psychological test is based on a certain scientific theory, and the correct interpretation of data obtained with it can be proposed only within the framework of the relevant theory; b) None of the known tests makes it possible to obtain comprehensive information about the psychological property studying with it, so it is important to know the possibilities of the appropriate test and relate them to the definition of the studied psychological properties adopted in science.
4. Due to the presence of a large number of various research methods in psychology, there are different ways to classify them (division into subgroups). Unified criteria (general reasons) for dividing methods of psychological research into groups, determining which of the proposed classifications is better or worse than others, does not exist. There are only common logical requirements that any scientific classification must be consistent, and from the point of view of these requirements it is possible to assess the classification of psychological research methods.

In humans, for obvious reasons, this method does not apply. Sometimes, truth doctors-surgeons during operations on the human brain (this is done, for example, with heavy rates of epilepsy or when it is necessary to constantly monitor the processes occurring in his brain to maintaining people and the safety of people around him). The human brain, but this is not done in experimental, but for therapeutic purposes.
Under the resolution of this and other methods of studying the activity of the brain, it is understood as possible with it to be recorded and describing the thinneurophysiological and neurosicheological processes occurring in the brain.
There is adopted in testology (this is so called the section of science associated with the creation, verification and practical application of various psychological tests) The mathematical procedure for establishing standardized test indicators.
In this case, for the name of the test, it is not enough instructions only on the name of the author, Takakuk. Yu. Aizenk developed not only a well-known intelligence test, but also a number of other tests, for example, a test of temperament.
The test rate is always asked not in the form of an exact figure, but in the form of a certain interval. This is due to two reasons: the need to consider most people as far as the norm, despite the fact that their individual test indicators may vary; Inaccuracy of the measurement themselves produced in psychology, the existence number of random errors in the measurements produced.
The nearest development zone is opportunities or prospects. psychological developmentHuman and implemented with a little help of surrounding people. For more details, the concept of the nearest development zone, by L. S. Vygotsky, is considered in the psychology of development or age psychology.

The method is more important than the discovery,

for the right research method

will lead to new, even more valuable discoveries

L.L.LDAU

Psychology - This is science and practice. Methods of psychology originally developed in scientific research are then transfers to a psychologist-practice, and serves the objectives of diagnosis, development and correction, psychoprophylaxis, etc.

Methods of scientific research - these are those techniques and means by which scientists receive reliable information used further to build scientific theories and develop practical recommendations.

Method – the path, the way to know modern science.

Method - This is a way to achieve some kind of purpose, solving a specific task, a set of techniques or operations, practical or theoretical development of reality.

Main methods receiving facts in psychology:

· Observation

· Experiment.

Auxiliary methods :

· Conversation,

· Questioning,

· Tests,

· Self-surveillance,

· analysis of creative activities,

· sociometry and others.

Observation - The study of certain characteristics of a process, aimed at identifying its invariant features, without active inclusion in the process itself.

Observation - The purposeful and planned perception of phenomena, the results of which are fixed by the observer.

A feature of scientific observation, in contrast to simple, everyday is his deliberation, focus (carried out in accordance with a predetermined goal), selectivity (there are certain features of behavior and activity), compositeness (conducted in accordance with a certain plan) and systematically.

Observation -the oldest method of knowledge. His primitive form - everyday observations - every person in his daily practice.

Distinguish the following types of observation :

-Lezre(short-term observation),

- Longitudinal (long, sometimes for a number of years),

Solid (held for all mental processes, properties and qualities of this person),

- Cars (monitoring one mental process, property or condition),

-The successful observation (when the observer becomes a member of the group under study),

- Moreover (observation by side)

- Innutrient (introspection),

-Forced (It does not have a predetermined framework, programs, procedures for its implementation. It can change the subject or object of observation, its nature during the observation itself, depending on the wishes of the observer),

- Standardized (defined in advance and clearly limited in terms of what is observed, is conducted according to a certain, pre-thought-out program)

- Forest (Does not imply personal participation of the observer in the process he studies).

The observation procedure consists of the following processes:

1) definition of the task and goal (for what, for what purpose?);

2) the choice of an object, subject and situation (which is observed?);

H) choosing a method of observation, the least affecting the object under study and the most providing the collection of necessary information (how to observe?);

4) the choice of ways to register the observed (how to record?);

5) Processing and interpretation of the information received (what is the result?).

«+»: availability, cheapness; Does not distort the natural flow of psych. processes; Wealth of collected information.

«-»: large time spent, the impossibility of re-observation of identical factors, the difficulty of establishing the cause of the phenomenon, the difficulty of statistical processing.

Sometimes observation includes an integral part and in two other methods - a conversation and experiment.

Experiment - The active intervention of the researcher in the activities of the subject with the aim of creating conditions in which the psychological fact is detected.

Types of experiments:

1.Laborator E. , It proceeds in special conditions, special equipment is used, the subjects of the subject are determined by the instruction, the subject knows that an experiment is carried out, although it may not be aware of the end of the true meaning of the experiment.

«+»: Experiment (laboratory) can be carried out repeatedly.

«-» - The subject does not behave enough naturally, some artificiality e ..

This method is used since in 1879 the first psychological laboratory was opened in Germany in Germany (Wilhelm Wyandt) . Earlier used only method introspecia(self-surveillance).

2. E. , (In 1911. Russian scientist Lazur Alexander Fedorovich proposed a method of psychological study of the individual in the usual conditions of its activity) - Natural E.This type of experiment is widely used in social, pedagogical psychology, in the psychology of management. Natural E. They are carried out in natural conditions of life, study, labor of people, people do not suspect that an experiment is carried out over them (but its results must be recorded, for example, hidden cameras). Natural experiments make it possible to identify more reliable information, but cannot be carried out repeatedly, because they lose their naturalness and secrecy from the subjects.

3.Shole-pedagogical E. The expression of the experiment is that here the study of the child is conducted directly in the process of its training and education, in the process of active formation of those mental features that are subject to study.

Psychological Pedagogical E. more often consists of 3:

1. standing : aims to establish and actual and the level of certain features of mental development by the time of E. conducting diagnostics.

2. forming : The active formation of the studied property (according to the hypothesis) in the process of specially organized experimental learning and education.

3. control : Check the effectiveness of the work performed, analysis and comparison of the results. The same diagnostics are used as in the statement of E.

Auxiliary methods:

Conversation - Direct or indirect, oral or written receipt from studied information about its activities, in which psychological phenomena peculiar to it (collection of mental phenomena).

Types of conversations:

Standardized - consists of pre-formulated issues that are specified in a strictly defined order.

Free - The experimenter has only a common interview plan and itself formulates questions, defining their order depending on how the conversation is.

To obtain reliable data in conversation, various types of questions are used:

Indirect ("What do you usually do in your free time?")

Projective ("If you were told that over the next 2 hours you can do what you want. What would you do?")

Conversation requirements:

1). Equality

2). Do not turn the conversation into the poll

3). Installation of personal contact of the researcher with a person surveyed (creating a friendly situation)

4). Communicably think over the conversation (present it in the form of a specific plan, tasks)

The psychologist owns an active role in organizing and conducting a conversation, he must ensure that everyone as fully as possible and clearer answered questions.

The material that the psychologist receives is as a result, needs the most strict critical analysis.

Questioning - The method of collecting facts based on the written self-density of the subjects on specially drawn up programs. When using this method, it is greatly important to determine the content of the contents and their correct wording, detailed instructions on the procedure for filling the questionnaire, thorough quantitative and high-quality processing of the material obtained, the correct use of static methods of processing materials.

«+» The fact that there is an opportunity to get a large material in volume, the reliability of which is determined by the "Large Numbers".

«-» the quality analysis of data is difficult to be difficult and the possibility of correlating responses with real activities and the behavior of the subjects is excluded.

Test - Short-term, the same for all test tasks, based on the results of which the presence and level of development of various qualities of a person are determined.

Tests are designed to establish the presence or absence of already known psychological features from certain subjects.

Tests:

Always standardized tests (determines the extent to which the subject complies with a well-known standard, objectively compares various subjects among themselves).

Provides all the subjects of the same opportunities for the manifestation of their psychological features.

Starting interpretation, it should be remembered that tests are usually one-time tests that they allow to carry out a slice, fix what is currently. Based on the test results, predictions cannot be built, predicting the possibility, degree of successful mental development. You can get an accurate quantitative or qualitative characteristic of the studied phenomenon: Mathematical data processing.

Sociometric research method - Study of interpersonal relations in the group in order to determine the structure of relationships and psychological compatibility (developed by the Amer. Psychologist Moreno , recycled Y.L. Kolomensky and adapted to children of preschool age T.A. Rupina, having received the name "Secret game"). This technique is used to study the personal status of the child in the system of interpersonal relations in the peer group.

Children ask a number of questions, for example, "Who would you want to play with?" Who would you invite you to your birthday? " etc. Or are offered to make a "choice in action", i.e. on the secret to give any thing (pictures, toys, etc.) to the child from the group to whom they want. Children's responses are made in a special table - a sociogram. It shows those children who enjoy the greatest or smallest popularity, as well as the reciprocity of the elections, but the causes of sympathies or antipathies do not reveal. The following categories are detected: "Stars" -diders, popular, rejected.

Psychological analysis of creative activities - It allows you to reveal such psychological features of people as their skills and skills, their attitude to business, sometimes the level of ability and volume of knowledge.

It is very important to study not only the products of activity, but also the manufacturing process, because In the process of activity, the mental features of a person manifests itself more brightly.

Products include: the compositions of children, drawings, drawings, various items made in class lesson, etc.

Not all of them have the same value for the researcher. The tasks that the child performs on the immediate instruction of an adult cannot be particularly valuable. Valid work on the plan. Of great importance in the understanding of the inner world of the child playing drawings on the plan. They reflect the feature of the perception and experiences of the inner world of the child. The drawings make it possible in some way to judge the mental development of the child. The color gamut that is used by the child in drawing gives us a reason to judge about his relationship to the character depicted (for example, negative heroes, the child draws dark colors and extremely carelessly: they are not worth trying to draw them. " Analysis of other productive activities indicates the level of formation or non-deformation of the skills and skills of the child.

OUTPUT: Only the integrated use of various research methods can give a complete, objective idea of \u200b\u200bthe mental features of the child. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages, so for a complete understanding of the psychic development of the child, they should be used in close interconnect. Only in this case can be obtained a complete and objective assessment of the development of the individual.

The classification of methods of psychological research uses different bases, various psychological directions and schools unequal interpretation methods and techniques. The detailed and multifaceted classification of research methods in psychology was formed by the classic of domestic psychology B. G. Ananyev. In accordance with the use at different stages of the study, he allocated several groups of methods:

Organizational methods of psychology that are the main research in general, its entire methodology. Here you can include:
- a comparison that has various options (may be compared, for example, the result of several subjects, groups, indicators are compared, which can be obtained at the same (or different) techniques in the periods under consideration (for example, transverse sections);
- the Longitudinal method, which is built on a long time to track mental development, changes in identical parameters in the same group. It is a "longitudinal slice" in time, which is similar to the logic of the formative research;
- the complex method consisting in the system of the two previous ways of knowledge, in the interdisciplinary nature of approaches, methods and techniques.
The empirical method through which facts are mined, the study itself is carried out. These methods are the most extensive and branched group.
Processing obtained results in the form of organic unity of quantitative and high-quality, statistical and meaningful analysis. This method is always a creative, search process, which involves the choice of maximum adequate and sensitive mathematical means.
Interpretation methods concentrating on theoretical explanation, psychological interpretation of the studied phenomenon or properties. There is always a complex (in the form of a system) a set of appropriate variants of the genetic, functional and structural method, which are closed by a common cycle of psychological research.

Note 1.

The classification developed by Ananya cannot be considered exhaustive, therefore, in the following parts of the article, some of the most common methods of psychology will be described.

Observation as a method of psychology

Definition 1.

Like other methods, it requires special training for performance. Professionalism is important here, because the observation can be carried out as a scenery operating behind the window and over the dynamics of the stars with the help of the newest telescope. For scientific surveillance, the purpose of the goal, planning, drawing up the protocol, etc. The most important thing here is adequacy in the psychological interpretation of observation results, since the psyche, as is known, cannot be reduced to behavioral reactions.

Note 2.

The important advantage of the observation method is the flow of people in normal, natural conditions for them. A person may not know what surveillance is carried out, and therefore "does not fit" the researcher at least at a certain point, as they say in the open.

A type of observation is self-surveillance (introspection) in the form of a historically first method of studying the soul and psyche. This is "internal" observation of the individual for its own mental phenomena. They, with all the seeming everyday ease, are in reality a very complex and multifactoric process. For such a reflection of self (reflection) of a person, special training is necessary. Qualified introspection, which is compared with the results of other methods, is always useful and important for psychological research.

Experiment as the main method of psychology

The experiment is rightfully considered the main method of modern psychology. He historically was from her origins, but because of the specifics of his subject, psychology remains science largely descriptive. Not over everything in the psyche can be carried out experiment in accordance with its classic, scientific understanding. Thus, the work of a psychotherapist or a psychoconsultant is not always possible to be actually experimental. The special role of the experimental method characterizes its undoubted advantages:

the ability to use the process, property or state of interest to the tests, property or condition (for example, there is no need to wait for the manifestation of will or emotions, creating artificial conditions for this that provides an experiment);
preliminary allocation of all alleged conditions that affect the studied phenomenon, the possibility of their systematic change (increase, decrease, exception, that is, a targeted organization and change in the course of the process under study);
the possibility of reliable identification of the effect of the effect of each of the managed variation of factors, that is, the detection of objective patterns, bonds and dependencies. It is the path from the living phenomenon, the facts to the knowledge of the entity;
strict quantitative processing and interpretation of the resulting empirical materials, a mathematical description and modeling of the studied phenomena as a whole.

The listed advantages of the experiment method inevitably lead to its main difficulty in the form of a restriction. As mental and the external work of the test in experiments proceeds, as it were, artificially, in imposed, unusual conditions. A person can know that this is not a real practice, but only an experiment, who, for example, can always stop at his request. Hence the inevitable methodological problem of studying the adequacy, the correctness and reliability of the transfer of the results of the experiment on practical activity is manifested.

In accordance with various bases, a large number of types of experiment can be considered, including analytical and synthetic, stating and forming, psychological and pedagogical, modeling, training, laboratory, field, etc. Special place in this list occupies a natural experiment, which for the first time suggested a Russian psychologist a F. Lazur.

The essence of a natural experiment is the flow of the studied activities of the subject in the conditions familiar to it. The subject does not know about the experiment, exposed to strictly dosed experimental effects through the conditions under study and factors.

Note 3.

The organization and conduct of such a type of experiments is associated with great difficulties due to the contradictory compound of "experimentalness" and "naturalness". Along with this, the transfer of laboratory conclusions obtained in real practice is greatly simplified.

According to some objective and subjective reasons, modern psychology becomes less experimental science. More extent, tests, polls, interviews are used among the methods of psychological research. Often, an unjustified experiment is called any introduced in something important, including uncontrolled changes. Obliving the experiment significantly depletes the techniques and the theory of psychology, simplifying and distorting the understanding of its subject.

Other psychology methods

The test (test, sample) is used most often in scientific psychology. It is used for more than a hundred years, receiving in last years Magnificent distribution. Allocate many types and classifications of tests in accordance with their construction, tasks, execution. This can be attributed to a special section of psychological knowledge and practices, which is called psychodiagnostic. Nevertheless, the last concept is wider than the doctrine of tests (testology). Not all psychological tests, samples, questions, tasks can be attributed to tests, since the tests should be characterized by standardity, reliability, validity, psychometric wealth, clear psychological interpretation, etc.

For example, the standardization of the test represents not just the presentation of the same verbal wording, and the selection, statistical fit of the degree of complexity of the issue, due to which the distribution of answers in the maximum samples of the subjects has the form of a normal Gauss curve.

Note 4.

Such a requirement as the validity of the test means confidence that it measures exactly what is aimed at which (for example, an assessment of motivation, and not motivation, the current mood, and not a steady feeling).

Each test is based on a certain theory, the author's interpretation of the studied psyche. For this reason, for the same terms, different content is often hidden. Thus, the same type of temperament types I. P. Pavlova and in the city of Yu. Aizenka are formed on the grounds that cannot be compared. Therefore, in the interpretation of the test results, it is important to strictly comply with the author's semantics without changing the specified interpretation of words. This is especially true for projective tests in which the free responses of the subjects are considered as a projection of the features of his personality explained from the standpoint of the initial theory.

Note 5.

The test is considered as an extremely simplified modification of the experimental method. Subject to competent use, it makes it possible to obtain a large number of empirical data, allowing pre-gradation of the subjects.

Often, techniques such as questionnaires and questionnaires are used in psychology as all sorts of test variations. Their compilation, use and interpretation always require due professionalism, since importance is not the formulation of the issue, but the order of its presentation. Psychology and sociology, for example, or pedagogy should use different sources and questionnaires due to differences in the subject matter. Sociometric techniques, through which the interpersonal relationships in the group, the identification of the relationship between the leader - slave, occurs in the form of questionnaires.

For the conversation method, special training of a psychologist is necessary, special rules for holding and behavior of researchers. Individual psychological work occurs here.

Example 1.

One thing is the famous clinical conversation of school J. Piaget; A completely different option is a psychoanalytic conversation on the ideology of Z. Freud; Third - conversation in psychological counseling on a certain theoretical concept, etc.

Praximetric research methods were developed mainly for the psychology of labor in the study of various movements, operations, actions, professional human behavior. Here you can include methods of chronometry, cyclography, preparation of careful professors (then - and psychograms).

Analysis of the activity of activity uses many sections of psychology, ranging from the overall and ending age. This method is a comprehensive study of the results of labor as the materialization of mental activities, which can be attributed both to the children's drawing and to school essays, works of writers, erroneous actions of the operator.

The biographical method is characterized by psychological analysis life path, identity biography facts, which develops and has its own history, certain psychological milestones, including crises and lifts.

Note 6.

S. L. Rubinstein believed that a person who had committed significant, at the same time, in a certain sense changes.

The biographical method is a psychological study, an analysis of a person's ideas about his way of life, about the past and the future. He considers the psychology of life plans; Psychological strategies of life and human behavior.

The modeling method, which uses structural, functional, physical, iconic, logical, mathematical, information models is also presented in a variety of options. Any of them is the poorest of the original, since it allocates a certain aspect in it, forcedly abstracts from other sides of the studied phenomenon.

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General

Now, experimental psychology in practice is considered as a discipline responsible for the formulation of correct experiments within many directions of applied psychology, for example, to determine the feasibility, the effectiveness of a change, innovation (for example, in labor psychology). Big successes in the use of its methods were achieved in the study of psycho-physiology and psychology of sensations and perceptions. However, the achievements of experimental psychology in promoting fundamental psychology are currently less significant and are subject to. The boundaries of the applicability of experimental methods in psychology is the subject of discussion among psychologists and this.

The main principles of the methodology

The methodology of experimental psychology is based on the following principles:

General scientific methodological principles:
1. The principle of determinism. Experimental psychology proceeds from the fact that human behavior and mental phenomena are a consequence of any reasons, that is, fundamentally explained.
2. The principle of objectivity. Experimental psychology believes that the object of knowledge is independent of the learning subject; The object is fundamentally learning through action.
3. The principle of falsifiability - the requirement of the methodological possibility of refuting the theory appropriate for the nature of the methodological possibility of refuting the theory of the theory appropriate for scientific relations, by setting one or another fundamentally possible real experiment.
Psychology Principles Specific
1. The principle of unity of physiological and mental. The nervous system ensures the emergence and course of mental processes, but it is impossible to reduce mental phenomena to physiological processes.
2. The principle of unity of consciousness and activity. Consciousness is active, and the activity is conscious. An experimental psychologist is studying the behavior that is formed with the close interaction of the personality with the situation. It is expressed as follows: R.\u003d F ( P.,S.), where R. - behavior, P. - Personality, and S. - situation.
3. Principle of development. Also known as the principle of historicism and the genetic principle. According to this principle of the psyche of the subject - the result of long-term development in phylogenesis and ontogenesis.
4. System-structural principle. Any mental phenomena should be considered as holistic processes. (Impact is always performed on the psyche as a whole, and not on some isolated part of it.)

Ontological and gnoseological principles of psychological research

V. I. Mamsik considers psychological research as a system.

As elements of the study system, it allocates: the object (S), the subject (PSI), the method (M), the conditions (otherwise - the environment E) and the result (R is the behavior or product of the activity). The method can be defined as a system of temporary relations on a previously dedicated set of elements or otherwise: as the interaction of the researcher with elements allocated during the previous analysis.

The relationship of elements of psychological research form the system. At the same time, the principles and rules of psychological research and constitute the structure of the system. They are the implementation of the main methodological principle - the principle of invariance of the result.

The main ontological principles of psychological research:

Representative principle Determines the object relationship with the subject, conditions, method and result. The object must be selected according to the task of the study.
Principle of validity characterizes the relationship of the subject with the elements of the study system. The subject of the study should not be replaced during the study.
Principle of reliability It characterizes the method of method with other elements of the system and ensures the invariance of the result obtained by this method.
Principle of standardization of conditions: Compliance with the real conditions of the study, ideally intended to be described as an environmental validity of the study. ... in relation to observation, standardization is replaced by the choice of the observation situation corresponding to the study of the study
The principle of invariance of the result It is a resulting, ensured by the application of the above principles and implies the reproducibility of experimental results in other studies and the comparability of the result obtained by one researcher with the results obtained by other researchers.

So, principles reflect the compliance of the plan of the researcher real systemHe implements.

Each ontological element corresponds to the epistemological element:

The method is characterized by defects, that is, it can be functionally unsuitable for solving a research task.
The object is a source of facts.
The subject (psyche) is characterized by factors - variables affecting it during the study.
Conditions (Wednesday) is a source of artifacts.
The effect characterizes the evaluation of the results of the study: the study can be effective and ineffective.

Accordingly, V. I. Mamsik allocates 5 main gnoseological principles:

principle of registration of facts;
principle of factors planning;
principle of control of defects;
the principle of elimination of artifacts;
the principle of control of the result.

Basic events in creating

The XVI century is the first information about psychological experiments.
The XVIII century is the beginning of the systematic formulation of psychological experiments with a scientific goal (mostly, experiments with elementary visual sensations).
- Publication of the book G. T. Ferechner "Elements of psychophysics", founded psychophysics and considered first work on experimental psychology.
- Publication of the book of V. Wundt "Physiological Psychology".
- The foundation of the psychological laboratory of the Wundt, in which the first scientific psychological school was created.
- Publication of the city of Ebbigauz "On Memory", in which the author comes to an understanding of the task of experimental psychology as the establishment of a functional relationship between certain phenomena and certain factors by solving any tasks.

Based on: Zaroshensev K. D., Khudyakov A. I. Experimental psychology: studies. - M.: Publishing House Prospekt, 2005. P. 17-21

Basic concepts

Psychological experiment

Research methods in psychology

The classification given here is the classification of B. G. Ananeva, who united in it all the stages of psychological research, ranging from the organizational and ending with the interpretational. [ Ananya classification is given here. with some changes .]

Organizational group:
- Comparative method
- Longitudinal method
- Comprehensive method (use in complex and comparative, and longitudinal method)
A group of empirical methods of data mining (depends on the selected organizational method):
- Experimental methods
  - Forming, or psychological and pedagogical experiment
- Psychodiagnostic methods
  - Standardized and Projective Test Methods
  - Verbral Communicative Methods
    - Conversation method
      - Interview
        Clinical interview
    - Personal tests
Methods for analyzing processes and livelihood products (or praximetric methods)
- Tronomeration
- Cyclography
- Professiography
Modeling method
All methods and techniques for processing empirical data:
- Methods of mathematical statistics
- Methods of high-quality characteristics of the resulting material
Interpretation methods
- Genetic method (analysis of phases of development)
- Structural method (analysis of systems and types of intersystem relations)
  - Psychography

Criticism of experimental psychology

From the very creation of experimental psychology, discussions are conducted on the applicability of this method of research, as an experiment, in psychology. There are two polar points of view:

in psychology, the use of the experiment is fundamentally impossible and unacceptable;
psychology as science without an experiment is untenable.

The first point of view - the impossibility of using the experiment - relies on the following provisions:

The subject of research in psychology is too complicated.
The subject of research in psychology is too inconsistent, which leads to the impossibility of observing the principle of verification.
In a psychological experiment, an inevitably subject -Subject interaction (test-experimenter), which violates the scientific purity of the results.
The individual psyche is absolutely unique, which deprives the meaning of psychological measurement and experiment (it is impossible to summarize the data obtained on all individuals).
The psyche possesses the internal property of spontaneity, which makes it difficult to predictably.
And etc.

Many adherents of hermeneutic approach in psychology based on the understanding method of V. Dieltea are opposed to the experimental methods.

Supporters of the second point of view, justifying the feasibility of introducing the experiment to science, argue that the experiment allows to detect the principle underlying any phenomenon. The experiment is considered as an attempt to laboratory recreation of a simplified reality, in which its important characteristics can be simulated and monitored. The purpose of the experiment is to assess the theoretical principles underlying the psychological phenomenon.

There is also a point of view that can be perceived as a compromise between the two above mentioned, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe levels of the psychic organization. According to it, there are six levels of mental regulation (0 - physiological level, 1 - psychophysiological level, 2 - the level of sensory-perceptual processes, 3 - integrative level of the psyche, 4 - the level of personality, 5 is the level of individuality). The power of the natural-scientific method is of the highest value when considering physiological processes and gradually falls, striving for zero at the level of individuality. Accordingly, the power of the hermeneutic method rises from zero value at the physiological level, to its maximum value at the level of individuality. In the diagram, this is displayed as follows:

Based on: Zaroshensev K. D., Khudyakov A. I. Experimental psychology: studies. - M.: Publishing House Prospekt, 2005. P. 21-25

Tasks of research in psychology

Four common interrelated tasks facing research: describe behavior, predict behavior, explain the behavior, managing behavior.

Description of behavior

Identify regular sequences of events, including incentives or external factors and responses or behavior. The preparation of clear and accurate descriptions is the first step in any scientific research, without which it is impossible to predict and explain the behavior.

Forecasting behavior

The detection of the laws of behavior (availability of constant and predictable relationships between variables) should lead to prediction with one degree of probability.

Explanation of behavior

Finding the causes of the occurrence of behavior. The process of establishing causal relationships is complex and includes many aspects.

Managing behavior

Application in the practice of laws of behavior discovered during psychological studies.

Based on: Research in psychology: methods and planning / J. Goodwin. - 3rd ed. - SPb.: Peter, 2004. P. 42-43

Ethical problems of psychological research

When working with the subject, it is necessary to comply with the ethics of psychological research. In most cases, you need:

To obtain the consent of the potential test, explaining to him the purpose and objectives of the study, its role in the experiment to the extent that it is able to take a responsible decision on his participation.
Protect the subject from harm and discomfort.
To take care of the confidentiality of information about the subjects.
To fully explain the meaning and results of the study after the end of work.

When working with animals:

It is impossible to apply harm to animal and cause suffering if this is not caused by the tasks of the study defined by the approved program.
It is necessary to ensure sufficiently comfortable conditions of detention.

Based on: Zaroshensev K. D., Khudyakov A. I. Experimental psychology: studies. - M.: Publishing House Prospekt, 2005. P. 30

Links

Extract from the educational standard for the discipline "Experimental Psychology"

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