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The process of acquiring and consolidating modes of activity. Psychological theory of educational activity. Development of civilization and education

Teaching in the psychological dictionary is defined as the process of acquiring and consolidating or changing the available ways of an individual's activity. Elements of individual experience (knowledge, ability, skill) are the result of teaching.

Any interaction with the world leads to the satisfaction of the needs of the individual and to a more complete and accurate reflection of the conditions of activity. In addition, a change in the content of objective activity also causes a change in the subject himself. The methods of productively-oriented human activity with the use of tools of labor are passed on to the next generations through these tools and products of labor, language, etc. Thus, teaching begins to act as a process of assimilation by the individual of the formed methods of activity. Since these methods exist in an implicit, collapsed form, they cannot be learned without first deploying them. This deployment of methods of activity in order to assimilate them by other people is essence learning.

Obviously, learning becomes a prerequisite for human learning. At first, a new action for him could be perceived by him only in the external (material) environment. Later, with the help of language, this action is transferred to the sign level and, through speech, to the mental (ideal) plane. Transferring material actions into an ideal plan is a unique psychological mechanism of learning. In the process of learning, psychological mechanisms are rebuilt, formed, which form the basis for the emergence and development of the individual's abilities. Thus, teaching is necessary condition and the main mechanism of human mental development.

Didactics(i.e. learning theory) how science has its item study: these are the laws and principles of teaching, its goals, scientific foundations of the content of education, methods and means of teaching. In pedagogy, teaching is traditionally understood as the planned and systematic work of a teacher with students, based on the implementation and consolidation of changes in their knowledge, attitudes, behavior and in a given personality under the influence of learning, mastering knowledge and values in their own practical activities. Acquiring knowledge about the surrounding reality and about himself, the student (learner) also acquires the ability to make decisions that regulate his attitude to this reality. At the same time, he learns moral, social and aesthetic values and, experiencing them in various didactic situations, forms his attitude towards them, creates his own system of values. Thus, education - it is a process of controlled cognition of the phenomena of the surrounding world, their regularities, the history of development and mastering of methods of activity as a result of the interaction of the teacher with the student (learner).

This orderly interaction of the teacher with the students, aimed at achieving a didactic goal, includes the following main links of interaction:

1) the activities of the teacher:

› explaining to students the goals and objectives of training;

›Familiarization with new knowledge;

› management of the process of awareness and acquisition of knowledge and skills;

› management of the process of cognition of scientific laws and laws, the transition from theory to practice;

› organization of heuristic and research activities;

› checking and evaluating changes in learning and development of trainees;

2) trainees' activities:

› own activities to create a positive motivation for learning;

› perception of new knowledge, skills, analysis, synthesis, comparison and systematization of patterns and laws;

› understanding causal relationships; acquisition of skills and abilities, their motivation;

› practical activities to independently solve emerging problems; self-control and self-assessment of achievements.

Learning is directly dependent on social and social conditions, on a certain influence of people, content scientific knowledge and the experience of humanity. The most important condition for learning is its reliance on natural language, speech thinking and languages of science, which ensures the processing, storage, transmission of information in the learning process. An equally essential condition for teaching is the all-round development of the personality, the unity of rational, mental and practical activity with a harmonious combination of mental and physical principles.

The psychology of learning studies a wide range of issues covering the process of acquiring and consolidating the ways of a person's activity, as a result of which a person's individual experience is formed - his knowledge, skills and abilities. The teaching accompanies the entire life of a person, since he receives knowledge from life itself, learning something new in any interaction with the world and improving the ways of satisfying his needs. In other words, learning is present in any activity and is a process of forming its subject. This teaching differs from the changes in the human body caused by its physiological maturation, functional state, etc. Thus, teaching - the concept is quite broad, including not only its organized forms (schools, courses, universities), but also the spontaneous processes of a person acquiring knowledge and experience in everyday life.

From the point of view of the activity approach, psychology considers organized forms of learning as educational activities, which has its own specifics, which distinguishes it from other main types of activity - work and play. Its main feature is that it forms the basis of any other activity, since it prepares a person for it.

Learning activity cannot be equated with the processes of assimilating a variety of knowledge and methods of action that occur during work, play, sports and other activities. She, in contrast to these processes, is designated by the general term "teaching". Learning activity is a part, a specific kind of teaching, which is specially organized so that the student, by implementing it, changes himself.

An important component of learning activities is the learning task. In the process of solving it, like any practical problem, certain changes occur in the objects studied by the student or in the ideas about them, however, as a result, the acting subject itself changes. An educational task can be considered solved only when predetermined changes have occurred in the subject.

Learning activity has the following general structure: need - task - motives - actions - operations.

Need manifests itself in educational activity as the student's desire to assimilate theoretical knowledge from a particular subject area. Theoretical knowledge reflects the laws and patterns of the origin, formation and development of objects in a particular area. They can be learned only in the process of organized educational-theoretical activity, while empirical-utilitarian knowledge, which fixes the features of objects, is acquired in the course of practical activity, that is, outside of specially organized training.

The most important element of the structure of educational activities is educational task, solving which, the student performs certain educational actions and operations. The motives for educational activities may be different, but the main motive, specific to her is cognitive interest.

The implementation of educational activity is a student's sequential learning actions or operations to solve an educational problem, driven by a certain motive. Target this activity is the assimilation of theoretical knowledge.

If the solution of any practical problem leads to a change in individual individual subjects and this is the goal, then the solution of the educational problem sets the goal not of the changes in the subject themselves, although they can occur, but mastering the method of actions to make these changes.

The student, as a subject of educational activity, must master the most general way of solving a relatively wide range of private practical tasks... And the teacher, who has set the educational task for the student, must introduce him to a situation that will orient him towards this general way of solving in all sorts of private and specific conditions.

Can't Count on Genuine Learning scientific discipline, on the actual mastery of science, until the entire learning process turns into a system for solving educational problems. In other words, educational activity should consist not of episodic, but of the systematic solution of educational tasks on the application of the studied theory to reality, if we understand educational activity as the active activity of the student himself, and not the transfer of ready-made knowledge to him by the teacher or obtaining them from the book.

The very process of solving problems for students is exactly educational activities, which include the following elements:

a) the statement of the educational task by the teacher in front of the student or the student himself in front of him;

b) acceptance of the problem by the student for a solution;

c) the transformation of the educational task by the student in order to discover in it some general relation of the studied subject (recognition of the general in this particular task);

d) modeling the selected relation (in mathematics, this can be drawing up, for example, an equation, and in psychology - drawing up a diagram of the logic of reasoning from the point of view of an activity approach, etc.);

e) transformation of the model of this relationship to study its properties in a “pure form” (for example, transferring the logical scheme of reasoning to the analysis of specific activities for studying the problem of creative thinking in the course of psychology);

f) building a system of particular tasks on a given problem, solved in a general way (such tasks can be made by both the teacher and offer them to the students, and the student himself, taking them from life);

g) control over the implementation of the previous action in order to correctly proceed to the next action; and finally

h) assessment (self-assessment) of the success of all actions as a result of mastering the general method of solving an educational problem (in psychology, such a result can be a confident mastery of the method of reasoning when solving creative problems).

The ability to learn is the ability to independently carry out educational activities, which is impossible without conscious acceptance and creative fulfillment of the educational task with obligatory reflection - introspection and self-assessment of the degree of success of one's own actions. Learning to learn means mastering the ability to carry out educational activities, which is the most important task for any student, including students.

There are many different approaches to defining doctrine. First of all, it is possible to single out theoretical and empirical definitions.

The overwhelming majority of authors empirically define learning as the acquisition of specific experience (knowledge, skills and abilities), types of behavior and activities in a specific area . This point of view is shared not only by Russian psychologists (starting with Vygotsky and Rubinstein), but also by Gestalt psychologists, supporters of the concept of social learning.

However, representatives of the behaviorist direction (Thorndike, Skinner, Tolman, etc.) teaching are called the acquisition of both knowledge, teachings and skills, as well as logical, as well as creative operations . Some Russian authors also include in their teaching, along with the acquisition of specific experience, the acquisition of logical methods of thinking. By development, they mean the acquisition of the ability to act internally, to act voluntarily, etc. AV Zaporozhets, NF Talyzina and others are inclined to this point of view in relation to the term "teaching".

In the future, we will focus on precisely purposeful and mediated teaching when it is specifically aimed at assimilating knowledge, it is accompanied by the comprehension of information with the active use of sign-symbolic means.

Thus, teachingit is the process of acquiring and fixing (or changing the available) ways of an individual ... Learning results are elements of individual experience (knowledge, abilities, skills).

From the point of view of the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions (P.Ya. Galperin), the learning process consists of four phases. In the first phase on the basis of the mental reflection of the object in the subject, a sensory image of the object arises: the teacher in a visual form offers the student the educational material and the problem situation so that the latter understands their meaning, and thus there is, as it were, its introduction into the learning process. In the second phase the mental image stands out from the mental process as its possible result, i.e. there is an active formation of solutions and their training with the help of a teacher. In the third phase what the subject has mastered returns again to the mental process and to the activity of the student; this phase is used to consolidate and test knowledge. The fourth phase is a synthesis of new knowledge with past experience, their practical application.

Behavioral and cognitive theories of learning .

Some of the most influential representatives of the behavioral direction B. Skinner in his theory operant learning relied on the ideas of I.P. Pavlov. The results of his research, although related to the teaching of animals, were the basis of many pedagogical concepts in their homeland
(in the USA) and in other countries of the world. Skinner argued that human and animal behavior is determined, predictable, and controlled by the environment. He believed that it is preferable to modify the circumstances in which the individual exists, than to blame and punish him for actions that deviate from normal behavior. In his opinion, which has been repeatedly confirmed by experiments and practice, positive reinforcement- the most effective method to eliminate negative behavior or action. Therefore, in the United States in many areas, not only education and upbringing, but also in business, industry, there is a tendency to more and more promoting desirable behavior, and not punishment of undesirable.

Experiments on animals pushed Skinner to the idea of the so-called programmed learning... Skinner's main idea of the role positive reinforcement in teaching has not lost its relevance in the development of computer training programs today. The new generation of educational programs not only minimizes punishment, but also acts only as positive reinforcement.

Ulrik Neisser, the largest representative of the cognitive direction, entered into scientific polemics with him.

Neisser argues that the behavioral approach to learning deprives a person of freedom. Truth makes us free. “Authentic teaching is not primarily a method of manipulating students, as some claim, but its direct opposite. And not because education makes a person more militant, but because it allows him to see more alternative possibilities for action ”(Neisser, p. 195). Only in a "rich" environment is formed flexible cognitive structure suitable for many other purposes.

Humanistic theories of learning and education .

In his approach to a person and the way he is taught, A. Maslow turns out to be an adherent of internal determination, in contrast to Skinner, who advocated external determination of both behavior and learning.

Understanding education more broadly than traditionally accepted, Abraham Maslow insists that it is necessary first of all to educate the individual. humanity... He is not satisfied that learning is understood only as the acquisition of associations, skills and abilities, external, and not internal in relation to the character, to the person himself. This is only one, albeit useful, part of human learning; it is important and useful in a technological society for the study of objects and things. Driving skills can be taught using a behavioral approach, can be taught foreign language using the association method. But it is impossible to learn humanity in this way. In addition, “the world can communicate to a person only what she deserves, what she is proportionate to, what she has grown to, ... by and large, a person can receive from the world or give the world only what she herself represents” (A. Maslow, p. .152).

Maslow notes that in education today, two fundamentally different approaches to learning are clearly visible. The main goal of education in the first approach is the transfer of knowledge needed in an industrial society. Educators do not question why they teach what they teach. Their main concern is efficiency, that is, to put more facts in the heads of as many students as possible, while spending a minimum of time, money and effort.

The function and main goal of education and upbringing with a humanistic approach is essential, human. In this case, teachers are engaged in self-actualization of their students, i.e. help a person become as good as he can.

These two approaches also give rise to two types of education: external and internal . The humanistic approach is characterized by internally education, which ultimately allows the student to acquire such a set of knowledge and skills that allow him to become “ a good man". Then the problem of education will shift not to the search for a way to acquire information at higher or lower costs, but to how a person can most effectively understand and personally evaluate this information for inclusion in his experience for further use in any areas of life: at home and at work. It is with this approach that the acquired knowledge becomes meaningful, like the learning process itself.

Domestic psychologically oriented learning models .

In the practice of domestic education, attempts were constantly made to introduce psychologically oriented models, which are built taking into account the psychological mechanisms of the student's mental development and which are associated with the creation of specific innovative technologies for both school and university education. All the models presented below are arranged in the form of a hierarchical "ladder" depending on the priority for their purposes either the prevalence of the "freedom of subjective choice" of the student, or an increase in the volume of "control actions" of the teacher.

For "Free model" an informal attitude to the learning process is characteristic - in this case, there is no traditional classroom-lesson system, compulsory curricula, control and assessment of students' knowledge. The key psychological element is “freedom of individual choice”. This model takes into account the maximum internal initiative student.

"Dialogue model" presupposes the purposeful development of the intelligence of students, which is understood as the "deep development of the mind." Education is aimed at mastering the cultural foundations of human cognition by students. They form dialogism as the main definition of human thought. In such a model, a dialogue of knowledge and ignorance is constantly taking place, since knowledge in its highest forms turns out to be full of doubt and problematicity. The adherents of this model recognize the unpredictability, the originality of the intellectual development of the individual, including the ability even for a child to study independently, “alone” (at home, with a book). Instead of textbooks, this model uses texts as works of the corresponding culture. The key psychological element is the "dialogic character of individual consciousness" (VS Bibler, S.Yu. Kurganov et al., 1991).

The term itself "Personality model" assumes that the purpose of training in this case is general development student: his cognitive, emotional-volitional, moral and aesthetic capabilities. Learning takes place at a high level of difficulty. At the initial stage of training, the leading role belongs to theoretical knowledge. The key psychological element is "holistic personal growth." It is achieved due to the constantly trusting atmosphere of communication, the orientation of teachers to the development of different aspects of the personality, the consistent complication of the knowledge proposed for assimilation (L.N. Zankov, 1990; Amonashvili, 1993).

Close in some elements to the personality model "Enriching model"... Within its framework, due to the complication of the mental (mental) experience of the student, his intellectual education is carried out. It is assumed that each of us is “filled” with our own mental experience and has an individual range of possible build-up of our intellectual powers (Vygotsky has his own “zone of proximal development”). Therefore, the student is offered specially designed educational texts, the content of which affects the main components of individual mental experience (M.A. Kholodnaya et al., 1997).

"Developmental model" is aimed at developing the theoretical thinking of the student. Developed with a focus on junior schoolchildren... Much attention was paid to the development of the ability to generalize. Together with the teacher, the child learned to think according to the principle “from the general to the particular” (DB Elkonin, VV Davydov et al., 1986).

To increase the level of cognitive activity is aimed "Activating model"... To achieve this goal, problem situations are included in the educational process, there is reliance on cognitive needs and intellectual feelings. This model is the closest to the traditional learning model. “Cognitive interest” is a key psychological element of this model (AM Matyushkin, MN Skatkin, etc.).

We conclude the analysis of psychologically oriented learning models of the so-called "Formative model", which is based on the activity approach in psychology and pedagogy. In such an educational model, the controlling influence of the teacher's “commands” is great. Creative activity is also a process performed at a conscious level. A variation of this model is programmed and algorithmic learning. Therefore, the key psychological element is "mental action" (NF Talyzina, VP Bespalko et al., 1975, 1983).

Thus, « free model» meets the criterion "maximum freedom of subjective choice with a minimum of control actions", and the final one of our list « formative model» corresponds to the opposite criterion: "maximum control actions - minimum freedom of subjective choice."

Nevertheless, each of these models faces a serious question: if you choose a strategy to give solid knowledge and specific ways of solving problems, to form “mental actions with predetermined qualities,” then the boundaries of personal intellectual freedom are initially determined. If you provide complete intellectual freedom, then the likelihood of the formation of a personality incapable of intense and productive intellectual work. This dilemma is currently not resolved by any of the existing teaching models.

Psychology of educational activity
(psychology of learning)

The term "knowledge" has several meanings. In a universal, philosophical meaning, it means the reflection of objective reality by humanity in the form of facts, ideas, concepts and laws of science (that is, it is the collective experience of humanity, the result of people's cognition of objective reality). From the point of view of the psychology of learning knowledge– these are ideas and concepts about objective or subjective reality acquired in individual experience or learned from previous generations.

The assimilation of knowledge includes the perception of educational material, its comprehension, memorization and practical application.

Formation of scientific concepts. Scientific concepts are presented in the subjective reality of a person in the form of ideas and concepts. Concept- one of the logical forms of thinking, the highest level of generalization, characteristic of verbal-logical thinking. A concept is a form of knowledge through which the universal, individual and special of a certain class of objects or phenomena of reality are simultaneously displayed. Depending on the degree of generalization and properties reflected in the concept of objects and phenomena, concepts are concrete and abstract. There is a difference between everyday and scientific concepts. The most abstract scientific concepts are called categories.

V.V. Davydov, one of the creators of the "developmental model" of learning, proposed the following concept formation scheme:

perception ® representation ® concept.

The success of the transition from reflecting real objects or teacher descriptions to a concept depends on the student's ability to highlight the essential, that is, generalization not according to the so-called "formal community" (assigning objects to one class only on the basis of their external features).

The assimilation of social and historical experience takes place through scientific concepts, while with the help of images historical experience is correlated with subjective experience. The assimilation of a scientific concept is possible with the abstraction from all that is logically insignificant from the point of view of universal (generic) experience. The image cannot be torn away from the sensory basis on which it arises. The creation of an image is always based on individual (subjective) experience.

A change in any feature included in the content of a concept often leads to a distortion of this concept, to incorrect assimilation. When forming concepts, it is necessary to distract, "break away" from everything inessential in its personal experience, "Shading" the essence of the assimilated concept.

However, we emphasize that any knowledge there is an alloy concepts and images.

Learning concept. Learnability – it is a general cognitive ability, which manifests itself in the speed and ease of acquiring new knowledge and skills, in the quality of assimilation of educational material and in the quality of the performance of educational activities .

Recently, on the basis of a number of experimental studies, it has been suggested that general learning as an ability does not exist, but there is learning as a system of special abilities. There is a hypothesis about two abilities, i.e. two types of learning. The first was called "implicit" learning, the second - "explicit". Implicit learning represents the ability for elementary forms of learning and memorization. It persists even in patients with remote temporal lobes of the cerebral cortex and is manifested in the fact that a person in the experiment improves the performance of certain tasks, but he himself cannot describe what he has learned. . Implicit learning, along with creativity, is due to the dominance of the unconscious activity of the psyche.

Explicit learnability manifests itself in quick learning, sometimes after the first "lesson". It allows us to recognize past and unfamiliar events. Explicit learning, like intelligence, is associated with the domination of consciousness over the unconscious in the process of regulation. It is also called "conscious" learning.

Learnability, creativity, intelligence ... The difficulty of studying learnability as an ability lies in the fact that many factors influence the success of learning, and not only general intelligence, but primarily attitudes, interests, motivation and many other mental properties of a person. It is not for nothing that from some scientific and popular science books there are examples of how a student who did poorly at school subsequently reaches the heights of the scientific "Olympus": he became a doctor of science or a Nobel laureate. Indeed, students with a high level of mental development fall into the category of poorly performing schoolchildren. The reason lies in the lack of motivation to learn. However, people with intelligence below average are never included in the number of well-performing students (Bleicher L.F., Burlachuk V.M., 1978). This relationship is similar to the connection between intelligence and creativity, presented in the model of E.P. Torrens. According to this model, intelligence serves as the basis for creativity, so a person with low intelligence will never be creative, although an intellectual may not be creative person.

Ability / Disability ... The idea "every person is capable of anything" is defined by many scientists as wrong.
This raises the question of what constitutes a failure. failure to - (bad ability) is such a personality structure that is unfavorable for the development of a certain type of activity, its implementation and improvement in it . Failure is the degree of inadequacy of a given personality to the requirements of a particular activity. Performing any activity with an inability to do it causes not only the appearance of persistent erroneous actions, but also a feeling of dissatisfaction. The inability to perform a certain type of activity is much more difficult than the lack of ability. KK Platonov defined it as a negative ability. This is also a certain structure of the personality, which includes its negative traits for this activity. Disability, like ability, is a general quality of personality, or rather, the same quality as ability, but with a "negative" sign.

Talent. A higher level of manifestation of abilities is called talent. Talent – it is a set of abilities that allows a person to get a product of activity, which is distinguished by novelty, high perfection and social significance . As well as individual abilities, talent is only opportunity acquisition of high skill and significant success in creativity. Talent is a combination of abilities. A separate ability, isolated from others, cannot be defined as a talent, even if it has reached a very high level of development and is clearly expressed.

Talent structure depends primarily on the nature of the requirements that a particular activity (political, artistic, industrial, scientific, etc.) makes to the individual. There are also common structural elements of talent, identified through psychological research conducted mainly on gifted children. First group features associated with control and performance. Talented individuals are characterized by attentiveness, composure, and constant readiness for work. Second feature manifests itself in a propensity to work, sometimes even in an irrepressible need to work. Third group features is directly related to intellectual activity - these are the features of thinking, the speed of thought processes, the systematic nature of the mind, increased possibilities of analysis and generalization, high productivity of mental activity. In addition, talented people are characterized by the need to engage in a certain type of activity, often a genuine passion for the chosen work. The combination of private abilities of talented people is special, characteristic only for them.

Genius ... Genius is the highest stage in the manifestation of a creative personality. Genius expressed in creativity that has historical meaning for society.

If we rely on the interpretation of creativity as mostly a process of the unconscious, a genius is a person who creates on the basis of unconscious activity. He is able to experience the widest range of states due to the fact that he gets out of the control of the rational principle and self-regulation. Consequently, genius primarily creates through the activity of the unconscious creative subject. “Talent, on the other hand, creates rationally, on the basis of a well-thought-out plan. Genius is primarily creative, talent is an intellectual, although both have common abilities ”(VN Druzhinin, p. 173). Other signs that distinguish genius from talent include versatility, greater originality, and a longer creative life.

Unlike “just creatives”, a genius person has a very powerful activity of the unconscious. In this regard, he is prone to extreme emotional states. Which of them is a consequence and which is the cause has not yet been established, but the relationship between creativity and neuroticism has been identified.

VN Druzhinin offers the following "formula of genius":

Genius = (high intelligence + even higher creativity) ´ mental activity.

Genius creates a new era in his field of knowledge. A genius is characterized by:

· Extraordinary creative productivity;

· Mastering the cultural heritage of the past with a decisive overcoming of outdated norms and traditions;

· Activities contributing to the progressive development of society.

Test questions for topic number 21

1. What classification of abilities do you know?

2. Name the types and levels of abilities.

3. Describe the general abilities of a person.

4. What concepts of ability do you know?

5. Define the concept of creativity.

THEME 22. TRAINING

Lecture 22. Teaching

Basic concepts:

education; education; education; teaching; behavioral and cognitive theories of learning; operant learning theory; programmed learning; humanistic theories of learning and education; "Free model"; "Dialogical model"; "Personality model"; “Enriching model”; "Developing model"; "Activating model"; "Formative model"; motivation for learning; knowledge; concept; operating latitude; generalization; completeness of the image; dynamism of the image; thesaurus; self-education; self-study.

Education and global educational trends

Education - the process and result of assimilating a certain system of knowledge and ensuring, on this basis, an appropriate level of personality development ... Traditionally, education is received in the process of teaching and upbringing in educational institutions under the guidance of teachers. Education in the literal sense of the word means the creation of an image, a certain completeness of upbringing in accordance with a certain age level. Therefore, education is often interpreted as a result of a person's assimilation of the experience of generations in the form of a certain amount of systematized knowledge, skills, abilities, ways of thinking that the student has mastered. In this case, they speak of an educated person. Education- the quality of a developed personality who has mastered universal human experience, with the help of which she becomes able to navigate in the environment, adapt to it, protect and enrich her, acquire new knowledge about her and through this continuously improve herself, i.e. to improve their education again. Consequently, the main criterion of education - the consistency of knowledge and consistency of thinking, is manifested in the ability to independently restore the missing links in the knowledge system using logical reasoning.

Development of civilization and education

Currently, the main demand of the world elites is the need to urgently change the general civilizational model of development: the transition from a “consumer society” to an “alternative civilization” and “the concept of sustainable development” (“Agenda 21”). In order for these requirements to become a reality, it is necessary to prepare the young generation capable of bringing life on the planet into a qualitatively different, sustainable, peaceful channel by the middle of the century. Modern world pedagogy is unlikely to cope with this task. Suffice it to note that the entire modern content of education (from secondary to higher education) is an adaptation of the "foundations of science" for a particular age level of knowledge assimilation. For this, an appropriate way of teaching and upbringing is proposed - contemplative-verbal . In order to prepare for the solution of promising social and economic problems in the future, it is necessary to have the ability to develop, on the basis of the acquired experience of previous generations, independently a new vision of the lifestyle of one's generation, to have the ability to active search and creatively transformative activities.

Problems of modern higher education and ways to solve them

You can call at least three main problems modern system education. The first - This the quality of education , which must meet not only the requirements of the rapidly changing present, but also be tuned to the distant future. Therefore, the solution to this problem is a new philosophy of advanced education , which is possible if two conditions are met: the fundamentalization of education and the use of innovative learning. If you receive knowledge that is relevant at the time of training, then by the end of the university or in a couple of years it will be completely outdated, and besides, there will not be a holistic vision of the system of professional knowledge. The second problem is pragmatic orientation , which is characterized by an educational system that does not contribute to the development of the individual. The main way to solve this problem can be "developing" education, in which the student's personality develops through the use of flexible problem-based learning, creative information technologies... As a result of such education, each person has the opportunity to develop the most optimal way for him to acquire knowledge and the ability in the future not only to use this knowledge, but also to transform and replenish it in accordance with changing conditions. And the last one the third problem is the inaccessibility of quality education for each student . The most productive in solving this problem is information support for education: telecommunication technologies, database availability and, of course, distance education.

Teaching and learning

Learning concept.

Training– it is a specially organized, purposeful and controlled process of interaction between a teacher and students. Its main goal is the assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities, the formation of a worldview, the development of mental powers and the potential of trainees.

Education always has an upbringing character, despite the fact that it is based on the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities by students.

Teaching concept.

There are many different approaches to defining doctrine. First of all, it is possible to single out theoretical and empirical definitions.

Behavioral and cognitive theories of learning .

Some of the most influential representatives of the behavioral direction B. Skinner in his operant learning theory relied on the ideas of I.P. Pavlov. The results of his research, although related to the teaching of animals, were the basis of many pedagogical concepts in their homeland
(in the USA) and in other countries of the world. Skinner argued that human and animal behavior is determined, predictable, and controlled by the environment. He believed that it is preferable to modify the circumstances in which the individual exists, than to blame and punish him for actions that deviate from normal behavior. In his opinion, which has been repeatedly confirmed by experiments and practice, positive reinforcement Is the most effective method for eliminating negative behavior or action. Therefore, in the United States in many areas, not only education and upbringing, but also in business, industry, there is a tendency to more and more promoting desirable behavior, and not punishment of undesirable.

Ulrik Neisser, the largest representative of the cognitive direction, entered into scientific polemics with him.

Humanistic theories of learning and education .

Understanding education more broadly than traditionally accepted, Abraham Maslow insists that it is necessary first of all to educate the individual. humanity... He is not satisfied that learning is understood only as the acquisition of associations, skills and abilities, external, and not internal in relation to the character, to the person himself. This is only one, albeit useful, part of human learning; it is important and useful in a technological society for the study of objects and things. You can learn driving skills using a behavioral approach, you can teach a foreign language using the method of association. But it is impossible to learn humanity in this way. In addition, “the world can communicate to a person only what she deserves, what she is proportionate to, what she has grown to, ... by and large, a person can receive from the world or give the world only what she herself represents” (A. Maslow, p. .152).

These two approaches also give rise to two types of education: external and internal . The humanistic approach is characterized by internally education, which, ultimately, allows the student to acquire such a set of knowledge and skills that allow him to become a “good person”. Then the problem of education will shift not to the search for a way to acquire information at higher or lower costs, but to how a person can most effectively understand and personally evaluate this information for inclusion in his experience for further use in any areas of life: at home and at work. It is with this approach that the acquired knowledge becomes meaningful, like the learning process itself.

Domestic psychologically oriented learning models .

The term itself "Personality model" assumes that the goal of teaching in this case is the general development of the student: his cognitive, emotional-volitional, moral and aesthetic capabilities. Learning takes place at a high level of difficulty. At the initial stage of training, the leading role belongs to theoretical knowledge. The key psychological element is "holistic personal growth." It is achieved due to the constantly trusting atmosphere of communication, the orientation of teachers to the development of different aspects of the personality, the consistent complication of the knowledge proposed for assimilation (L.N. Zankov, 1990; Amonashvili, 1993).

"Developmental model" is aimed at developing the theoretical thinking of the student. Developed with a focus on younger students. Much attention was paid to the development of the ability to generalize. Together with the teacher, the child learned to think according to the principle “from the general to the particular” (DB Elkonin, VV Davydov et al., 1986).

Psychology of educational activity
(psychology of learning)

The assimilation of knowledge includes the perception of educational material, its comprehension, memorization and practical application.

V.V. Davydov, one of the creators of the "developmental model" of learning, proposed the following concept formation scheme:

perception ® representation ® concept.

A change in any feature included in the content of a concept often leads to a distortion of this concept, to incorrect assimilation. When forming concepts, it is necessary to distract oneself, "break away" from everything that is insignificant in his personal experience, "shading" the essence of the concept being assimilated.

However, we emphasize that any knowledge there is an alloy concepts and images.

Assimilation is a key concept in all psychological theories of learning (learning activity, learning). It is very close in content to such concepts as "teaching", "teaching", "teaching". Each of these terms describes certain facets of the processes of an individual acquiring new cognitive capabilities, new components of the repertoire of behavior and activity. It is easy to see that these concepts are very close in content, and despite the fact that their semantic fields overlap, the difference between them is quite obvious.

In this context, by the term "learning" we mean a specially organized process of interaction between a teacher and a student, and by the term "learning" - the process of cognitive activity of an individual. Both of these processes are aimed at assimilating knowledge of generalized methods of action (skills and abilities), organizing and stimulating the cognitive, research activity of the subject, and shaping his worldview.

If the terms "learning" and "learning" describe mainly the process of gaining experience by an individual, then the term "assimilation", embracing the process, to a greater extent characterizes its result. Assimilation is a complex of processes of acquiring, consolidating, modifying and reproducing cognitive experience and ways of an individual's activity. Very close to him in content is the term "learning" widely used by behaviorists. It also describes both the process and the result of enriching individual experiences. However, one should not identify them. If in the term "assimilation" there is a clear emphasis towards the result, then the term "learning" is more focused on the process of acquiring individual experience by an individual.

Basic forms of assimilation

The assimilation process is permanent, it begins from the moment of birth and is carried out throughout a person's life, being the basis for the development of the psyche and behavior. The mechanisms of assimilation operate continuously throughout life, regardless of whether it occurs spontaneously or in specially simulated conditions of educational systems.

The word "form" denotes the external expression of any content. The main forms of assimilation are due to the characteristics of the maturation and functioning of the human psyche, as well as the specifics of its interaction with the outside world. Naturally, they are interpreted differently in different psychological theories. So, the concepts of associationists, behaviorists, cognitivists considered above offer their own ideas about the specificity of forms and about the identification of the stages of assimilation.

In Russian psychology, it is customary to interpret the forms of assimilation, proceeding from the cultural-historical concept of L. S. Vygodsky. It is argued that these forms took shape historically, and were subsequently consolidated in cultural and educational traditions. In distinguishing them, the "theory of leading types of activity" is taken as a basis (A. N. Leont'ev, D. B. Elkonin). The meaning of a particular type of activity for an individual is determined by its content and depends on which aspects of reality a person discovers and assimilates in the process of execution.

V.P. Zinchenko and B.G. Meshcheryakov argue that, on the basis of modern data on the development of the human psyche in ontogenesis, the following types of leading activity can be distinguished:

- direct communication between an infant and adults;
- object-manipulative activity characteristic of early childhood (in the process of its implementation, the child learns the historically established ways of acting with certain objects);
– role-playing game characteristic of preschool age;
- educational activities of junior schoolchildren.

When describing the leading activities of adolescents in modern Russian psychology, there are significant discrepancies. Thus, DB Elkonin argued that this is "communication with peers"; according to DI Feldshtein and VV Davydov, this is "socially useful (pro-social) activity"; other authors believe that this is "self-determination", "role experimentation", referential-meaningful activity, etc. Despite the presented discrepancies, it is easy to see that all of them, in one way or another, are reduced to the processes of active interaction of a teenager with society.

For adults, this is "proper work activity".

The authors emphasize that the presented activities are interrelated and complementary to each other. Describing the paths or factors of assimilation that dominate at each age, the authors of this approach (V.P. Zinchenko, I.A.Zimnyaya, B.G. Meshcheryakov, etc.) suggest considering them as forms of assimilation. Indeed, each of these leading types of activity has both its own content and its inherent external expression (form). It is also noteworthy that all this is closely related to the stages of personality development in ontogenesis.

A number of modern researchers very seriously and reasonably criticize the "theory of leading activities." Consideration of these questions goes beyond the discussion of the problem of assimilation. However, the factors of assimilation of a new experience by an individual can be considered independently, outside of reasoning about the existence or absence of leading types of activity. These factors include:

- interaction of the individual with the objective world;
- interaction of the individual with society;
- the game;
- teaching and other activities.

In addition, in educational psychology, each of the paths or factors of assimilation identified above is investigated. The most detailed study and description of the features of the assimilation of what is happening in the form of educational activity. This is due to the fact that in educational activities, assimilation is considered as the main product. On the contrary, in the game, in interaction with the objective world and society, in the labor activity of the individual, assimilation is usually considered as a by-product.

Learning tasks serve as a specific way of carrying out educational activities; they are designed to direct the student's activity towards acquiring the necessary theoretical knowledge, practical skills and abilities. In the course of solving educational problems, students, with the help of teachers, form cognitive activities that are adequate to those that were carried out by people when creating concepts.

The task as an object of thinking and a way of carrying out educational activities

Thinking in psychology is most often viewed as a process that unfolds in a situation of problem solving. In this context, the concept of "task" has a broader interpretation. A task is understood as a goal set in certain conditions and requiring achievement.

Usually, in the minds of most people, the concept of "task" is limited to the framework of well-known to all schooling educational tasks. This is natural, because most of us associate the word "task" with a school, which mainly uses deliberately created situations that require resolution (educational tasks, game tasks, etc.). They are compiled based on the use of certain laws or regulations.

In the psychology of thinking, the term "task" has a much broader interpretation, here it comes not only artificial, but also real problems solved by a person in various fields of knowledge and practical activity.

In order to move further in considering the problem as a psychological category, we need to correlate its content with similar concepts - "problem" and "problem situation". As you know, the term "problem" comes from a word borrowed from the ancient Greek - problema, direct translation - a task or assignment. At first glance, it may seem that the circle has closed, we define one concept through another, but this happens only at the linguistic level, both in logic and in psychology, the concepts of "problem" and "task" are not identical, they are clearly differentiated.

The problem situation, as is commonly believed, is genetically primary in relation to the tasks and problems. Therefore, both the problem and the task originate in a problem situation. In this case, we understand a problem situation as a psychological model of the conditions for generating thinking on the basis of a spontaneously (situational) arising cognitive need. In the course of theoretical reasoning or practical activity, a person encounters an obstacle - such a situation is usually qualified as problematic.

This obstacle determines only the initial stage of the subject's mental interaction with the object. As a result of this primary interaction, a cognitive motive is born, and preliminary hypotheses are put forward regarding the possible resolution of the problem situation. Further testing of the hypotheses is required, it leads to the fact that the problem situation is transformed either into a problem or into a task.

The problem arises when the desired object is outlined in the cognizable object, which must be found by transforming certain conditions... This feature of the tasks is especially clearly manifested in educational and game tasks. In this case, the task acts as a symbolic model of a problem situation.

In contrast to the task, the problem is perceived as a contradictory situation. Its main hallmark are dialectically related, opposite positions that arise when explaining the nature of the same objects, phenomena and relations between them. This is not a formal-logical, as is often the case in a task, but a dialectical contradiction within a single object, phenomenon or process. Here we are really faced with a bifurcation into opposites and the requirement to construct a theory with the help of which this contradiction can be resolved. Transforming a problem situation into a task or series of tasks is an act of productive thinking.

The resolution of dialectical contradictions is the core of the problem. The same circumstance makes the problem a source for the development of scientific theories. Thus, in a problem situation, the central element is the subject, in the problem - the symbolic object, and in the problem - the contradiction. In order to solve a problem, it must be transformed into a creative, cognitive task that allows testing models of certain conscious or intuitive decisions.

A task becomes a psychological category when it is presented to and accepted by the subject. It acts as an object and as an object of human mental work. As a result, the subject begins to solve the problem, which indicates the inclusion of the thinking process. Therefore, thinking is often viewed as a problem-solving process.

The task has a specific structure. Usually it includes requirements - "goal", conditions - "known" and sought - "unknown". These elements are naturally related. Features of the structure of the problem affect the activities to solve it. The full cycle of productive thinking includes the formulation and formulation of a task by the subject himself, which occurs when he is presented with tasks, the conditions of which are problematic.

The tasks can be real, i.e. arising in the process of life and activity, and can be artificial, compiled specifically to achieve certain goals, most often pedagogical. Artificial tasks include learning and playing tasks.

Since these tasks are created on purpose, artificially, it is necessary general rules by which they can be created. When developing these rules, reliance is made on the basic functions of the learning process. Since it is from them that these rules follow, and in accordance with them can be considered from three points of view: informational, developmental and motivational. Thus, in its most general form, the educational task should help in mastering new knowledge, develop thinking and other cognitive functions, and motivate interest in further study of the subject.

Therefore, the first rule applied to an educational task is that the task should be based on material that gives new knowledge, which forms the scientific picture of the world.

Since in terms of training, not only the external information material on which the task is built is important, but also the solution process itself, the solution must be complex, it must not be read explicitly, the true intention must be hidden. Sometimes different methods are even used for this: a paradoxical first move is introduced, which contradicts the rules for conducting this type of activity; the appearance of a departure from the decision is created; the so-called "false trail" is set.

The next rule is that the decision should be dynamic, sharp, unexpected.

The fourth rule is that the idea must be original.

And finally, fifth, the task must satisfy aesthetic requirements.

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