Asian production method and antique slavement. The formation and development of monetary relations and the banking system in the ancient period The basis of production relations in the ancient system
The premature history of mankind was connected with the translation from the assignment farm (fishing, hunting and gathering) to farming and cattle breeding, this was the basis for the formation of the manufacturing economy, the main results of which appearing the emergence of new forms of housing and the transition to a strong settling.
The most common line of transition to the producing economy was the line of addition of agricultural and cattle farms based on the highly developed economy of collectors and hunters.
In two of its versions - primarily the agricultural and primarily cattle - this line was most characteristic of the forefront, the seized territory of modern Syria, Iran, Iraq, Turkey and the countries of the Eastern Mediterranean.
In these regions, many types of plants and wild animals were concentrated, which could serve as the source material for domestication.
In addition, the right of Asia is considered to be the birthday of most cultivated plants and domestic animals, on the breeding of which was based in antiquity and is now based on the economy of a significant part of Eurasia, including in our state.
The following features were characterized by a considerable method of production in Asia:
1) state or state-community ownership of land;
2) The presence of a strong unifying start:
a) despotic (when the community is headed by the head of the family tribe);
b) democratic (when power in the community belongs to the fathers of families);
3) Formal freedom of community members.
The emergence and existence of community relationships were largely obliged to the circumstances that the construction and use of irrigation channels (irrigation systems) were possible only as a result of joint efforts. By virtue of this circumstance, no builder could claim some part of the built irrigation system, which is why this system itself could be exclusively in the state (community) property.
It is also necessary to take into account the fact that in conditions of arid climate, value has not any value, but only such a land plot that can get the necessary moisture. The second circumstance even more strengthened the position of the owners of irrigation systems, gave them in fact unlimited right to attract free communities to the rest of the labor service. Thus, in the Asian (at least prevailing), the ownership of a separate person did not exist, and there was only its possession, while the community was real, the present owner.
If an Asian production method suggested as his basis as such as such, the base of the ancient form was the city as a created place of settlement (center) of landowners (land owners), while Pashnya was the territory of the city, and the peasant was a citizen (i.e. citizen This state) is only due to the fact that he was the owner of a part of arable land. Thus, antique peoples, the classic example of which are the Romans (they have been manifested in the most pure form), state land ownership at the same time performed in two qualities - state land and private land ownership.
According to its socio-economic essence, slavery is the labor of some people (slaves) on others, connected to the personal affiliation of the workers' slave owner - to the one who assigns the product of his work. Slavery, being predominantly intensive model of farming, is based on an increase in the amount of product produced by increasing the number of employees (slaves).
The productive forces of ancient slavery, along the Varon, are the guns of three types: speakers (slaves), mice (bulls) and dumb (agricultural equipment), while the main productive force of the ancient economy was slave.
According to Columella, "Breast, based on slavery, brought the greatest harm: slaves fought the earth badly, grilled grain, when a crop laying, it missed his number in counting records." Cheap labor also could not stimulate the introduction of technical improvements. All this, together taken (low quality labor and technical stagnation), ultimately contributed to the massive rupture of landowners, the elimination of the economic system, in which the basis of production relations is the ownership of the slave for all elements of production, including the worker - slave.
The story allocates 3 stages of the development of ancient slavery:
1) Folding - from the XII-VIII centuries. BC e. (China Times of the Zhowsky Kingdom) and IX-VIII centuries. BC e. (Greece "Homerovskaya era") before the VIII-VI centuries. BC e. (Italy);
2) approval and development - from the VIII-III centuries. BC e. (China times of slave-owner kingdoms of Chunzu-Zhango period), V-IV centuries. BC e. (Greece of the era of policies during their heyday) to the III-I centuries. BC e. (Italy of the time of the Roman Republic of the Republic of Late);
3) decay - with II century. BC e. (Han Empire in the East) to V c. n. e. (Roman Empire in the West).
The distinctive economic and economic trait of the first stage is the growth of production at the expense of the expanding application of slaves.
The second stage is connected with the achievement of the maximum resource industry of slaves; This is the heyday of the states-states reduced to one center ("Police" in Greece, "Go" in China, "Tsivitas" in Italy), this is a stage of strengthening property and acquiring double detention (as mentioned above).
The third stage of the ancient slavery is the stage of inconsistency of the possibilities of sub-minced labor, increasingly increasing social needs, and therefore the slave-owned society comes to solving two interrelated problems:
1) a change in the status of labor, its liberation (which objectively leads to the emergence of feudal relations);
2) Equipment of labor with more efficient devices (techniques) and methods (technology), which is a necessary condition for commercial production.
It was at this stage in the Roman Empire there is a birth of feudal relations (from Lat. Feudum - feud, possession) in the form of Coluntia - such a form of relationships between small rural producers (collens) and large landowners, in which land tenant pays rent in kind or money And performs natural duties.
Thus, the decomposition of the ancient slavery in the Roman Empire was accompanied by a change in the social status of the slave: this process was going, for example, in the direction from the Colon to Villan - a peasant in the grain dependence on the feudal (when preserving personal freedom).
| |
Although Egypt and Greece in the period B of our era are usually attributed to the "ancient world" or "slave-owned production method", however, they are representatives of different civilizations. If with economic characteristic Ancient Greece As a slave-owned production method, it is possible to agree, the economy of ancient Egypt can be represented only as an "Asian method of production". By type, the civilization of Egypt can be called "river", and the civilization of ancient Greece is "marine" (Mediterranean).
The history of countries is customary to understand as a written story. Those times about which there are no written evidence are called prehistoric. The beginning of the history of Egypt is dated 3000 BC. But the material traces of a person found on the banks of the Nile belong to 10,000 BC, and permanent settlements arose at the turn of the VI and V Millennium BC. Found in the pits of the Fayum Oasis grain dates back to 4500 BC IV millennium BC. It is called a diving period, at the end of which the name of the king is known - Narmer. About this period there are also written evidence. In the period 3000-2778 BC. There was an early kingdom (two dynasties). Period 2778-2263 It is an ancient kingdom (from the III to the XII dynasty, the first pharaoh - Joser, then Snofer, Hofu - Heops). Next comes the 1st transition period (from VII to X dynasty). The period of 2160-1785. BC. Received the name "mean kingdom" (from the XI to the XII dynasty). Then the 2nd transition period comes. Here reigned from the XIII XVII dynasty. From 1580 to 1085 BC. The new kingdom lasted, after which the 3rd transition period occurs, which launched until 715 BC. (from the XXI to the XXIV dynasty). The period is 715-332. BC. called "later kingdom" (from 25 to 31 dynasty). In 332 BC Egypt conquers Alexander Macedonian. From 305 to 31 BC The Ptolemyevsky period lasts, from 30 G. BC. 395 AD. The Roman period continued.
Egyptian language has been deciphered by about 1830 by the French philologist Champolon. It was now established that in the evolution of the Egyptian language there were 4 phases: Stariphetsky language (until the XXIII century BC), the Mesneleg (classic) language (until the XV century BC), Novo-Egypt language (until the VII century. BC .E.) And demotic language (up to V. BC). Next, the Egyptian language turns into the Coptic, which was used until the XVI century. AD Now there are 20 thousand ancient Egyptian words.
Ancient Egyptian writing (hieroglyphs) was based on a sound principle (in contrast, for example, from Chinese hieroglyphs), which lay down the basis of European languages. The words "Papirus", "Oasis", "Ebonit", "Basalt", "Natra", "Chemistry" reached us from the Egyptian language. The hieroglyphic letter was used in Egypt 3,500 years, i.e. More than any other writing system (cylinder, Latin alphabet, etc.). The invention of writing was the largest contribution of the Egyptians to the world civilization. From hieroglyphs in the XVI century. BC. There was a Sinai letter, from it in the XIII century. - Phoenician letter, then through Aramaic writing in the IX century. BC. originated greek alphabetFrom him - Latin, from Latin - Slavic ABC. In the outlining of modern letters, signs of Egyptian origin are found.
History of Egypt (3000 BC) opens with written documents as the history of the United (Lower and Upper) Egypt.
The material basis of the economy of ancient Egypt was the River Nile, the most long river In the world, the use of which required not just the forces of the team, but even the forces of a single state. Work on irrigation and maintenance of hydroremors required not only the centralization of economic power, but also of its deification. Pharaoh was revered as a living God, and not only as a king. If God-Pharaoh ruled normally and it was unquestionless to him, then in the country there was prosperity and abundance, the spills of the Nile brought the crops of barley, wheat, cattle multiplied, gold, silver, copper and many other goods were brought to the country. But if the divinity of Pharaoh was questioned, then in the country there was a decline, brother walked on his brother. Neil rolled his waters past the fields, hunger has come, imported goods disappeared. To support the divinity of the chief irrigator, pyramids, churches were built, a religious cult acted. Pyramids and temples are not an expression of human expression by a person, but the main factor in the performance of social labor. Asuan dam, by the way, fundamentally undermined this productivity, because it delays fertile Il, without which water loses fertility.
Pharaoh was the top of the Planned-Economic and Regulatory Center of Egypt. The state in his face was the supreme owner of all irrigated land. The state (through the officials of officials) was transferred to the peasant communities of the land into hereditary use, for this a natural payment was charged, and - according to the biological principle - depending on the crop in this season. The peasant was legally free, but for the use of land was obliged to pay (in kind). The text of the confession of Ramses III reached us: "My commandments recorded in each office, I give them (sanctoes) of people and land, cattle and ships. Their barges float on the Nile ... I filled your bark barley and wheat ... I made millions of vascular vessels, gold, silver and copper ... ". Although the life of ordinary people was a screaming, as long as they read Pharaoh as God, they were not solved to the uprising. Taking care of his divine greatness, Pharaohs were delivered not only in management, but also in all technical issues: Network I took care of the search for water for gold miners near EDF, Ramses IV after studying the documentation himself examined the mountain, near which construction was assumed. Ramses II studied water production methods in the Ikate desert (he believed that the greatness did not allow him to leave the bank of the Nile, and therefore he was led mainly to sitting in his palace).
Despite the centralization of economic power, the competitive principle acted in Egypt. The dominant economic group was scribes, or, in modern, intelligentsia. But the positions of scribes were not simply inherited. To become a scribe, it was necessary to finish the school of scribes, and this depended on the diligence and talent. Noble origin could help admission to school, but could not provide her successful ending. A part of the scribes came out of ordinary people. Officials of all ranks were a huge amount, and they all recruited from those who graduated from school. The leaving of the village, excluded from the school, was supposed to turn to peasant labor. Casting in Egypt was not, the posts were engaged in both hereditary and competitive basis by those who graduated from the scribes. Since the most ancient times, the administration of Egypt was very competent, already at the first dynasty, the scribes were gripped on the clay jugs of the jugs and titles using seals. A simple person could also make a big career: Pthaschepses, starting with a hairdresser, reached the position of Prime Minister of King Sahura (V dynasty).
In the economy of Agriculture of Egypt, the peasant economy and serving its irrigation infrastructure are allocated. Even in prehistoric times, the construction of irrigation canals began. At all times, these officials were engaged in these, permanent and temporary workers. The spills of the Nile and drought on the river were regularly alternated during the year, but their intensity was fluid. In Egypt, the first groups of meteorologists, agronomists and planners appeared. Although these groups did not constitute the caste, they, nevertheless, jealously guarded their knowledge, held them secretly and had privileges consecrated by religion. There was a layer of a privileged land aristocracy (called "Pat", the unprivileged population was called "Refirm").
For the Egyptians, it was not determined for the year not a solar cycle, and time from the crop to the harvest. Such a year was called Renpet. He was depicted in the form of a young sprout with the kidneys. At the beginning of June, drought began, Nile dried and mell. However, then the spill came, the river came out from the banks and returned to the river only after 4 months. This period of 4 months was for the Egyptians the first time of the year and was called "Ahet". Immediately after the end of the spill, it was started to sow. Then 4-5 months crushed sowing. This time of the year was called "Peret". Then followed the season "Shem" - harvesting with subsequent drought.
In total, the Egyptians had three years of year. But the beginning of the new year was difficult to determine because of certain oscillations of the intensity of the river flow. Subsequently, all three seasons began to be considered equal, divided for 12 months to 30 days. By the last month added another 5 days. But the error in a quarter of a day led to errors while waiting for the beginning of the Nile spill. The special concern of Pharaoh was to eliminate this error by adding 1 day every 4 years. Calculations of the time scientists "Life Houses" were engaged. The establishment with this title was in the largest temples of Egypt. The house of life was a meeting of scientists, priests and wise men who were engaged in sciences, including astronomy, geodesy, mathematics, etc. These were the centers of the economic and intellectual life of ancient Egypt. A time division system was also developed within a day: a day and night were divided by 12 hours each. The clock had their own names: the first hour of the day was called "brilliant", the sixth - the "lifting hour", the twelfth - "RA merges with life." In some temples, there were special priests for each hour, which consistently replaced each other on duty. This category of priests was called "off", from the word "shut" (hour). At night, the priests determined the hour on the stars. For this, two people were involved - an observer and assistant. At the same time, the observer used a specially compiled table, valid only for 15 days, as it was necessary to use different stars at different times at different times. Water clocks were invented - "Klepsidra". Solar clocks were used. In everyday life, time was measured by a simple assessment of "Sun".
The main cultures in Egypt were barley and wheat. Seathelie and pahari worked at the same time. Since the land before sowing was wet, then a sower was in front, and behind him, the Pakhaar who did a furrow to overwhelm the land of the sown grain. LEMEH The primitive plow was metallic or wooden. Plow pulled a couple of cows. The soil was soft, and the bulls were used on heavier work. Pahambers usually had two: one kept behind the plow handles, and the other directed the harness.
The harvest was carried out by sickles. The rebels cut off the bunches of the ears and put them on the ground. They walked behind them who collected ears. Crazy grains were collected in bowls. About whether straw was collected, unknown. The work was carried out from dawn to darkness. IN large farms used supervisors. Sometimes workers accompanied the musician with flute, he sang a song. Sometimes sang songs and workers themselves. One such song reached us:
How beautiful day!
Get out of the ground.
Rises the north wind.
The sky performs our desires.
We love our work.
The thread was made on the currents, the ears were scared on the ground, the bulls were drunk on them, while the workers were smuggled by the spikes. Then, the molded grain was implanted with a primitive way, referred to the baskets and sent to the granaries towers.
Sowed also flax. In animal husbandry bred goats, sheep, horses, cows. Sheep wool Egyptians did not use, unlike nomads. They also bred pigs, geese and ducks. Chickens appeared only later. Under the pastures, uncomfortable land for agriculture. Birds were divorced in special pens, which remained unchanged from the ancient to the new kingdom.
A significant part of the Nile Valley was different swamps (the Egyptian name of the Delta of Nila Mehet means "swamp"), which were used for hunting, fisheries and mining of papyrus. In the delta, people lived at the expense of swamps. From the fibers of the papyrus of the rope of the rope, they made mats, networks, chairs, cells, snovels and sold residents of a arid zone. From thick stems of the papyrus built huts. For fishing, the fish did one-way wooden vessels.
Neil Egyptians called ITERA (River). The deity of the HAPPI was nothing more than the embodiment of the fertile strength of this river.
At first in Egypt, as in other countries of the East, stone implements were used. But metallurgy gradually occurred. Initially worked only with noble metals, and then with copper. Bronze appears, starting from the XII dynasty (in the era of the middle kingdom). Egyptian craft reached the highest level for the ancient world. Treasures from the tomb of Tutankhamon (XVIII dynasty, a new kingdom) are also evidenced by eloquently. Primitive technology was compensated by a high level of skill. The craft, however, was two-level: for kings and for a simple people. The rulers of Egyptian divisions (Nomov) had their craft, which can be considered a subspecies of the "royal". In the quarries, mines, workshops worked free people, slaves were used only sometimes on supporting work, since Egypt was a labor-proceeding country. The work of slaves was applied to meet the prestige of Pharaoh and rich people.
Part of the metals was made from ores in Egypt itself, but a significant part was imported from Asia, especially copper. From other countries, the production of weapons was borrowed, especially such an effective as sickle swords, chariots, etc. Each workshop had a manager, and all workshops were headed by the chief manager of certain possessions. For example, under the image of the main manager holds of Amon (named Duaunhech), such an inscription was preserved: "Came to check the workshop to open two houses of gold and silver to organize all the work to lead all the works that depend on the manager ..." . In large scale, artworks were carried out: vases, glasses, jugs, bowls, decorating their figures of people or animals, were sharpened from marble and alabasra; Only in one papyrus it is reported that 13568 statuettes from Lazurit and turquoise were donated to the temples; Drew pictures and made sculptures. There were large workshops with hired workers who received the fee for labor - provisions, clothing, etc. There are cases of strikes when all these things were not supplied on time. All major work processes and their results were recorded by scribes.
The main provisions characterizing the Asian method of production are excellent and from primitive, and from the ancient, such:
- department of crafts from farming, a very differentiated separation of handicraft work within a separate ownership (royal, ruler number, temple, communities, etc.);
- natural exchange of labor products of various possessions, primarily peasant and craft;
- payment of tax rents to various instances.
The basic law of such a society was that the developed division of labor within the community (or other ownership) did an unnecessary division of labor within society. Hence the stagnant nature of the economy. In Egypt, for example, for 3 thousand years of its history, including the I century BC, actually did not occur in the economy. Until recently, a shadour (water-lifting crane) was used in Egypt for watering fields, which was known for another 5 thousand years ago. The emergence of even the coin money has not changed in the principle of this method of production. Even the conquest of Egypt Alexander Macedonian and his subsequent Hellenization could not turn an Asian method of production to antique. Only addresses of recipients of tax rents changed. As before, Egypt's lands were divided into royal and defendants. The defendant lands decayed the domestic, temple and land Cleruukhov (military settlers). For example, in the village of Kerkeziris from 1230 hectares (4700 Aruir), 700 hectares belonged to the king. It was treated all these lands peasants who were members of the community. From the royal land, the Renta tax was sent to the king (in kind), and from other lands to the relevant owners. Local officials received instructions from royal officials from the capital and under the production process, they were observed for the state of the channels, the counting of livestock, etc., was sowing. What exactly to sow, was prescribed from above. If the lands were irrigated, but not flooded, two harvest was collected from them.
The rental tax coming from communities and possessions is subject to strict daily accounting in warehouses and in the covers. Products were intended to meet the needs of Pharaoh, his officials and servants. Surplus products were commissioned in trade turnover: products either exchanged to others for the king and servants, or were transferred to wholesale merchants. The peasants and artisans were selling surplus products and acquired other, they needed. For this there were markets. The exchange in the markets was barter in nature, but some counting units were served as a measure of value (countable money). The first countable barter unit was one of Schotit. Its accurate value is unknown. Later, in the era of the middle kingdom, new units arose - Deben (90 grams) and Kedet (9 grams) of gold, silver, copper or precious stones. According to the recorded records in papyrus, the bag's bag was valued in 1 debente copper, bull - in 30 - 130 debenses of copper. But this value measurement was used only for calculations, for an account, the exchange was the barter. Only when, with the last framework and in the 3rd transition period, mass robbers of pharaoh tombs, nobles, robbery of temples occurred, the mass of precious metals was injected into circulation. Products have become exchanged on debt and gold, silver and copper swakes.
For the movement of the Egyptians, they used the channel along the West Bank of the Nile, as well as channels walking towards the Western deserts. Allowed channels led to the desert to oases. The largest oases were Fayumsky, small, large oasis El Harge, etc. The special channel joined Egypt with the Red Sea. Simultaneously with the channel, roads were laid. The main modes of transport were ships and belongings, the poor traveled on foot. There were no sailors in Egypt, for transportation on the Mediterranean Sea, the Egyptians hired alien sailors, which were transported either on the courts of Egypt or on their vessels.
The system, which was in Egypt (Asian production method), is very similar to the Soviet economy. The cult of the personality of Stalin corresponded to the deification of the Pharaoh's personnel and served as the key to the performance of social labor. The economy was conducted on directions from the center. Instead of public division of labor, there was a division of labor within enterprises, regions. The money, in fact, was assessed, the market was absent. Renta tax was used to create weapons and part-time. It is known that before recently there were "soldering", for which ministers, deputy ministers and part-time in special distributors received products at low prices. Had and similar to egyptian pyramid (Lenin's Mausoleum), at the top of which came the "live God" and welcomed his people. The authorities did not hold on repressions (they played an additional role), and on faith in Stalin and Marxism-Leninism.
In ancient Egypt, the initial association of the Upper and Lower Kingdoms (the Crown of the Upper Egypt was white, the Nizhny - Red, the ruler of the United Egypt was a double crown) was accompanied by uprisings and their cruel suppression. Pharaoh, named Hasem, left a record of one of the plastered over the rebels in Nizhny Egypt, indicating that he killed 48205 rebels and 120 thousand took captive. But the foundation of the country's prosperity was faith in the fact that the king is a living God.
The first ruler of the ancient kingdom (founder of the III dynasty) Joser built the first (stepwise) pyramid around 2770 BC. It is now proven that the pyramids cost cheaper than previously represented, and were built faster (10-20 years). The pyramid was the symbol of the power and divinity of the ruler. In Egypt there was a system of multiplicity of the gods, there were both subsystems. In One (Heliopol) there was a subsystem called Ennead Dehes (out of 9 gods): Ra-Atum, Shu, Tefnut, Geb, Nut, Osiris, Isis, Seth, Oil. The chief of the first capital of the ancient kingdom of Memphis was God Ptah, patron saint of crafts and arts.
But, despite all the efforts of the deification of power and Pharaoh, in ancient Egypt there was a common skepticism regarding all of this. Thus, in the song of the harpist, recorded on many walls, even the walls of the tombs, it is said that the luxurious tombs are not saved from oblivion, but the wisdom of the deceased person makes it forever existing. Soil for this skepticism was quite frequent shifts of kings and dynasties, as well as the collapse of the kingdoms.
In the era of the ancient kingdom, the fact that now the name of the GNP (gross national product) has increased. The rulers of Nomov (which was about 40) rich, their appointment to the position gradually ceased to be the function of the king. At the same time, very poor urban layers arose with the wealth of nursing, as well as the layers of peasants in the village. At the end of the VI of the dynasty, as a result of the desire to know, Egypt collapsed into the nomes of the poorest layers. After that, the economy of the country began to tear down to decline and launch, the irrigation systems began to collapse, the fixed capital was defined, the troubles began, hunger, robbery. The troubled time (1st transition period) lasted more than 200 years. Although formally, the kings existed (VII-X dynasty, 2263-2040. BC), but there was no centralized economic management, the population declined, the peasants were depleted, artisans ruined. As stated in ancient records, darkness has come in Egypt. It is impossible to install how many specimen was on the throne. Nobody believed them and did not obey.
Reggerently united the country only Mentukhotep, the founder of the XI dynasty, after a long and bloody war. His successors provided the restoration and expansion of irrigation systems, approved the domination of Sinai and Nubia. The production of bronze, agricultural and agricultural instrument has improved, as well as weapons. According to the records of that time, Egypt has become a "blooming green garden."
About 2000 BC The government captured the royal commander Amenheth, he founded the XII dynasty. Historians argue that the new pharaoh ensured the further and true prosperity of Egypt. But in the literature of the middle kingdom there was no longer the same faith in the constancy and invariance of public order.
Asian production method is wider than the concept of "River Civilization". Such a production method was distributed and in Decolumba America (there was only civilization), and in China, in India, in Russia. The method of production in serfthrough Russia was not by its nature feudal. It was an Asian production method with westernization elements. Feudalism existed only in the Novgorod Republic, which Ivan Grozny won and ruined his numerous wars. For feudalism, coercion is characteristic of land ownership to pay rent, on the one hand, and urban self-government opposing feudalities, on the other hand. In Russia, this was not, the law on self-government was adopted only in 1997, and the self-government really does not even today, which is an obstacle to the formation of capitalism.
The first thing that immediately rushes into the eyes is a non-agricultural basis. If in Egypt and other civilizations with the Asian method of production, the basis of the economy was centrally adjustable agriculture (agriculture), at the basis of the Mediterranean economy (ancient Greece), there was a non-agricultural decentralized factor. This factor is a trading and industrial exchange. And the second is that the global economy came to replace the country economy of Egypt. Civilized world of antiquity covered dozens (and even hundreds) of the pool states Mediterranean Sea. Both of these circumstances can be combined with the characteristic "International Labor Separation". The unity of atomic policies was achieved through trade.
International division of labor, trade and use of slaves as a specific means of production (as an "instrument speaker" along with real guns) - the factors of the economy of ancient civilization. But this does not mean that the production method was slave-owned (slave). Worked and free population; The proportion of free labor was much more than 50%. If in ancient Egypt, the work of slaves was used mainly in the service sector and in the household, then in ancient Greece - mainly in industry, on a capitalist basis, i.e. The slaves bought for money, this money should have paid off and bring a profit to the owner by producing goods. If the work of slaves did not pay off, then the hired work of free people, peasants, meters (foreigners) were used, and slaves were released to freedom without providing them with citizenship.
In the history of ancient Greece there are 4 major periods:
- Aegean world and Homerovskaya Greece,
- Early Greece
- Classical Greece
- Hellenism.
The history of the economy of ancient civilization opens by the history of Crete, which is a binder between the history of the economy of ancient Egypt and the economy of ancient Greece. With VI in the III Millennium BC. In Crete, the economy of Neolithic - the Novocamean Age dominated, then the economy of the honey-no-stone century and, finally, the economy of the copper-bronze century. Cretan culture is also called a minist, its duration - 18th centuries. In the mine economy there are 3 periods (in each of which there are 3 subpoles):
- Rannunovina (3000-210 BC),
- Medium-day (2100-1580),
- Latenoye (1580-1200).
The flowering of the Crete economy falls at 1750-1450. BC.
Crete's economy was initially as an Asian production method, but thanks to geographical position Transformed into shopping and marine, becoming an antipost of an ancient economy. Crete served functions that later switched Greece: maritime trade, creating a large fleet, conquering the Cycladic Islands, their colonization. In Crete there were conditions for agriculture and animal husbandry, but the main thing was trade between the countries of Europe, Asia and Africa. At the same time, the northern port of Knossos and the southern port of Fest, as well as ports of Kidonia, Malnia, Gurnia (North), Palecastro, Trok (East). The main foreign trade relations of Crete were with Egypt, fierce, mixes and three (ILION). Minos cleaned the sea routes from pirates, and mediating began to bring big profits. Rights were built between the ports of the North and the south of Crete. Navigilities on land were not only pack, but also on the carts (with two and four wheels).
IN ancient time The function of money performed cattle, and with minos (XVI century BC) - copper bars, gold and silver plates. In the go were Egyptian, Phoenician and Babylonian standards of weight measures, length, etc. The invention in Crete Barki (ship with a raised nose and low edges) made a coup in naval and trade. Writing in Crete was first hieroglyphic (it was different from Egyptian and not decrypted so far), and then linear and silobic (syllated).
During the breakout for the economy, the division of labor and high handicraft techniques were characterized, which can be seen by objects that are extracted during excavations (products of gunsmiths, kuznetsov, carpenters, lecherns, pots, bronzevers, carvers, worst masters, drawers, sculptors, etc. .).
The Knos Ruler joined the priest functions and military leaders. When excavations of Palaces of Knos and Festa, storehouses are found with large food reserves. The walls of the palaces are decorated with colored paintings that can compete with the painting of medieval France. Many highly artistic products are found, including sculptures. The famous Cretan artist and architect Dedal built a Mina labyrinth - a miracle of construction art.
Cretan domination applied to Athens. Later, Crete was conquered by the Greeks (Ahetis).
In parallel, the Crete was developed by the Culture of Mycene, located on Mainland Greece, in the history of which the subpireration of the XIV-XII centuries. BC. called Mycenaean. In mycken, the Greeks of Ahaeis lived, who came from the North Balkans around 2000 BC. Around the XI century. BC. Ahaeis were strongly darkened by Dorians. Agamemenon's outstanding king was Agamemnon, on the orders of which a large dome tomb was built, known as the "Treasury of the King Atreya". Valuable treasures are found not only in the mixes, but also in other places (in the ancient cities of Tirinf, Orkhomen, phiva, Troada). Mixed monuments primitive compared to Crites. From Christians, Aheitsy borrowed a letter that was adapted to their language. The Trojan War, described in Odyssey and Iliad Homer, was a banana decline of Mycene. The aheitsa poured into small Asia, in the XII century. They were changed by Dorian tribes.
Subpperiod from the XII to the VII century. BC. In the Greek economy was a period of decline. The crotto-mycean economy was destroyed by Dorian barbarians who defeated the use of iron weapons. In itself, the spread of iron was progress for the history of the economy, but it was destruction and decline. The evidence of the deterioration of the level of handicraft production is the so-called Dipilon vases, which are found in the vicinity of Athens. They belong to the XI century, rude finishing and drawing.
The method of production, which Dorians brought, was, in fact, primitive. But the Greek economy was already in the decomposition stage. Military agricultural aristocracy dominated. From farmers, shepherds and fishermen separated by Basilei, private owners who represented aristocracy. Their farm was natural, with the use of free and slave labor and was called Okos. Okosa consisted of large houses, bread fields, pastures and vineyards. For plowing, plows harvested by oxen were used. The plow with a harness of two bulls swallowed a third of the hectare to a depth of up to 25 cm. Iron tools were used - Kirk, a beater and a snoot. Used manure fertilizer and irrigation using channels.
Labor in the Homer Epoch for free was not considered shameful, as it became in the classical era. Although the farm was mainly natural, it did not do without imported goods, for which we paid for the export of wine and fruit. Some baucaleans turned into professional merchants and entrepreneurs. Along with the trade, the Greeks were engaged in piracy.
All this led to the decomposition of natural economy and patriarchal system. Separated craft associated with iron treatment: metallurgy, miniature business, the manufacture of weapons - since these classes demanded experience and skill. But there was no strict specialization, the blacksmith and the carpenter could be alternately by the manufacturer and carts, furniture, ships, etc. Slavery existed mainly homely, but slaves were used in different branches of farming and cattle breeding. The main source of slaves was wars. The price of the slave fluctuated from 8 to 20 bulls. The king gradually lost a leading role, only the functions of the priest remained behind him.
Period VIII-VI centuries. In the history of the economy of ancient Greece is called archaic (or early). In the VIII century BC. There were 3 groups of Greek settlements:
- ahasei-Aeoli Group (Northeast),
- ionian group (East and Small Asia),
- dorian (south).
The settlements of the Greeks expanded in all directions from Greece, so Greek civilization acquires international character. This period is also called "Great Colonization", which has acquired a systemic nature. The orders in the colonies basically reproduced the system of the metropolis, but the generic relations in the colonies were much more weak. The initiative of the colonization proceeded from the developed cities of Malaya Asia - Mileta, Ephesus, as well as from the islands and Balkan Greece (Halkida, Megara, Corinth). Colonization went to the east (to the shores of the Black Sea inclusive), west (in Italy, Sicily), south (Egypt, Kerenaica). In Crimea, there was a whole series of Greek cities - Chersonese, Feodosia and others; In Italy - Tartan, Sibaris, Croton; In Egypt, a colony of the Greeks reached; West Egypt - Kyrena Colony. The Greeks colonized the coast and did not penetrate the depths of the territories. In the VII century In the lowland Greek cities began a coin chasing. Antique civilization covers all Mediterranean. Rome in those times was still economically insignificant.
Halkida on Evbee became the city of copper mines. On about. Chios invented the way to solder iron. Millet was the center of metallurgy, weaving and dyeing, as well as ceramics. In Greece itself, it was transferred to the import of wheat and engaged in growing grapes, olives and fruits, as well as beekeeping and gardening. It became the profitable operation of slaves in agriculture and industry.
The economic rise undermined the value of the generic aristocracy. Under the pressure of the cash economy and the slave method of production, the generic system was deposited. "Not a good reason, but wealth make a person," such was the slogan of the economy VI c., While in the VIII century. The point was different. All this led to the exacerbation of the class struggle, and in response to this, the state tyranny came to replace the generic democracy. Tiras often represented the interests of the poor, although they were leaving aristocracy.
Tiracy meant the capture of power by one person. She reminded the royal power that existed in the IX century. BC. In addition to tyrants, the ice wasisimized - elected persons who, like tyrants, had to resolve conflicts between rich and poor. The role of Tiragia and Isizment was to destroy the domination of a child name and in the transition to democracy. The first victory of democracy was the publication of written laws (otherwise - the codification of the usual law).
By comparing these events with modernity, it can be said that in Russia the analogue of the domination of the generic aristocracy was Bolshevism, when the written right was formal, and the economic and other issues were solved according to the principle of "beneficial parties or not." In the current post-Soviet period there is a codification of customary law for Russia.
The first written laws appear BVII. BC, first in Greek colonies, where there was less interference from the generic aristocracy. Kharonda laws for the city of Katana (Sicily) and the laws of delay for the Yuzhitalist city of Locks are known. Although these first laws were imperfect and too severe, they were of great importance for the progress of the economy. The transfer of material values \u200b\u200bfrom one person to another was simplified, the principle of private property was approved, the creditor and debtor rights were guaranteed.
By the way, in Russia now all these problems are not solved so far. The population in the hands of about $ 50 billion, which people are afraid to entrust banks and a state that does not give guarantees of their preservation (not so long ago, Sberbank usurped the right of ownership about $ 300 billion dollars, privatization also has no present legal justification, exist Requirements of the transfer of property, etc.).
Other changes followed the codification of the usual right. The aristocratic councils democratized, the generic philas were replaced by territorial, instead of generic deities, reverence were introduced to those who were popular with the people.
Tirands as a transitional link to democracy was underestural. There is information about Tirana Frasibul (Millet), Tirana Polycrat (about. Samos), which was the owner of the master's workshop, and the wealth inherited from the Father-merchant, which was engaged in marine trade. With a double in 50 people, a polycrate in the 2nd half of the VI century. captured on about. Samos power and rules with two brothers, and then one. He built a huge temple of the gera, plumbing and much more. The polycrate had a large semi-grade-semi-liter fleet, which dominated the marine paths. Persian governor Oroets lured the polycrata to Asia and executed, which led to the weakening of Samos, who soon fell under the rule of Persians.
Tirands contributed to the creation of an ancient method of production as such. In Corinth, Sikion and Megaars Tirasti acted most successfully. So, in Corinth in the middle of the VII century. BC. Tiraran has established himself. He expelled the dominant of Bakchyadov to him, although he himself was a leaving from this kind. His son and the successor to Periandr (627-585), which spent a lot of reforms, raised the industry and trade. Generic philas were replaced by territorial, in which the generic aristocracy had no advantage. New Corinth colonies were created, the old monetary system was replaced by a new, the fleet was increased, roads were built, breakthrough channels. Crafts and art achieved a very high level, as evidenced by Corinth Vases reached us.
In the last period of the history of early Greece, the Athenian state is formed. Athens is the capital of Attica - Peninsula, which in the East goes to the Aegean Sea. Historical attic roots are in critical-mixing civilization. In the subsequent time, Basilei dominated the Attics. There were several independent states that competed with each other. Subsequently, the communities around the Athens occurs. This type of union in ancient Greece was called "Sinaikism". The attic was 4 tribal unions (phila). They shared on phratries, and phratries - for childbirth. Rich aristocrats were called Zvpitris, agriculties - geomoras, artisans - demiurges, there were still merchants and fets that were employed for money or for a kind of fee. In addition, there were slaves, the number of which increased.
Along with local institutions there are generalifications. Athens from the Basilee fortress turned into a city-polis, which was actually a state. At the head of state stood Archont. Then the number of archons brought to 9, they specialized in various sectors of the Office, elected for a year and did not receive fees for the execution of positions. At the end of the authority, the Archonts became members of the highest state Council (Areopaga).
The first written laws in Athens were the laws of Dracon (621 BC). Almost for all crimes relied the death penalty. The fundamental reform of the laws conducted the first Archont Solon. He destroyed debts, forbade the personal cable of citizens and sell into slavery. Slavery was released. It was called "sisakhfia". Thus, the average class of land owners was strengthened. Solon issued other new laws: about the land maximum, about the freedom of the will, who argued the private ownership of land and the admission of crushing land. Instead of a low-value eginsky coin, a full-fledged eevbeys was introduced. Events were carried out to support artisans, metacks (seded artisans) received the right to citizenship. The logical conclusion of the reform was the so-called thymocracy - political reform, which canceled the division of citizens by generic origin (generation) and established division by 4 discharge by the amount of income received. The income was measured by a genuine measure called "Medimn" (41 liters). Who received 500 medimans and more (grains, wine, oil, etc.), he entered the highest - the first category (pentakosomedymna), which received 300 medimans were called horsemen, 200 - zevgitats. The rest of the citizens were credited in the category of "Fetov". The supreme authority was the National Assembly (Eclesia), in which the fettes also participated. The second democratic authority was the jury (helium), supreme Court Athens. The Council of Four hundred (100 from each of the four phil) was elected.
Unlike many other policies, Athens recognized the right of individual and the right of private property. The middle layer (class) was in Athens the most numerous compared to other states, which ensured the prosperity of the economy.
However, groups appeared that began to fight for the restoration of old orders. Such groups were: Pedies (representatives of large land tenure), parallia (coast artisans, fought for the preservation of Solon orders), diacries (peasants who fought for the redistribution of lands). In 560, the leader of the diacries of the Piscistratus won. The Piscistratus carried out partial confiscation of lands of the rich, introduced a state loan for those who needed landowners, established them to tax benefits, and also carried out a number of other measures in their favor. The piscristist also introduced the tithe as a permanent national income tax and created a permanent army. The main attention of the Piscistratus paid the creation and development of internal and external markets, expanded employment in the port, trading and military fleet. The fleet crew was a feta that received a fee from the state (money). The Piscistratus fought for the Black Sea market, acquired a siege in the Troadade. The Board of the Piscistratus and his successors later called the golden age of Kronos.
As a result of the internal political struggle, Clisphen came to power, which began to conduct further democratic reforms. Clisphen divided the attic on the 3 territorial districts:
1) Athens city with suburbs,
2) internal area,
3) coast.
Each district consisted of ten parts, called "trittions". The purpose of these reforms was to mix childbirth and films and weaken the power of the eups. Samoa small unit division inside the trity was dem. With Clisphen, there were 100 demons, then their number increased. Dem rules Demarh, he listed each free from 18 years in the lists. Men's listed in such lists were called "Efleba". They received the right to wear weapons and be in court. From 20 years, they received all civil rights. According to the Constitution, Clisphen the rights of citizenship was determined by belonging not to the family, but to the day. In order to prevent the establishment of tyranny, a secret ballot was held annually on the shards (Ostrakism), the citizens wrote the name of dangerous, in their opinion, people. If someone received more than 50% of "black ceremonies", he was expelled from Attica for 10 years, after which he could return.
The classic period in ancient Greece is considered V and IV. up to 337 BC In 337, the Corinth in Corinth was convened by the USD, which recognized the rule of the Macedonian king. The inviolability of private property was proclaimed, the autonomy of small communities, the cassation of debts and the redistribution of land were prohibited. Athens and Sparta began to play the role of secondary cantons. Since 337, the history of the Hellenic policies is ends and the history of Hellenistic states begins (which lasted about 200 years.).
From 500 to 449 BC Greco-Persian wars occurred. It was the historical battle between the Asian production method during his heyday (the Persian power of the achemenides) and an ancient production method. The battle of armies of two civilization had a fateful value for the history of economic progress. Greece won, after which Western Europe I went along the way of development and economic progress (which, however, was not smooth), and Asia and similar countries remained with the old Asian production method, until today.
The opponent of Greece - the Persian power of the achemenide was formed in VI BC, i.e. It was the young state of the old and already existing millennium with the Asian production method. In addition to Persia to a new state, Egypt, Middine, Lydia, Babylon, and others were included. By the beginning of the war, Greece, at the head of the Persian kingdom, stood Darius I (521-485 BC), his power was unlimited. He divided the kingdom of 20 satrapy, which governors and the dandars of the king were ruled - satrap. Podachi paid in kind and money. One Cappadocia supplied, except for money, 1,500 horses, 2 thousand mules, 50 thousand sheep per year, Lydia - twice as much. The exchange coin was Darik (about 10 gold rubles of Tsarist Russia). The country had a network of wide highways, which were called royal. They had postal stations and stable courtyards. The road from the sard to Sousse had 111 stations, many bridges and fortresses. In Turkestan and Arabia, horse breeding was cultivated, in Egypt - Wheat, in Babylon, Syria and Palestine - gardening crops. The main thing was the production of small free and semi-free farmers, but there were many slaves. They paid natural lifts and worked out the barbecue. The collection of taxes was carried out on the spooky system: the partnerships were made taxes with their money, and then all taxes were in their favor, from which the delivery of the king in nature and satrapace. The Phoenician and Greek cities of Malaya Asia fell under the Persian Protectorate, bringing great profits from intermediary trading to the royal treasury.
For the economy of Persia, golden currency, state postal, effective bureaucratic apparatus, writing and strict reporting were characteristic. The Economic and Military Power of Darius I was great. He was considered the son of the main god of the country of Ormuzda, inspired fear and thrill to all neighbors. In 512, Darius I made a campaign against the Scythians, which was unsuccessful, although he reached the Volga. As a result of this campaign, Frakia and Macedonia fell under the power of Darius. Hellepspont and Bosporge were captured.
The war of Persia with Greece began with the uprising of the lowland Greeks in the city of Milet vs. Tirana Aristagor, who held the side of the Persians. The victims defeat against the rebels, Aristagor went to the camp of opponents of the Persians, for the darishes were afraid for the adhected defeat. Aristagor asked for help from Sparta and Athens, but the Spartans refused, and Athens gave an insignificantly small number of ships - only 20. The Phoenician fleet, speaking on the Darius side, had 600 ships. The rebels of the Mi-summer acted first successfully and even reached the city of Sarda, the capital of Lydia. Then there were discord between the rebels, and they were defeated. Millet was completely destroyed, the Persians captured the islands of Chios, Lesbos and Tenedos.
In 492, the commander of Mardonius, the son-in-law Darius, moved to Greece through the Balkans. But near the cape Athos on the Halkidi Peninsula, Martony Fleet was scattered, Mardoniy took only a piece.
A little later, Darius sent ambassadors to Greece with the requirement of "Water and Earth", i.e. Completeness. Macedonia, Fessiona and Beothy accepted ultimatum, in Athens, the ambassadors were thrown into pit, and in Sparta - to the Well. Spartans offered ambassadors to take the earth and water in the well.
In 490, Darius organized a new sea trip to Greece, having commissioned the command of the Commander of Datisus and his nephew Arteferna. They landed a landing in the attic, but in the battle of the marathon were defeated by Greek goplites. On the side of the Greeks fought slaves. Commanded Greta Miltiad.
The main factor of victory was the struggle of free citizens against Persian despotism, where only one was free, and the rest are not free, as Hegel said. In the battle of the Marathon Palo 192 Athenian and many thousands of Persians. At the site of the battle and today there is a hill-grave (Soros). But Persia did not move away from the grip policies, although he lost many cities. After 10 years, the battle of Salamine was coming.
Now the Greeks made a bet on the construction of the navy. 100 new ships were built, the so-called trieer (with three row rowing fun). Money was taken from Lavria silver mines (revenues from which previously shared between citizens). Courts were built on their own shipyards of Athenian masters, which was an indicator of a high level of economic development. The rowers on new courts were not slaves, but citizens - Feta.
In 480, the king of Persia was already Xerx, the son of Darius. He sent a 5283200 army against Greece (according to Herodota) and 1207 ships. Although this data is obviously exaggerated, nevertheless, it is clear that the Greeks have an order of magnitude less. Fessoria and Beotyi stood for Persians, Argos declared neutrality, the Spartans sent only 300 people.
At the same time there were battles for Fermopils (Mountain Pass) and at Cape Artemisians. The small Greek troops in the farmopils were destroyed. At Cape Artemisia, the sea battle occurred with varying success, but when it became aware of the defeat in Fermopils, the Greek fleet retreated to the island of Salamin. Attica was devastated, Athens was crushed, the inhabitants fled, partly on the islands of Salamin and Egina. Average Greece was in the hands of Persians. Hope was only on the fleet, but also here Spartans demanded the protection of Sparta shores. The Commander-in-Chief of Athens Feminokl demanded the concentration of all forces near the island of Salamin, which had strategic benefits. In 480 BC. This island has a sea battle between the Greeks and Persians, in which the Persians were completely defeated. Xerxes retreated to Asia, leaving the Mardonia Corps in the formalia. The following year, Martony received reinforcements and again occupied Athens. At this time, the Spartans sent a strong body under the Paula's team. In 479, in the Battle of Payments, the United Army of Spartans and the Greeks were defeated by Persians. In the same year, the Greek fleet under the command of the Spartan Tsar Leotikhide and Athenian Xantippa in Malaya Asia defeated the remains of the Persian fleet.
After that, the Athenian Sea Union was formed with the capital on the island of Delos. The annual collection of contributions was 460 attic talents (talent is equal to 26 kg of silver). Thus, prerequisites were created for the development of an antique production method. But since the Sparta had an Asian production method and a political superstructure corresponding to him, it led to the Peloponnescent War (431 -404. BC). The reason for the western market was the reason.
Persia's attacks were repulsed, but the eastern markets remained in the hands of Persians. Greece was supposed to look for Western markets. But Athens had competitors in Greece: Corinth and Megara. The key value for both sides had the harbor of the island of Kerkira, located halfway from Greece to Italy. Athens's competitors united with Sparta, and war began. The reason for the war was the democratic coup in the city of Epidamus (Greek colony, founded by Kerkira and Corinthians). The Corinthians who entered into war with Athens were defeated and requested help from Sparta, and the Spartans presented the claims that were rejects.
The devastating war began: the Spartans ruined the attic, and the Athenian fleet - the Sparta coast. The plague began in Athens. The war went with varying success, both sides were exhausted, in 421. The world was concluded (Nikiyev Mir), who ended the first stage of the war.
In 415, the war resumed. The Athenians were defeated in Sicily, and then in Attica (Dekel War). Slaves ran away. Then the Athenian Sea Union collapsed. In Athens, an oligarchic revolution occurred in 411. The top took the moderate oligarchic group of Feramen (the Board of 5 thousand full-fledged citizens). But in 410 she was overthrown, the previous democratic order, the constitution, payment and distribution of the poor were returned. Moreover, at the initiative of the democratic leader of the Cleopht, Dobobelia was introduced, i.e. Issuance to poor citizens of 2 Oola per day. But in 404, after many defeats, the Athenians capitulated, concluding the world with Sparta. In Athens, the tyranny of thirty led by Crition, a student of Socrates. In one of the battles of Critia was killed. In 403, democracy was restored again.
Although the grand-container policy of Athens suffered the collapse, the antique production method developed. There was a concentration of land ownership and ancient capital. There were workshops in which there were up to 120 slaves, but the minor workshops prevailed.
The Persian power was destined to crush Alexander Macedon. The Peloponnesian war weakened Athens and Sparta, and Macedonia, on the contrary, was raised. Ethnically, Macedonians were close to the Greeks. In IV century The economic and social structure of Macedonia was close to the public system of G. Greece, i.e. By that time, there was already quite backward. But he had internal potency, especially spiritual, since the Macedonian spirit did not oppress the slave-owned non-free. The chapter stood the king and his environment (Gutayirs - satellites of the king). The basis of the population was the shepherds and blades, part of the free, part dependent. The economic growth of Macedonia began at Queen Archela (419-399). With his yard, Writer Eurypid lived. The successor of the Archeli case was Philip II (359-336), which conducted military and monetary reform. Military reform The phalanxi was consisted in the invention, and monetary - in the introduction of bimetallism. Greeks preferred silver, Persians - gold. Gold was necessary for international trade as compact money. The feature was that Philip equalized gold and silver. Thus, the value of gold (Persian currency) was adjusted. It was an act of announcement of Persia Currency War.
The phalanx was an important invention, in the version of Alexander the Macedonian its unit was a 16 on 16 warriors, the main weapon was a long spear. But the essence of the phalange was that the whole mass of the soldiers acted as a monolith as one person. Falangist soldier studied for several years and was a hardened athlete. The main phalanx of Alexander Macedonsky consisted of 18 thousand people, deployed the front and "punched" any number of inorganized Persian troops, absolutely without losses. Falang was covered on all sides by shields.
Philip, above all, captured the Golden Mountains of Pangai, which provided gold to his monetary reform. Then he easily won all Greece. Back in 387, under pressure from Persia in the city of Suids, the world was concluded and difficult for Greece, known as "Antalkids World". Persia represented the king of Artaxerxes, and Greece is the Spartan authorized at the Persian courtyard of Antalkid. Almost all the Aegean Sea found himself in the hands of Persia. After the conclusion of this world, Greece experienced a sense of deep national humiliation.
The new ideologist was the Athens Writer Isocrat, writing "Penagirik", "AREPAGITY", "Letters to Philippe." His idea was to organize the Phallinsk war against Persia. To do this, we need a leader in the face of Macedonia. The victorious war against Persia was to open the way to free entrepreneurship, give the Greek homeless people classes and food. Therefore, the War Philip against Greece was in fact "the game in giveaway." Isocrats supported EVBUL, ESKHIN, Fokion, etc. The first two - financier and lawyer, the third - Athenian strategist.
But there was an antimacedon party. He was headed by a demon of Demosphen (384-322), as well as the Athenian financier Likurg (competitor EVBUL), a lawyer of hyperid and others. In the battle of Gheron (338), the Greek coalition was divided. But the Philip II remained to live for a long time: in 336 he was killed, as a divorced wife, Mother Alexander. In 336, Alexander was proclaimed by the king. His tutor was Aristotle. Alexander was inherent independence, already at the age of 16 he refused learning from Aristotle.
In 334 BC Alexander spoke out against the millions of Persian Army only 30 thousand infantry and 4 thousand riders. As part of the forces of the Persian Tsar, there were also 30 thousand hired Greek warriors. And, nevertheless, Alexander almost without loss won more than 10 major battles, reached Central Asia and India, conquered the Middle East (Tir, Gaza) and Egypt.
It was the victory of the state with an ancient way of production over the state with an Asian production method.
After death (323 BC) Alexander Macedonsky, his huge empire broke up. The internecine wars of his commander (Diaratov) began and lasted until 301 g. (Battle of IPCs). Their heirs came to change Diadoham - epigions.
From the state of Alexander, there were 3 major states - Egypt (Dynasty Ptolemaev), Syria (Dynasty of Seleucidov) and Macedonia's own (descendants of antigone one-eyed). They formed the Hellenistic world, i.e. The world led by the Greeks. The flourishing of an ancient economy was reflected in the monuments of Hellenistic culture.
Wars could not change anything in the economy. The Asian production method still remained in Egypt and Syria, and in parallel with it continued to develop an antique method of production (Macedonia and Greece).
Ancient production was based on iron equipment, which was also available and Egypt, and Persia, as well as the construction of ships. But imports of technology and technology did not change the creatures of Egypt, Syria and Persia.
The use of slave labor was not a decisive factor in the ancient economy. In Persia, slaves were no less. In Egypt, the position of half the peasants did not differ from the position of slaves. Therefore, it is wrong to see the essence of the ancient method of production in the use of slaves. And the more incorrect to call an antique method of producing slave-owned.
For an ancient method of production, two features are characterized: first, market (and even international) production nature; Secondly, the freedom of the manufacturer, entrepreneur. The needs of a free person in such a society were other than in the civilizations of the Asian method of production, where the position of man was even worse than slave (although he was not a slave): If only the power was taken over the slave, the Egyptian or other peasant had commitments to the family, children, whom he had to feed. With the Asian production method, the entire population is dependent on a slave type. Even the king and that is not free, because it has to perform certain functions. The Athens same demagogue (leader of the people) or the strategist fulfilled his obligations on conviction and only from time to time. They could replace them at any time, why the remaining not deeds did not tolerate special inconvenience, since social functions were performed for free. The resignation of Eastern Lord was accompanied by his death, he voluntarily could not leave, i.e. And he was not free.
The international public division of labor and trading exchange in the Mediterranean basin was inserted during the Millennial Development. The sea provided cheap and highly efficient transport, without which trade and public division of labor is meaningless. Where there was no such transport, there remained an Asian production method for the Millennium.
Slavery only complemented on certain levels of development the already established antique production method. Slaves performed a means of production in those moments when the market made an increased demand for certain goods.
With an ancient method of production, spiritual benefits were also created, which were also sold and bought, education and science. If the science of the Asian production method was a prescription (based on experience), the ancient system gave evidence, output science (such as geometry), the basis of which was the logic of Aristotle and Stoics.
The production method has not only material, but also spiritual components, including the intelligent element. The base produced is not reduced only to material factors, let's say, to people and cars or to people and land. For example, the constitutional factor of capitalist production was the Protestant religion as a spiritual element. When capitalism has developed, other confessions adopted. Similarly was in antiquity when the leading idea was to create civil society (While the despotus dominated in Asian).
The first steps of the antique system did on the basis of the generation, but the nature of the new building demanded a different principle that was called Timocracy. Each Greek policy consisted of free citizens. Full citizens were only those whose father and mother were full citizens. Over time, the Policy concluded agreements on guarantees for their citizens when staying in the territory of someone else's policy. It was at the beginning of the Institutes of the Square, and then Iceopolism. The proximities assumed only the provision of hospitality, and Iceopolism - the provision of full civil rights in someone else's city (based on reciprocity). In Sparta, where the Asian production method was, the Institute of Xenselasia was developed - the organization of the persecution of foreigners.
This was an antique production method in ancient Greece. Slaves here were a factor in expanding production in the event of an increased market demand. During the time of the rule of Rome, the situation was more complicated: the number of slaves increased, their work lost efficiency, they were released to freedom and turned into colons, etc. This was the era of the crisis and the decomposition of ancient civilization, not covering most territories of Europe and neighboring Asia, where not only iron products were reached, but also antique weapons manufacturing technologies. With the increasing number of slaves, the slaves were less and less practiced, the contradiction between freedom and slavery was concluded on the fore and led the Roman Empire (antique method of production) to death, but this is already the history of the economy Ancient Rome.
For the Eastern (Asian) model of economic development, the following features are characteristic:
Slaves did not constitute the main productive strength of society, i.e. The production of material goods in agriculture and other spheres was engaged in people who were considered free.
The land was not private, but in state or public-community property.
Between the state and community-agriculties there were a relationship of citizenship, i.e. There were no rights with the unconditional jurisdiction in favor of the state.
The state in the East acquired the form of "East Despoty", i.e. Completely failed subjects in the face of the state. That is why this type of society is called "Eastern Slavery Society.
The communities were distinguished by stability, which was associated with the need to create and maintain in the proper state of the irrigation system.
Unlike countries of the East, the state in the south of Europe was formed later - at the end of the II millennium BC.
The economy of ancient Greece and ancient Rome is based on the work of slaves. The main sources of replenishment of rows of slaves:
1) the tribesmen sellable by the ruling aristocracy; 2) prisoners of war and captured civilians;
3) People captured by pirates and kidnappers.
4) children born children;
The main features of an ancient production method:
1) slave-ownership; Public and Private property. Polis as a team of citizens possessed the right of supreme ownership of land. The owners of the earth could be only citizens of the policy. The main economic principle of the Polis was the idea of \u200b\u200bautarki (self-sufficiency).
2) Military organization, providing new slaves (free labor). Every citizen of this policy, regardless of the origin, was obliged to serve military service.
3) In ancient Greece, there were two options for political and economic system - Athens and Spartan.
4) the main form economic activity Greece residents were agriculture. They grown barley and wheat, but the crops were low. Permanent transition from grain economy to intense viticulture and gardening. The Greeks had high grape harvests and olives, which not only ensured the needs of the local population, but also sold.
In general, Greece agriculture had the following features: a diversified character, commodity orientation, the use of slave labor.
5) The development of crafts and trade was stimulated by the growth of cities as trade and craft centers. Widespread development received mining and blacksmithing production. The most important sectors of the crafts were ceramic, construction production, shipbuilding, weaving.
6) The development of sea routes. The goods brought on the ships fell into the hands of retailers and sold with small parties in the city market. To facilitate trade, market rooms were arranged, shops, but most often trade was carried out in the open air.
Thus, in Greece there was a new type of economy, more different from the economic structure of leading ancient countries: intensive, trade, while maintaining a natural basis. He demanded a high level of organizing the economy, significant investments, the use of slave labor, created favorable conditions for the very existence of Greek society, the development of Greek culture.
The history of the economy.
report on the topic
Asian production method and antique slavement.
Raah them. G.V. Plekhanov.
Features economic Development countries of the Ancient East.
The ancient East was no coincidence that was the part of the globe, where for the first time the transition of Kclass Society was carried out, statehood appeared. In the ancient regional region, other areas of the Northern Hemisphere arose for the development of the development of civilization. While almost the entire European continent raped thick forests and only in someone were scattered parking of primitiveohatifers, in the ancient East, a pretty high material culture has already begun to bloom.
Of the state, the first foci of civilization has developed in countries with a hot climate, along rivers with fertile soils: in the valley of the River Nile for 3000 years BC and Era. Tiger and Euphrat, Ganges, states in the valleys of Chinese rivers.
Equal climatic conditions and fertile soils could have been able to be a significant surplus product even at a low level of equipment. With the advent of iron guns, labor productivity increased. For this surplus product, people who have minted themselves mined could now live. They could have been engaged in science, art, to manufacture crafts. With the advent of such a layer of people, the progress of human well would be. But in order for these people to exist, this add-on product was necessary to take away from those who produced it. And it was possible at the division of society to the classes and the birth of the state.
Castradly East was the early slave-owned states. Oncenitantly differed from the ancient slave-owned states.
1. In the east, slaves are not the main productive power of society. They did not produce material benefits. People who are formally considered forces were engaged in the economy and craft.
2. Earth in the East was a state or public-ownership ownership.
3. The State Structure I had a special form of Eastern Despoty. That is, a complete cure of the inhabitant in the face of power.
The reasons for the factoralities are in the preservation of the community system.
Overwhelming residents of the states of the Ancient East were employed in the structure of agriculture. But the earth without water did not imagine any value. The irrigation systems were the property of the state. Work on the creation of such systemsdemanded large human resources. Community labor service soon turned out to be a statement. Thus, the state subjugated to governments-farmers, and they practically stopped being free. Ichissed when creating complex irrigation systems, in the construction of temples of other cyclopic structures. Unlike slaves, it was a giving work that was not necessary to feed and wear. Their work could be used wastefully.
Vasia The state had a special form of management - management of public workers. Such a system required the presence of a large bureaucratic apparatus. Signed by the centralized state system of management.
The embankments of the Ancient East did not have private feudal possessions. The territory was the general estate of the entire ruling class. The state lines to assign as much as possible the surplus product. Such a format-state device was named by K. Marx "Stole slavery". The political system is called "East Despoty".
The non-economic development of these countries was almost stopped, and the European people were able to overtake the countries of the Ancient East in economic developing. It is customary called Eastern Stagnation. The main reason was stagnant that the interests of the person were subordinate to public. Interests of the community, caste, states. Any entrepreneurial initiative was suppressed, which is suppressed without free orders of property. The community is the suggestive number of traditions, when each action is predefined.
Antique slavement.
Economic development of ancient Greece.
His full, the highest developmental method of production was achieved in the so-called antique world - more than the daily Greece and ancient Rome, which existed later than ancient priority. In the ancient states, slavery adopted the most finished, classical forms. · The first period of historic history from the XII to the VIII centuries. BC, called Homerovsky. But there is no state in this time. It was the transitional period of the unpleasant to the class society, which is called a periodist of military democracy. The supreme body of the tribe was the national assembly, which chose the leader. The system of military democracy at the transition to the state of the former of all nations.
· Next periodVIII.byIIIexplosive BC, - the period of states policies. It is to eat the classic slave-ownership period of ancient Greece. It was not one-state state, but consisted of a variety of small policies. Polis - the state-state with adjacent lands. Democracy ensured the economic guarantees: free poor were provided by the subsistence minima at the expense of the city, and the city received these funds with the rich in visible. By law, the free Greek could not be a slave in the city of the city. The formation of slave-owned cities-states coincided with the cronyization of the Greeks of a number of ingenic territories and regions. This colonization is Great Greek. Unlike ancient Egypt, in Greece, trading money for money. But his money signs minted every policy. This consideration gave rise to usury, since the value of the value of the coins was different in all cities. In the colonies, trade developed. Greeks changed products of handicraft production for food products. The colonel was integrated by intermediaries in the trade of the Greeks with other nations.
· The final period of the venue history of ancient Greece isVI - IV.explosive BC - the heyday of the Athenian slave ownership state. And the most powerful Greek city-state inVIaxity BC is athens. Athens managed to strengthen themselves as a result of victories in a number of wars. Athens was headed by the Union of All Greek states, forming the Athenian Sea Union. Athens become the center, the opisepolytic and economic life of ancient Greece. INV.in. BC The economic life of Athens has reached the highest bloom, the main operation of slave labor was underlied. Slaves began to be used by all sectors of the national economy: in C \\ x, in construction, in artisanisters, as rowers, etc.
Noracetzmer Athens was short. In 431 BC, in the composition of the contradiction, the war broke out between Athens and Sparta. The victory was for the last one. In the result of this war, both states were strongly weakened and were soon victued by Alexander Macedonian. The territories of these cities - states are turned into an empire of Alexander Macedonsky, but she soon broke up after Igosmerty.
Economic development of ancient Rome.
The historial Rome is one of the most important stages of world history. In the presentation, you can trace the origin, the flourishing and death of the slave ownership and the state in their most mature and classical forms.
· The first period of the history of ancient Rise, withVIII.byVI centuries. It is customary to be called "royal." But it wasnot at all, the monarchist state led by the king.Rimsky "kings", as well as Greek bassilees, were military leaders, and the Public system of Rome is a building military democracy.
· INVIin. BC There is a state and begins the second periodic history - the period of the republic. At this time, during the conquest wars, Rimmodchinyl, other tribes who lived in the territory of modern Italy, but still a single state was not yet. During the period of the republic, the basis of agriculture is minced peasant farms. The main products of agriculture was irozerno, which was exported. But when moving to the Period of the Empire in the C × x compell. As a result of victories in a number of Punic Wars from the captured lands, VRIM joined the cheap grain as an input or taxes. Rome of ripples. Soon in Rome there was a situation in which in C \\ X was the need for grain production to intensive agricultural sectors. The package turned out to be possible only for large slave-owned farms. This point ended K.I.in. BC and became one of the economic deletions of the transition to the Empire. The organization of crafts in Rome was distinguished. The work of slaves on a mass scale was used only in the construction of gambling. At this time, Rome turns into the most developed slaughterhouse of antiquity. The main source of slaves in Rome was wars. For partners of the conquered country, the Romans were killed, and the part paid into slavery.
The high level of development has been facilitated by two circumstances within the entire Roman Empire.
· First, the introduction of a uniform system throughout the Empire. There was no need to exchange one policy on the other, as it was in Greece.
· Secondly, the development of trade served as the construction of roads, stunned, and crossed the whole of Europe. In Rome, insurance was practiced.
The crisis of the slave-owner system.
It was possible to operate the work, mainly capturing prisoners of war, turning their slaves. But this method of operation had important consequences. The desired development of slave-owned economy was permanent wars.
InII.a century has occurred a crisis of the slave-owned system. The victories of Rome became increasingly to be replaced by defeats. The main source of refill cheap slaves began to dry out. The continuous sides of the low-performance slave labor, which was only effective only in the conditions of mass application. But with the abbreviation of proposals of slaves prices for them increased. And expensive slave can not be operated by simple coercion. An expensive slave accounted for both wages of labor productivity by means of material interest.
No innovation in the field of slavement was not able to save the Roman stem. For the victory of feudal relations, the peasants were needed, and Romanskextane was broken, and the ruin began in the transition to large-carrying farms in the village.
The victorious Roman army disappeared the screyanism. Rome gradually came across and soon fell under the onslaught of the barbarians.
The slave-owned service died with Roman Survey.
Chapter 2. Two business development models: "Asian production method" and ancient farm
Improvement of labor instruments, improving their productivity, education on this basis of the surplus product had deep socio-economic consequences. The economic structure of primitive society has become close to the new technical base, slowed down its development. The emergence of private property, the dissemination of exchange and the incident on this basis of property and social inequalities contributed to the formation of a new type of society, the emergence of the state.
The first society of inequality where exploitation existed was a slave-ownership system. The change of primitive-communal slave-owned construction began in the East in the IV Millennium BC.
2.1. Economic development of the countries of the Ancient East
Appears in the IV-III millennia BC The first states were formed on lands with a hot climate, in the valleys of rivers with fertile apparent soils: Nile, Tifa and Euphrates, Inde and Ganges, in the lesser valleys of Juanhe and Yangtze. Usually they are called states of the Ancient East: Sumer, Akkad, Babylon, Assyria, Ancient Chinese Kingdom. Ancient Egypt occupies a special place among them, whose history has more than III millennium - from IV to VI Millennium BC. The warm climate in combination with fertile, easily processed soils, the possibility of their irrigation allowed to obtain significant yields even with low agricultural and technical levels of agriculture. The folding of the new society began here before the "iron revolution" on the basis of Paleolithic techniques and labor instruments. The family of the Egyptian peasant, for example, received three times more food than it was necessary to meet her needs. The surplus product is the main condition for the birth of a new civilization.
Economy of ancient Egypt. The most typical Asian type society was an ancient Egypt. The most ancient settlements of the cattle breeders and farmers in the Nile Valley arose in the VI - V Millenniums BC. Purvival farming here has achieved great success. At this time, wooden soha was invented. The hunting fishery was supplanted by cattle breeding. The Egyptians have learned to cast an ax from copper, knives, daggers, vessels, tips for arrows. But the main thing - the basic system of irrigation began to develop, to create only large land communities forces. From the community environment, tribal to know. By performing the role of the organizer and administrator of agriculture, she eventually seized power.
The release of community tops, the increased differentiation of the rural population contributed to the emergence of states that in Egypt were called in Greek Nomas. At the turn of IV-Iti millennium BC. From the previously hostile, the Upper and NEFIPET kingdoms, a single state was created - ancient Egypt.
Egypt occupied a profitable geographical position. The Mediterranean Sea connected it with Front Asia, Cyprus, Aegean Sea Islands and Mainland Greece. Neil was an important shipping artery. Egypt has mineral resources.
Egypt's economic basis was irrigated (irrigation) agriculture, which was a combination of irrigation facilities and irrigation work with primitive Earth processing technique. The land was treated with a hoe and a primitive plow. Sowed barley, wheat, flax. Agriculture worked a specialized character. Upper Egypt became the center of agriculture, and the lower - cattle breeding, gardening and viticulture. Even in ancient times in Egypt, an irrigation system has developed, who divided the fields to the upper and lower. The bottoms were called the fields flooded during the spill of the Nile, in the dry season of the year, the water from there came to the fields. To the upper fields where the water did not reach during the spill, it was necessary to lift it with the help of cranes-stadofs and water wheels. Repair of dams, channel cleaning, regulation of the sequence of multiple field irrigation fields, field work related to irrigation mode - all this could exist only with tight compliance with the schedule, continuous monitoring and management from the Unified Center carried out by the state. Ancient state state, thus, arose due to the need to combine community farmers for the construction of irrigation systems.
A distinctive feature of the eastern type of farming was the state ownership of land and irrigation facilities. Pharaohs, communal to know (nomarhi) occupied a dominant economic situation. Slaves and dependent communities worked in the royal, temple and private farms. During the hunger, the temples opened their granaries for farmers, and communities had to work on the "fields of God".
The royal economy that supplied everything necessary for the "House of Pharaoh" was quite developed. Pharaohs controlled temple economies, confiscated communal emptiness. The expansion of state economy was accompanied by the distribution of land to the dignitaries. Employment facilities appeared. Their lands were treated by the "workers' detachments", which were distinguished by the potential cattle, seeds for sowing.
The state, uniting people, has retained the previous community duty - to conduct a general economy, turning it into a state labor service. Through social work, the Eastern rulers submitted to themselves free communities. Under these conditions, labor slaves played a secondary role, had a "homework". Slaves performed mainly servants. Only in the last period of the history of ancient Egypt-in the XVI - XII centuries. BC. slaves began to use as weavers, gonchars, etc. In the "Asian" communities there was no need for additional labor force. There was an excess of labor resources. During the cessation of agricultural work related to the spill of rivers, the population had to take something. Therefore, it is not by chance that almost all the ancient Russian states conducted the construction of the grandiose cult and secular structures - pyramids in Egypt, tower-zikkurats and hanging gardens in Mesopotamia, etc. In the ability to reduce labor resources, the use of work of slaves in agricultural production was meaningless.
Community farmers are a gratitude working force that you do not need to buy, feed, wear. The work of these people could be spent very wasteful. Unlike the slaves of ancient states that were owned by individual slave owners and were used in private interests, this huge labor army was used centrally for state (public) works: in the construction of irrigation systems, roads, religious structures. For the organization of these works, the ancient Egyptian state had a special industry - managing public works. Keeping, management of these works required a powerful state apparatus. In ancient Egypt, the population and economy census were regularly conducted, mainly for the layout of labor service. Each peasant had to work on the state of the year in public works - on the fields of Pharaoh and temples, the construction of irrigation systems, pyramids and temples. Labor obligation in favor of Pharaoh was of great importance for the economy of ancient Egypt. There was even the "Office of the Supplier of People" with a prison for evading duties. State duties applied to the entire population. Records on the organization of people in the "five" and "dozens" led by the "work leader" are preserved. Performance of work was controlled by officials - "Counters of People." In addition, there was an extensive tax collection department. The special role of the state with a huge control apparatus led to a special type of bureaucracy. Max Weber Not without wit noted: "There is no doubt that in Egypt, the bureaucratic centralization could never ... achieve the degree of perfection that it reached without natural spill of the Nile."
For Egypt, as for other "Eastern societies", a high degree of centralization of the economy is characterized. Centrally distributed the bulk of the product produced. Officials took into account the harvest and the amount of livestock. Communities who worked on irrigation and construction sites received a tool and provisions from government storages.
The irrigation system management in the eastern countries was overchanged and despotic. Moreover, the Supreme Rules were considered alive gods on earth. This explains the emergency economic role that the temples were performed, priests who have stored and interpreted irrigation information management information.
All these features of the "Asian Production Method" have persisted in the East for a very long time.
Eastern societies are tough hierarchical societies.
Property and power in ancient Egypt were merged together. On the top of the pyramid was Pharaoh. His absolute, despotic power was sanctified by religion.
All officials were entirely dependent on Pharaoh, receiving salaries from him with money or kind. Often the salary was the only source of their income. Part of officials and military leaders owned land plots, palaces, servants, but only as long as they were in service, Pharaoh could deprive them of these goods, if they became objectionable. Social situation, wealth depended not from natural qualities, professionalism, entrepreneurship, human business, but from the proximity to the top of the pyramid - the closer, the greater benefits, opportunities, including economic, he possessed.
The state nature of the economy was determined by the situation of the agriculture. He lived in his own family with his family and led the farm, but even grain for sowing, the working livestock for the processing of the Earth he received on time from the state. The grown crop was actually at the disposal of the state: the farmers were left exactly as much as it was necessary for his family. Most went to government warehouses.
The craft was centralized. It should be noted that in the craft for a long time the metal did not push the stone. The Egyptians knew bronze, but it was a material for jewelry and weapons, but not for the manufacture of workers. At the end of the history of the ancient Egypt, iron was appeared, which was considered precious metal. In addition to the artisan who worked at home or in his own workshop, there were large state-owned enterprises with a detailed division of labor. In addition to glass, textile, pottery workshops, there were courtyards "Moller Milk", bakery, "public cuisines", which produced ready-made food, which, for example, fed builders of the pyramids.
The successes of economic development contributed to the growth of trade. South of Egypt supplied cattle, and the north - grain. The operation of conquered territories -Livia, Nubia, Sinai began. Egyptian merchants bought copper, gold, enamel, elephant bone, skin, wool, wood. Egyptians were obtained tin and lead from Asia Minor, and copper - from Cyprus. Radigious merchants were engaged in usury. Many riches were reported in the form of military trophies or Dani, charged with the defeated peoples.
Foreignation of the economy, total regulation public LifeHer bureaucratization was associated with the most important feature of the Egyptian, Eastern Society as a whole: the desire for stability and immutability in all - the economy, socio-cultural and political life. Similarly, a separate family could not survive without a community, and the communities themselves could not do without the state, so they were blood interested in the conservation of relations with the supreme power. Conservation in the inviolability, the consistent state of the entire system of social relations was obeyed by the material and spiritual activities of people. The maintenance of the stability of Eastern society was the despotism of rulers, religion, customs and laws.
The desire for immutability imposed an imprint on the development of labor and man in ancient Egypt. The economy has not developed almost, constantly reproducing former forms and relationships. This situation in the economy is called stagnation.
Thus, for the Eastern (Asian) model of economic development, the following features are characteristic:
1. Slaves did not constitute the main productive strength of society, i.e. The production of material goods in agriculture and craft was engaged in people who were considered free.
2. The land was not private, but in state or public-community ownership.
3. There was a relationship between the state and community-agriculties - the lack of rights with the unconditional janctivities in favor of the state.
4. The state in the East acquired the form of "Eastern Despoty", i.e. Completely failed subjects in the face of the state. That is why this type of society is called "Eastern Slavery Society.
5. Communities differed in stability, which was associated with the need to create and maintain in the proper state of the irrigation system of agriculture.
2.2. Economic development of antique states
Unlike countries of the East, the state in the south of Europe was formed later - at the end of the II millennium BC, although the territories of the ancient Greece and ancient Rome were already settled in the Paleolithic era. In the south of the Balkan Peninsula in the VII Millennium BC. There was agriculture and cattle breeding. At the end of the Millennium GU BC. Copper tools spread, and from the beginning of the Millennium BC. - Bronze. At the end of the II millennium BC. The Greek economy was widely introduced iron. At the same time, the potted circle began to be widely used, the development of navigation, the first cities arose.
The ancient residents of the Apennine Peninsula were liguras, which were the creators of neolithic culture, Italiki, Illyanians. In the IX-VIII centuries. BC. Almost people were widely used iron. In the VIII-VI centuries. BC. The culture of Etruscans has acquired the greatest value.
The economy of ancient Greece and Ancient Rome was based on the work of slaves, which were the main manufacturers of material benefits. The main source of replenishment of slaves were:
Prisoners of war and partly captured civilians;
Sale of the ruling aristocracy of the barbaric peoples of tribesmen;
Reproduction of slaves;
Pirates and abductors of free people.
Economic development of ancient Greece. The first period of the history of ancient Greece - from the XII to the VIII century. BC. - Call Homerovsky, because by this time the creation of Homer "Iliad" and "Odyssey". But during this period, Greeks have not yet existed. This is a transitional period from the primitive-communal to a class society, which is called the military democracy. Democracy, since the Supreme Body was the National Assembly, and the military, because the People's Assembly chose a military leader - the leader (Basilevs). In the conditions of increasing military clashes in the life of the tribe, the military top led by the leader began to play the whole major role.
VIII-W centuries. BC. There were a period of existence of policies, or independent cities-states. This is the classic slave-ownership period of the history of ancient Greece, which has not been a single state, and consisted of a variety of small states. The body's existence was based on an antique form of ownership, which brought public and private property. Polis as a team of citizens possessed the right of supreme ownership of land. The owners of the earth could be only citizens of the policy. The main economic principle of the Polis was the idea of \u200b\u200bautarki (self-sufficiency).
The surplus product in the conditions of the policy could be provided, only forcing the slaves to work freely captured at war. The ancient farm system was based primarily on a military organization that provided the economy with new slaves. The then army is a militia. Every citizen of this policy, regardless of the origin, was obliged to serve military service. Depending on the size of the property, it served either in the ground forces or on a fleet.
In ancient Greece, there were two options for political and economic system - Athens and Spartan. The first is trade and craft states with developed commodity and money relations, the wide use of slave labor in production, a democratic device. An example of such policies was Athens, Corinth, Megaras, Millet, Rhodes and a number of other cities, as a rule, located on the sea coast, which had a small agricultural territory, but had at the same time with the numerous population. Policy of this type set tone in economic development. They were leading economic centers of Greece. The second is agriculture with the absolute predominance of agriculture, the weak development of trade, crafts and commodity-money relations, a large number of dependent workers, oligarchic, as a rule, by the device. This is Sparta, Arkady, Beochie, Fessiona.
Agriculture. The main form of economic activity of the inhabitants of Greece was agriculture. Bared barley and wheat, but the crops were low - Sam-3, Sam-4. Hilly relief of Greece with rocky soil, difficult for plowing and processing, a little suitable for grain, turned out to be convenient for growing grape vines, olives and fruit trees, a variety of vegetables, which led to a low level of development of the bakery in Greek policies. At this time, there was a transition from grain economy to intensive viticulture and gardening. The development of these industries required careful care, investments of funds and large human costs, a lot of worries and workers. These cultures could have been successfully mastered only in the presence of additional labor, which led to the introduction of slave labor. The investment of additional funds and labor creates opportunities to receive excess. Greeks had pretty high grape harvests and olives, which not only provided the needs of the local population, but also sold.
The main cells of agricultural production were small farms and larger estates of a generic nobility. Often, the Earth passed the aristocrats for rent to the deplete tribesmen who gave landowners as a rent until half of the harvest. Agrarian relations in Greece were characterized by the strengthening of major land tenure and the ruin of the majority of the population, which contributed to the growth of property bundle and strengthening social tensions in Greek policies.
As a result of a number of reforms in the Greek policies, a small land plot (3-5 hectares) became the owner of which was a citizen of this policy. The land was cultivated by members of the family of this man, 1-2 slave helped them. In larger estates, 15-25 slaves work was used. The farms had, as a rule, a diversified character.
Cattle breeding is raised a small place in agricultural production. Meat and milk were not the main food of the ancient Greeks. There were few horses. They practically did not apply as a major force, and the Greek cavalry was auxiliary native of troops. But the sheep was divorced, working and hard cattle.
In general, Greece agriculture had the following features: a diversified character, commodity orientation, the use of slave labor.
Craft and trade occupied a large place in the economic structure of the policies. Their development was stimulated primarily by the growth of cities as trade and craft centers. The growth of cities was impossible without lifting crafts and trade, which in turn demanded the attraction of additional labor - slaves.
Wide development received mining and mining and blacksmithing production. The most important sectors of the crafts were ceramic, construction production, shipbuilding, weaving. The main cell of handicraft production was Ergasteria - workshops, different in magnitude in which the work of slaves was widely applied. So, the famous Athenian speaker Demosphen had two workshops with 20 slaves in one and 32 in another. However, there were few large workshops, mostly there were minor and average production.
For Greek craft, close connection with the market is characteristic, where the artisan sold his products, bought raw materials, tools, slaves, food for their feed. Raising business activity in trade and craft centers, success in technology, specialization of Ergasteriev with sustainable sources of replenishment of slaves made an experienced craft affiliated business. The average income from the operation of one slave busy in the craft reached 6-120 drachmas per year, while the content of the family of a free citizen per year, for example, in Athens V c. BC. cost 180 drachms; In other words, income from 2-3 slaves was sufficient for the content of one Athenian family, which consisted of 3-4 people.
Craft production could exist if there is a constant raw materials base. In small Greek policies, there were few local raw materials. It was possible to get the missing raw materials by exchange - for the brought to the bridal coin, craft or agricultural goods.
The crowded population of trade and craft policies with its diverse needs, increasingly irreversible as the urban life, lack of grain and different types of raw materials for crafts, surplus of wine and oil, reserves of various craft products created favorable conditions for Greek trade as a whole.
Food, raw materials for crafts, craft production products treated in the markets; The goods advocated a significant part of the products produced, and not only luxury items, as in the east. Almost all segments of the population were drawn into commodity operations. For more convenience in carrying out trade operations, wholesalers, especially associated with far overseas trafficking, created merchant associations - fiases The main task of which was mutual insurance and revenues of loans, exchange of information, control of prices.
Natural conditions, imperfection and high cost of land transport did not contribute to the development of land traffic. At the same time, the cutting of the coastline, the abundance of the islands contributed to the development of shipbuilding and maritime trade. In each seaside city, the sea harbor is built, a port is built with comfortable parking for ships, coaches, storage rooms, docks for repair. So, in Athens for a special architectural plan, the port of Piraeus was built - a real city, in terms of its improvement, exceeding Athens.
The development of sea routes discovered the widest opportunities for trading operations in the whole Mediterranean, including the Black Sea pool. The goods brought on the ships fell into the hands of retailers and sold with small parties in the city market. To facilitate trade, market rooms were arranged, shops, but most often trade was carried out in the open air.
The introduction of commodity production, a large volume of trade required the improvement of settlement operations. The calculation means was a coin with a strictly defined weight, a guaranteed state, which issued it. The first coins appeared in Greece in the VII century. BC. In the classic era, each city minted a large number of coins. The coins of leading economic centers, such as Athens and Corinth 1, are gradually allocated.
The big span of trading activities in the Greek world led to the emergence of adventures of banking operations and elements of bulk calculations. These operations were carried out by special people - the changes called the trapezites that existed in each trading city. The changes were followed by the course of numerous mint series, exchanged some coins on the other, the exchange of large coins, took money to storage, gave loans for interest, made calculations between wholesale merchants.
The process of socio-economic, political and cultural development of the Greek Society of the VIII-VI centuries. BC. gave rise to great colonization, i.e. Evregulation of Greeks from the cities of the Aegean basin to numerous colonies located along the coast of the Mediterranean and Black Seas. In total, several hundred colonies of 1.5-2 million people were created.
There were several reasons for colonization. The intensification of the Greek economy, the development of crafts and trade required the expansion of the field of activity: new lands for their downtowns of citizens, sources of raw materials, markets for products of craft workshops. Another reason consisted in political and social struggle, unfolding in Greek policies. In colonies left dissatisfied, dangerous to know political opponents. At the same time, the ruling circles of the metropolis cities were beneficial to have a colony, with which mutually beneficial relations were established, from where the valuable raw materials were obtained, where agricultural and craft products could be sold. An important cause of colonization was the demographic crisis caused by the rapid development of the Greek economy, which created the surplus of products that required the sale, sufficient amount of raw materials, the workforce. Great Greek colonization has become a powerful factor in socio-economic and cultural development not only by the Greek world, but also the whole Mediterranean.
Thus, in Greece there was a new type of economy, which is different from the economic structure of leading ancient countries: an intense, trade in maintaining its natural base. He demanded significant cash investments, a high level of organizing the economy, the use of slave labor, created favorable conditions for the very existence of Greek society, the development of Greek culture.
Economic development of ancient Rome. The first period of the history of ancient Rome - from VIII to the VI century. BC. - It is customary to call the "royal" period. However, there was no monarchist state. Roman "kings" - Rex, like Greek bassilees, is the military leaders. Public system Rome of this period is military democracy.
In the VI century BC e. There is a state. The second period of Roman history comes - the period of the republic. Rome of this period is a city-state, similar to Greek policies. During the conquest wars, Rome subjugated other Italik states. The defeated peoples recognized the dependence on Rome, but did not turn on the Roman policy.
Unlike Athens, the Roman Republic was an aristocratic - power remained in the hands of a generic aristocracy. As economic development, as in Athens, appeared: urban economy, craft and trade, and together with them and "new rich", who sought to divide power with the old Roman, to get into her ranks. Separate parts of Italy are gradually merged into one state. However, political and property rights remain in the hands of citizens only by the Roman policy - kwirith. This provision could not not lead to social tensions and political conflicts.
