European forests in the Middle Ages. Sources of environmental hazards. Ways of harmonization of environmental relations. Russia against the background of the rest of Europe
The forest is often perceived as a symbol of nature, antipode of civilization: where the forest begins, culture ends there. However, this book represents the reader a completely different picture. In any country in the world where the forest grows, it plays a huge role in people's life, but the attitude towards it can be different. In Germany, communication between man and forest is traditionally very strong. This is reflected not only in the guise of forests - well-groomed, obedient, penetrated by a frequent network tracks and pointers. The whole German culture is not less pronounced and the back side of the forest is impregnated. From the famous battle in Teutoburg Forest, through fairy tales and folk songs, the forest comes to poetry, music and theater, filling German romanticism and inspiring the ecological movements of the 20th century. Therefore, to tell the history of the forest, the German author needs to dare to argue the immense and combine the non-emergency - economy and poetry, botany and politics, archeology and the protection of nature.
It is in this way that the author of the "History of the Forest", Paleobotnik, Professor of Hannover University Hansjorg Custer. His book tells the reader not only the forest, but also people are their relations to nature, their farms and culture.
Colonization continued in Central Europe for several centuries. Starting in the early Middle Ages, it ended in a new time. Now and the case happened to collisions between representatives of the two worlds - civilized and barbaric. They tell legends from mountain regions, where colonization moved slowly than on the plains. Mountain forests have long served as a reliable refuge "savages" and "pagans". The colonization in Finland lasted especially for a long time, where the ideas of "Kalevala" about the savages are alive in the people and so far.
The rural population occupied new lands, pushing the forest from himself, - his antipode, a countermime. For the state passed, of course, followed by all the rules, and the pig-rising thiefs diligently removed. But people constantly needed more forests than he was grown on community lands. Therefore, agricultural areas gradually expanded due to forestry. Firewood primarily struggled in the most closest forests. If these sites are not then under Pashny, the trees continued to grow. After a few years, when the thrust thumps reached thickness into human hand, they cut them again, and the remaining stumps due to the powerful root system again gave abundant stroke. Such use turned the forest into low multi-level thickets - low-rolled forest (Niederwald).Some species such as Grab, Leschina, Birch, Lipa, and even Tis transferred periodic cuts better than others, so where people regularly cutting firewood, these kinds prevailed. Others reacted worse, for example, beech, as mentioned above. Pollen diagrams clearly show that they not only stopped spreading, but also the amount decreased.
In the early Middle Ages, there has not yet been anchored pasture for livestock and generally meadows. Cattle, as before, kicked out for grazing into the forest. Between the forest areas where the cattle grazed, that is, pasture forests (Hutewald, Hudewald, Hutwald),and low-power forests there were no clear boundaries, as there were no clear boundaries between the areas of forest management. In all these forests, as in previous times, the winter branches were collected. People walked far into the forest if something was required by something, the cattle was treated so far, as they thought it was necessary, but most intensively used the nearest neighborhood of the village - it simply saved the strength.
Since the grazing animals are scored leaves, shoots and the fruits of some plants, neglecting others, then the species that animals did not like were gradually spread. In the pasture forests, juniper, spillage, holly, pine, heather and a dog prevailed. If the intensive grazing lasted for a long time, the forest is already stopped to be a forest, turning into an open pasture, a wasteland or wasteland (Heide).
The remaining trees grew hard. Animals snorn shoots that repent again, and their animals again across. Over time, the pastures were formed by dying scars from bogs, abundantly branched trees with active shoots in all directions. Some of these trees gradually died, without holding such a load. And if the plant was strong enough to confront unfortunate for a long time, after a certain period, it traveled up the top escape, which rose so highly that the cow or sheep had no longer reached its top. Leaves with side shoots Animals are still oversized. The main escape was formed by the trunk, the growth form of which reflected the fate of the pasture tree - the chunky, uneven, covered with scars. If the tree was able to form a full-fledged crown, then the cows and sheep paved the lower branches. From the part it seems that the crown of such a tree is trimmed from below with the help of garden scissors and a ruler. All the leaves and shoots, which could reach the animal, constantly bounced, and the so-called "edge of the shoes" was obtained.
Particularly valuable trees, people have long tried to spare. This first of all belonged to the Cormilets-Oak: in the fall, the pigs were driven into him so that they would eat acory, who fall out themselves or which people were shot down with long sticks. Pigs, on the one hand, the natural resumption of oak was slowed down, because most of the fruits were eaten, but, on the other hand, all the acorns of the pig gather, of course, could not, and the not found perfectly germinated in a loosening, harsh, fertilized soil. On bend, where cattle has fallen out for a long time, large pasture solid oaks grew with a wide spreaded crown (Hudeeichen).He touched the oaks and in many forests, where they struggle raped, leaching and birch, and they, as giants, were towering then over the surrounding low-power thickets. So formed "Medium Forests" (Mittelw? LDER),in which single oaks cut out only occasionally, when there was a need for construction material.
Other types of trees are constantly, as a winter feed for livestock, used branches and foliage. Vsema, limes and casualties were especially appreciated. They regularly cut branches carrying the greatest number of leaves. Reggerer the shoots gradually formized a ball-shaped crown, reminiscent of the absenger willow (Kopfweide) . From single veins standing near the roads or on Vyaz, Lipa and ash, high trees, as a rule, did not grow up.
Residents of the villages also used a forest litter - a deciduous OPEAD, dead and living terrestrial plants, branches, moss. Odad was collected by special rakes and used in the chlevins as a litter for livestock. Even the whole seams were cut out with a rich manner of the turf, applying them as a heater and again as a litter in the gestures and stables.
If the life of the medieval village was long enough, then she gradually surrounded the ring, interior which was fields, meadows, gardens and gardens, and wider external - extensively used low-power and medium-sized forests and forests, not separated from forests by any boundaries. Even further, forests stretched from the village, which, though no longer been intact, but were used by the peasants little or almost not used and therefore remained the "real forests". But their squares were reduced, because residents of villages needed new useful lands. The landowners more or less actively opposed it.
With the permission of the landowner, the peasants could clear the special platforms in the forests, isolated from the main massif of community lands, making them and swinging or turning into meadow pastures. In medieval Prussia, the peasants periodically concluded contracts for clearing in the forests of temporary fields, which threw out when the need disappeared into them. Such a form of cyclic farm was called "Sheffelina" (Scheffelwirtschaft).
Part of the forest lands may have never been in possession of the nobility, while remaining in the free use of the peasants. These sites - community forests were used by communities brands. In the pellets, for example, a Hayngraide extensive forest array is known, divided by the surrounding peasants to 16 sites. Several communities have formed by agreement of the association - consorts. Whether community forests are entitled, whose areas were periodically redistributed on the lot between members of the community, there were precisely on inconsistent areas - the subject of long-standing disputes may be the emergence of individual community forests dates back to various historical processes. Some community forests were probably in the formal ownership of the feudalists, but they left for only individual rights, for example, the right to hunt, and the rights to all other uses were transferred to members of the brand or consort. In other brands, the landworker himself could be a member of the forest users community, possibly Primus Inter Pares.("First among Equal"). Early stages of the history of community forests go to the darkness of the centuries, it is known about them, the written sources of information on this topic do not contain. One thing is clear: community forests were used by the peasants at all times more freely than those that were in the ownership of noble landowners as fors or reserves.
As a rule, forest-pollen surfacing systems were also subject to community management, when the same area was used for some time under the field and (or) pasture, and then to obtain wood. These forms of farm, who left the characteristic traces in the guise of many landscapes, were especially developed on the outskirts of agricultural land, often on steep slopes that are not amenable to terracilization, or on low-power soils. The most famous forest belt form were "Hubergi" (Haubersgwirtschaft)in Zegerenda (North Rhine - Westphalia) and near today, Dillenburg. This form of use not only provided peasants with wood and products grown in the fields, but also supplied raw materials for craft enterprises, that is, did not relate to typical forest-and-pasture tramplers.
In a more typical form, such a farm was presented in other regions. Sound toponyms remained from him: AUF DEN REUTFELDERN(letters. "On the fields separated from the forest"), Reuten.(letters. "Forest clearance") or R? Tten.in the Swiss Alps and Schwarzwald. People in such places lived due to the cutting of mountain forests (Reutwald).In Odenwalde (? Den. - Cumming, to reduce the forest) was a forestry farm, in the Rhine Shale Mountains (SchiefergeBirge)"Wild lands" (Wildland)were introduced into the "Schwandherkhovy" cycle Schwandwirtschaft. - "Slope" farm). In Eiffel, such type of use was called Schiffel (Schiffelwirtschaft),on Mosel - "Rott" Rottwirtschaft).In Lithuania, the concept of "Schwend" (Schwendewirschaft) was used. On average Rhine (Mittelrhein)such territories were called "Rotta lands" (Rottl? NDER),"Maldly thickets" (Roddb? Sche)or "coal alive hedges" (Kohlhecken),in the Bavarian Forest - "Birch Mountains" (Birk-or Birkenberge).Selection type of use was also distributed in remote regions of the Alps, for example in Styria (Steiermark),as well as in Finland, Northern Sweden and on the Pyrenees.
In all these forms of forestry farm, wood vegetation was hardened on the platform dedicated for it about 10-20 years. It was allowed to firewood either supplied with coals. The woody garbage remaining on the site after the workpiece was collected in heaps and set fire. Sometimes a twig and foliage - both fresh and fallen, - not cried, and burned as it was, fell. On the slopes of the Roytebergs in the Black Forest laid out dry black stems, they burned perfectly, and fell easier. The ash was distributed over the entire platform, fertilizing the soil. In the following one or three years, without a break, unpretentious types of cultivated plants were sowed here, primarily rye, oats or buckwheat - "beech wheat" (BUCHWEIZEN) , on steep slopes, instead, a couple of years could graze cattle. It may have been an alternation of grazing with sowing. Then all agricultural activities were stopped by providing trees. Then the pudding and root piglers were rapidly gained the height, they sprung by randomly listed seeds. Sometimes people "helped" the forest, driving on the fields along with the seeds of cereals and seeds of trees. Bread in this case had to carefully clean the sickle, highly cutting the stem, so as not to damage the growing trees. And when the trees were gaining sufficient growth and thickness, the peasant community began the whole cycle of use again.
The Hubergov model in Zigerland was even more difficult. Here, before the hatching oaks, Craer was joined with them. She was left to dry on the trees, and then removed and used as a tannie core. Then, the trees were cut in, the wood was primarily on the needs of a mining case: as a fastener material during the construction of mines, as well as (already in the form of charcoal) for the smelting of ore. Hubergovy farms were focused on metallurgical production, the needs of agriculture and peasant life went to the background. As with other similar types of use, on Hubergham after collecting firewood, the cutting residues were set on fire, the ash served fertilizer. Then followed the phase of pozing and grazing. Such places were called "shaking groves", since on the intensively used haubergas, wood vegetation almost disappeared, except for the flock. Through the shoots of the shoots of the Drock were driving a cattle in the gestures and stalls.
So, all forest plant systems are similar in that in the same place the fields were alternated, grazing and cutting wood, and the knurled residues were burned to fertilize the soil. However, the fire was not used for the information of the forest, that is, fire-hiding agriculture as such was missing here. Fire-housing systems in Central and Western Europe did not play almost no role, because the trees spread here are not so easily burned, with the exception of Pine, ate and, maybe in particularly hot seasons, birch. In addition, to burn the forest just did not make sense, because at the same time it would disappear an important raw material and fuel.
In Northern and Eastern Europe, apparently, completely different conditions have developed. There were a lot of pine and birch, which in dry roast continental summer easily flammable, so you can burn whole forest arrays. It is important that due to the very low density of the population, there was never a lack of wood. And indeed, in the Lithuanian text of the beginning of the XIX century, which describes the "Schwend" farm, it was mentioned that on the fields separated from the forest, the seeds of pine were pretended. When the trees were growling to a height of about two meters, it was enough to bring the torch to their resinous thickets so that they flashed.
Fire-covered agriculture in the most accurate sense of the word is used in the tropics. There do not need firewood for housing heating. Extremely violent vegetation sucks from the ground all minerals, so that the soil is very poor. If not fertilizing the soil, burning vegetation on large areas, agriculture has no prospects.
The opinion was expressed that forest plant systems represent a very ancient form of agriculture. But it is not. It is more likely that they appeared at a later time as specialized forms of the economy. The fact is that the young stupid or root piglet can only cut down an iron ax, and the meager soils on stony soils can be processed only by iron instruments - a plow, hoe. Accordingly, before the appearance of iron of forest-field systems in this form, it could not be. Therefore, the model of the overlooking system cannot be transferred to a more long-standing era, first of all it concerns the complex, configured to the interests of the Hubergov system. It does not fit into the economic conditions of the preceding epoch. And indeed, her story is traced from the beginning of the Iron Age.
There are other inaccuracies in the ideas about the relationship between the early settlements and the forest. Again and again, directly or subconsciously, the idea is repeated that colonization in the Middle Ages began in non-fermented lands, where untouched forests dominated. For example, in the book "The History of the Forest in the Old Bavaria", Josef Kistlera is the thesis, which today meets in the literature on the local history and history of forestry: "Correcting new lands, the Bavarian colonists have reduced the forest with fire, hoes and plows. Documentary evidence is told about the start of active logging of forests. " In such texts, there is a lot of fantasy. It was resorted to linake with each other a few testimonies. And although the submission of Kestler and many other scientists have long been revised, they continue to rewrite. However, the process of settling the lands proceeded otherwise. First, people did not necessarily "enter" to constantly settle on the ground under the direction of the Center. They could well live there and earlier, according to the old rules and resonance, that is, moving with place in place. As in the old days, at the base of the settlement, the forest was reduced. But in contrast to the previous order, the area purified from the forest did not throw and people did not leave. In addition, these loggers became the property of written evidence, although the same thing happened in the former century or millennium. Of course, the fire in the "struggle with the forest" did not play a special role. The idea of \u200b\u200busing a fire-housing method is a conclusion from the XIX century, made solely by analogy, since at that time they were mainly tropical forests in colonies, where the forest really burned. From this was concluded that the millennium earlier the process of colonization was the same - but how otherwise? But the forest, which was buried in the early Middle Ages, can be considered "primary" as the one that has cut down by millennia earlier: in the Middle Ages in Europe only in remote mountains could still keep forests that were not affected by the human activity. In reality, the cutting of the forests, which led medieval landowners-colonizers, differed from earlier peasant in the fact that, firstly, they were recorded in written documents, and secondly, people had no longer left the mastered land, and the forest did not resume.
The colonists of the Middle Ages perceived the Earth cultivated in the previous epochs, but not colonized and not yet included in the civilization, as well as Tacitis, and the historians have considered their opinion "evidence of eyewitnesses." Tacitis considered the Earth of the Germans unclonized, and the European Middle Age Europeans considered unquilized Slavs and other peoples who lived to the east of them and adhered to the old men. The development of areas engaged in these peoples, the expansion of the state to the East was the time of time. We have more evidence about the colonization of the eastern lands than the colonization of Western, because it passed later and was recorded in more documents, and in addition, state administration has become more rigid, empire and royal power in high and late Middle Ages in comparison with Early. What Friedrich Marere wrote in his "Forest History in Prussia" about the colonization of the Eastern Land of 1280 is the same semi-truth, as well as Tacitis's statements: "When the German knightly Order entered Prussia, he saw the land heavily and gloomy The character growing on it forests and thickets. " Magere understood that the country was inhabited by people, but did not imagine how settlements, lifestyle, form of nature use on Earth, not yet mastered by colonizers could look like. Not the same dark forest could be seen there! The essence of colonization in many cases was not to cut out the dark primitive forests and dry the swamps, but to translate the Earth cultivated by the previous cyclic methods into the category of civilized territories. The colonization was not a direct cause of population growth, but in colonized lands the population has really grew, because the crops rose, and the same site of the earth could feed a greater number of people.
Robert Gradman, Otto gate and other scientists consisted of the distribution maps of the forests of the early Middle Ages - the epoch before the colonization began. They wanted to show them forest and flavored territories on them and express as a percentage when and which part of the country had lost its forests. Such ideas, as attractive, they seemed to be full of illusions and lead to a dead end. Only those known prehistoric settlements are captured on the maps, around which the Earth was turned into a "brass". But the settlements of the prehistoric time and even earlier eras cannot be displayed on the map in this way, because they never settled everything at the same time, they were temporary. It is here, then there the forest fell, then here, then the forest was renewed there, so that the "settlements" in general, in no case cannot be considered nonsense.
In addition, none of these cards takes into account all settlements that existed sometime, because the archaeologists manage to find traces of only some of them. The remains of many others have long been destroyed by wind and water, third - buried under multi-meter pration and pebbles. In early periods of history, there was no clear boundary between the forest and the flamespace. Since people in different places moved deep into the forest, and the forest, in turn, in different places "took revenge", the border between the forest and the open space was never constant and only in some places was a clear line.
Colonization meant Sunset "Pure Rural", isolated economy. To implement it, landowners had to develop infrastructure. For a stable life, iron implements were required everywhere, and it was necessary to deliver the iron to where it was not. The forest also needed to bring there, where it was not enough. Especially a bright example can be river valleys and swamps on the shores of the seas. To protect settlements from flooding there, it was necessary to build dams and dams. Erecting reliable dams and stray with gateways, gates for the descent of water and the fascins required huge volumes of wood. And there were few forests on the coasts, and without trading contacts it was not to do.
Medieval villages lost economic autonomy. Excess products on the trade routes were sent to where they were missing. For the device, maintenance and safety of trade routes were answered by landowners. They invested in this considerable funds. On the banks of the rivers and along large distant roads, held through the mountains or unsafe forests, fortified locks grow. They gave protection to travelers and transportable goods, thereby maintaining colonization. The initial meaning of these structures after a while forgot; Some of them were rebuilt into the palaces, others went into oblivion, because the roads on which they stood were lost the importance of the main passage paths. But initially they were built as real and symbolic fortresses to protect against forest savages. Such were castles on the Rhine, Danube, Elbe, Nekcar and Moselle, in Garza and the Black Forest. The same fortresses in Finnish forests. The same role was played by the Forts of the American Wildend.
| <<< Назад
|
Forward \u003e\u003e\u003e |
From fines at 25-50 thousand euros to plans for the "radical cooling" of the city by landscaping. Experience in Germany, France, Italy.
Numerous studies of environmentalists have shown that an increase in the number of trees can save the planet from global warming, stopping the accumulation of carbon dioxide in the air.
The output is simple: the amount of ilny]]] is reduced - the number of trees should increase. Large cities around the world are increasingly turning to the trees to protect against heat and flooding waves, as well as improving the physical and mental health of people.
Italy
From May 5, 2018, a new law on forestry networks entered into force in Italy.
The Italian National Forest Heritage is 39% of the national territory, of which 32.4% of forests under the control of the state, regions or municipalities.
The new law lists the principles governing the National Forestry Heritage, trying to protect public interests and ensure the welfare of current and future generations. Legislation is also aimed at protecting the environmental diversity of forests, preventing natural and technogenic risks, protecting rivers, ensuring the participation of local communities in the development of forestry, promoting the study of forestry and on environmental education.
According to a new law, any elimination of woody vegetation or existing trees for targets other than forest management is considered as a forest transformation that causes environmental damage, and for which it is necessary to pay compensation. Such transformation measures include improvement and restoration of forests; reforestation and creating new forests; introduction of forestry infrastructure, especially hydraulic systems; and forest fire prevention programs.
Another Plato, the most famous Greek philosopher (427-355 BC), wrote that the depletion of soils and the draining of Greece is connected with the destructive action of people. And for the sake of fairness, it should be noted that in some cases the rulers of antiquity took certain measures to preserve spawning, forests, birds and beasts.
Linden - on Napti!
In antiquity (and at historical time), wood in large quantities was used for the construction of dwellings, for heating, burning coal and the production of tar, the manufacture of household products and tools (dishes, shoes, etc.). Mass cutting down of forests and landspered lands led to a root change of landscapes. The cutting of the forest could lead to the roaming of the territories, and in the future to change the species composition of the trees. Thus, for example, many oaks on the territory of the European part of Russia were cut down in the early Middle Ages for construction. Linden forests were reduced - Lipa walked to the manufacture of dishes and ... Napti. For the manufacture of one pair of noodles, a lyko was required with 2-3 young stickies (at the age of 3-4 years), and the peasant for a week was usually wearing 2 pairs of the lapes. As the saying goes - Comments Excess ...
In the Moscow principality, with a huge abundance of the forest, he did not regret it, everyone chopped the forest, where he wanted and how much, and the individuals struggled in state dachas, and the treasury, if necessary, used private.
Only under Peter I was adopted a number of forest protection laws, ban on clearing under the crop and arable land at a distance of 30 versts from the rivers, for which alloy went to Moscow, decrees about the prohibition of rivers clogging. However, despite all the rigor of the decrees (up to the death penalty) and the ban on chop maple, Ilm, larch and pine thickness of 12 vershs in diameter (approximately 25 cm), it was allowed to unlimited chop lymp, ash, birch, aspen, alder and fir. In addition, it was allowed to freely harvest firewood.
After the death of Peter I, decrees were forgotten and, for the next century, more than 22 million hectares of the forest were minimized. This was especially touched by the central and southern provinces of Russia, where the deforestation process took the nature of the environmental catastrophe: the steppe began to move back to the north a year on the verst, or even more. In a number of areas, the microclimate changed, the surviving and droughts, some social problems have become more frequent. In a number of central and southern provinces (Orlovskaya, Kursk, Voronezh), they began to freeze and dry out the gardens.
Russian historian V.O. Klyuchevsky noted that although the forest also provided a person with certain services, supplied the fuel building material, nevertheless, "... a heavy work with an ax and fire, some kind of forest bias was started on a fear, cleared of the fired and bedrid forest, tired, crushed. This can explain the unfriendly or negligence attitude of the Russian person to the forest: he never loved his forest ... " A similar attitude towards nature, and the economic structure of the Russian peasant and is also explained, most likely, and depletion of the species composition of forests in a number of provinces, and the formation of extensive waste, and the drying of small rivers ... and climate change is nothing to do with it ....
Sad fate of Europe
In Europe, for 1000 years, the Middle Ages, the total area of \u200b\u200bforests has decreased by 3 - 4 times, and that it is important, the qualitative characteristics of the remaining forests have changed - the wider oak-beech forests gave way to coniferous and birch. This is due not only to the cutting of forests for agricultural land, but also the growth of settlements and cities, for example, for the XII-XIII centuries. In 21 English counties, more than 3500 villages appeared. The forests were cut down for construction, and on the firing of coal, for Potash, and what is important - on fuel.
Russian geographer A.I. Wayers noted "... Dalmatia, Herzegovina, Montenegro on huge spaces are covered with lime deserts ... and are countries, very little adapted for human life ... But history shows us that there were thick forests and that some of them were cut down not further as in XV XVI centuries, on the needs of the Venetian fleet. This is especially true of Dalmatia and the neighboring part of Herzegovina. Then forest fires and imprudent pastures tried the rest ... ".
Today, all forests in Europe (with the exception of Northern Europe - Sweden, Norway and Finland) grow on the site of the cuttered forests and old passengers, and the landscapes of Greece, Spain, Italy. France, Germany almost completely changed in the Middle Ages.
The first environmental laws
One of the first laws on the protection of forests was adopted in Babylon in the XVIII century BC, and legislation related to the regulation of environmental management belongs to the II millennium BC. According to the laws of the Babylonian king Hammurapi (XVIII century. BC), strict punishment was supposed to be the destruction of dams or ariats, and the penalty for cutting the fruit tree was equal to the finity for applying severe bodily injuries leading to death.
In ancient China, already in the I millennium BC. The legal establishments on environmental activities were involved, which were decorated in the "Guan-Tzu" collections (VI-III centuries. BC) and Xun-Tzu (III century BC). They were forbidden in the spring to kill young deer and tear off the shoots of plants, it was envisaged to hunt only at a certain time of the year. The state should guard trees and plants during flowering, turtles and fish - during the masonry of eggs and spawning, save the swamps and plant forests on the slopes of the mountains to maintain natural equilibrium.
In the III century BC The Indian king of Ashoka issued a number of laws relating to nature conservation. In Indian laws, Manu, operating with II century. BC. by II century AD, the trade of natural gifts, beasts, birds, water pollution, and causing other harm to nature.
Ancient Roman laws of twelve tables (V c. BC) provided for a fine of 25 copper coins for illegally fired wood.
The Ethiopian Legislative Collection "Fytch Visent" has banned selling river fish, bird, wild animals, urged not to prevent the flow of water, irrigated fields at the foot of the mountains.
The Tuaregs of Algeria and Mali strictly caught the beginning of the grazing of the cattle earlier the ripening of herbs, more than it is supposed to, the number of cattle heads per unit of pasture area, clogging of wells, cutting trees and shrubs.
Robin Hood - poacher?
In medieval Europe, Salic Pravda, recorded at the beginning of the 6th century, urged to ensure the protection of the forest, announcing a rowing room for society. In the "Good Old England" XII century. Special "forest legislation" established the status of "Reserved Forests" (so Robin Hood was including a malicious poacher!). In the same century, the laws of the German principalities took the protection of hunters, "... In addition to those who put networks and laid cappos: these are nowhere else and should never have the world ...".
In the "Russian Pravda", the collection of the laws of the XI century, there are articles about fines for the destruction of sores (bee refers). In the "Statute of the Grand Principality of Lithuanian" (1529), the use of hunting and forest land is clearly regulated, indicated at what distance from the beaver calch or a berpet can be plowing or mounted hay, cut down the bushes. In 1557. grand Duke Lithuanian Sigismund II issued a decree banning fishing fish in lakes at spawning time. Yes, and royal forest areas, where simple mortal hunting was categorically prohibited (up to the death penalty) - it is nothing more than the reserves or reserves.
The Cathedral Code of 1649 included and norms of nature conservation. It fastened the division of land on common, royal and state (state-owned), where free hunt forbid. The rocks, size and number of fish for the royal table, the annual production and processing of fossil (salt, clay) were strictly determined. Studies were also stipulated, which ensured gentle species of fishery. Frequent non-senses, iron trays, peaked for hunting for birds forbidden. For violation of these rules, punishments followed: fines, beating with batogas and whips, and in special cases - even the death penalty.
In Russia, they were guarded and interpreted (defensive fortifications, which are forest dusts and impassable areas of forests), defended from the raids of nomads from the south - the hunting and deforestation of the forest was forbidden. Tula interpretations (as the reserve) still exist, although there are some plowed lands.
So it is not worth accusing the people of the past only in predatoryness ... Sacred groves and forests, in which the hunt was forbidden (or even the entrance to them), rivers and lakes where fishing was banned, served as a kind of reserves or reserves.
Of course, there was another ... There is data on a sharp decrease or extermination of certain types of animals in Africa during the rule of the Roman Empire. For example, it is believed that for gladiator fights in Africa, huge quantities of lions, elephants, giraffes, etc. have agreed in Africa. (We note that several times a large amount could be mounted during catch and transportation). Only in one day in the arena of the Colosseum was exterminated by 5,000 animals! Exaggeration is or not - unknown ...
However, the finally different subspecies of the lion disappeared in the V century AD. In the territory of Greece and in the 15th century in Malaya Asia and Egypt, and individual individuals existed until the middle of the XIX century in South Africa, at the end of the XIX - early XX in the Atlask Mountains, Spain (Berber Lion), Front Asia and the Northeast of India.
Maori, who came to the islands of New Zealand about 1000 years ago, completely destroyed the Giant Bird of the MOA (about 20 species), however, in most cases, not as a direct object of hunting, but ruining nests to collect eggs.
The era of great geographical discoveries led to a change in the species composition of the animal world?
But the main types of fauna were destroyed after the era of the great geographical discoveries, mainly from the XVI-XVIII century. And if in the XV - XVIII centuries, 10 species of birds and 9 species of mammals were exterminated, then in the XIX century, respectively, 47 and 19, and in the XX century - 44 species of birds and 25 mammalian species. Those. Over the past 200 years, a person has destroyed more than 90 species of birds and almost 70 species of mammals !!!
For navigators in the XVII-XVIII century, DRONT was completely destroyed on the islands of the Mascarent Archipelago and the Giant Dream from the island of Mauritius.
And after the expedition of Vitus Bering, in just 27 years, the stellerov of the cow was completely destroyed - the closest relative of Laman and Digo, who inhabited on the islands opened by Bering and named after him.
Already in the twentieth century, a sample wolf was extermined on the island of Tasmania (though, there is evidence that individual individuals are still preserved), a Japanese wolf. In Europe, the wolf and the bear were completely exterminated by XVII centuryBut now the livestock of wolves is intensively restored, for example in Germany, and is already beginning to be a problem).
Omnipresent ... goats.
It should be noted that the disappearance of certain types of animals is connected not only with the hunting and clearing of land under the polar, but also with the advent of animals delivered by man, primarily rats, pigs and dogs.
But the goats "ate" the island of the Aegean Sea - in Antique Greece, and earlier - it was the goal that was the main pet.
They "contributed" to the devastation of the Islands of the Indian and Atlantic Oceans made. John Cavendish, Corsair "in the service of the English Crown" in 1588 noted that on the island of St. Helena "... thousands of goats, moreover, wild, sometimes their herd stretches almost mile ...". Goats have become the curse of the islands and destroyed everything alive.
On the islands of Tristan da Cunya, the rats brought in the 80s of the XIX century, literally devoured the islands, and on the island of Ascension, lost in Atlantic OceanThe cats were delivered to the fight against broken rats, but they were quickly wild and began to exterminate the rats, but a homemade bird and wild guidelines.
Did you like the material? Subscribe to our email newsletter:
We will send you on Email the digest of the most interesting materials of our site.
In Western Europe, there are states that occupy the extensive North-French Plain and the mountain systems adjacent to it: the central array, the Western Alps, the Vogza, Ardennes, as well as the British Islands. This is the United Kingdom and Ireland, Denmark, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Switzerland, Austria and Germany. It is dominated by broader deciduous forests on plains and coniferous-wide forests in lowlands and coniferous in the mountains. Over the past millennium, the nature of these forests is strongly changed by a person. Once there were widespread forests from oak, beech, ash, grab, mixed with pine and mixed, pine-birch forests. Now insignificant natural forests have been preserved only in national parks, reserves, royal reserves and in an infreed man of the mountains. Everywhere they are strongly changed by cutting, fires and introduction of new woody rocks.
Forests Great Britain
Territory - 244.1 thousand km 2. Population - 63 million people. Typically oceanic - with abundant precipitation, fogs, winds. The most common podzolic soils (especially mining podsols) in the north of the country and brown forest soils in the south are most common. In Western areas there are ferrous-podzolic soils. In the past, most of the UK was covered with natural broadcap and mixed forests, subsequently crushed under agricultural land. As a result of natural forests, little left. The main breed in the south and east of the country was an oak stuffy (Q. robur), which was replaced by the north and west oak rock (Q. Petraea). In the mixture with him, Grab, beech, Ilm, poplar, linden, birch, ash, chestnut have grown with it. Olkhovy forests prevailed in wet places. For Nagrai, Scotland were characterized by planting pine trees with an admixture of birch by the rim (there were still minor forest areas, which are called the ancient Caledonian forest). In the slopes and valleys grew mixed, spruce-birch forests.
The overall forest area of \u200b\u200bGreat Britain - 1.9 million hectares. Operated forests occupy approximately 1.5 million hectares, of which are closed conifers - 1.16 million hectares, deciduous - 407 thousand hectares. Forestability of the country - 8%.
In the form of ownership, forests are divided into private (65%) and state (35%). The total stock of wood - 157 million m 3 (coniferous - 74 million m 3 and deciduous - 83 million m 3). 1 ha accounts for 79 m 3. One-year growth of wood - 6.5 million m 3. Its main part is coniferous rocks (5.1 million m 3). For the UK, high-ranking areas occupying 90% of the area are characterized. In the old forests, oaks are prevailing the muffles and rock (approx. 180 thousand hectares), the beech forest (approx. 70 thousand hectares). From other hardwood, hybrid forms of poplar on fertile, well-moistened areas grow.
In the southern and central regions of the country there are extensive communities of the slash, part of which are gradually translated under high-ranking coniferous and deciduous forests. Defigured placements come to favorable conditions for rapid growth and high quality wood. Pine ordinary gives the best results in the growth of cultures on lowland soils. On fertile, sufficiently moistrates, a good increase is given by the European and Japanese larch. Pine Black (P. Nigra) is used to blast the sand dunes, and twisted pine (R. Contorta) for afforestation of low-chip peat soils. Ordinary and Sitkhinskaya (Picea Sitchensis) were widely used.
The average annual volume of wood blanks in the UK in recent years has been 3.2 million m 3, of which coniferous breeds-1.2 million m 3, deciduous - 1.9-2 million m 3. The area of \u200b\u200bannually created forest crops reached 34 to 36 thousand hectares, 2/3 of which falls on the land of the Forest Commission and 1/3 - for private ownership. By 2010, the area under forest crops was estimated at 1.5 million hectares. For growing planting material, it is possible to obtain in sufficient quantities on the ground only oak seeds, beech, pine ordinary and black. Seeds of other breeds are imported.
Conifer breeds in the UK grow faster than in other countries Western Europe or North America. So, on fertile sections of EL Sitkhinskaya gives an average annual increase in 18-27 m 3 / ha in the first 50 years. Naturally, such a high increase is not characteristic of all breeds and not for all areas (in the pine, it is equal to 9 m 3 / hectares).
The main purpose of protective forest stripes in the UK is to reduce wind speed, so they are created by windmills. Stripes protect fields, verfer areas and buildings, gardens, gardens, livestock yards.
Scientific work in the field of forestry is carried out by the Research Station of Alice-Holt, located near London, and its separation in Edinburgh. The forestry course is read in Oxford, Edinburgh, Aberdeen and Wales Universities of the country, which are produced by forestry. In addition, there are forest schools in England, Scotland and Wales.
In accordance with the Law of 1949, the territory of the National Parks in the UK is protected by territories of 10 national parks with an area of \u200b\u200bover 1.3 million hectares. Among them, the Bracon-Bracious Park (133 thousand hectares) in Wales, which includes the southern part of the Cambrian Mountains with forests in the valleys and on the slopes and with Verperamen. Dartmour Park in Devonshire on the Cornish Peninsula (94.5 thousand hectares) with a mountain barny and single century trees; Yorkshire Dales Park (176 thousand hectares) with valleal and mountain forests and vessels; Lake District Park in Cumberland (225 thousand hectares) with oak and birch forests in the lower zone of the mountains; North York-Mourn Parks (143 thousand hectares), Northumberland (103 thousand hectares), Exmur (68 thousand hectares) with Verestellers and residues of ancient forest arrays; Park Pembrokshire Coast (58 thousand hectares) on the coast with dunes and groves of pine forests; PIK-District Park in the southern part of the Pennic Mountains (140 thousand hectares) with oak, birch and ash forests, heather waste and peatlands; Snowdonia Park (219 thousand hectares) with Snowdon Mountain (1085 m) and well-preserved oak and chestnut forests.
In addition, forest reserves were created, including bin-ah (4 thousand hectares) with a pine, holly, pandab, rowan, birch and juniper. The management of parks and reservations is carried out by the Office of Nature Conservation and the Commission on National Parks under the Ministry of Urban and Rural Planning, as well as the Scientific and Advisory Council and the Society for the Promotion of Reserves.
Forests of Ireland
Territory - 70 thousand km 2. The population is about 4.24 million people. The climate is typically oceanic - wet, smooth, with soft winter and cool summer. Once the territory of the country was covered with extensive broad-willed, mostly oak, forests, preserved to date only in a few mountainous areas. This is a Bourne-Vincent in the southwest with the residues of evergreen vegetation, with a strawberry tree (Arbutus Unitedo), highlighted in a natural park (4 thousand hectares). Lesnaya Square Ireland - 268 thousand hectares, including the share of conifers accounts for 205 thousand. Medium forest science - 3.7%. The state owns 78% of forests, the rest of the involuntary owners. Among the coniferous ancient with a margin of less than 50 m 3 / hectare occupy 108 thousand hectares, with a reserve of 50-150 m 3 / ha - 10 thousand hectares, more than 150 m 3 / ha - 24 thousand hectares. The total wood supply is 15.0 million m 3, including coniferous 9.5 million m 3, deciduously 5.5 million m 3. The average stock of wood per 1 hectare - 58 m 3. The overall increase is 707 thousand m 3, of which 581 thousand m 3, decidive - 126 thousand m 3, account for coniferous rocks. The average increase by 1 hectare - 3.2 m 3. Low wood supply per unit area is due to the fact that most of the plantations are represented by a young artificial forest. For the same reason, the level of wood blanks in the country is low. The volume of logging in 2008 and 2009. amounted to about 240-250 thousand m 3. Artificial plantations began to create since 1904. Currently, the total area of \u200b\u200ball artificial forests - 269 thousand hectares, i.e. Somewhat larger than the entire forest area for 2010 in the country has created two natural parks - Vincent and Phoenix (approx. 5 thousand hectares) - and 17 forest and zoological reserves (the largest - Carr - 2 thousand hectares).
Forest Dani.
Territory - 43 thousand km 2. Population - over 5.6 million people. The climate is moderate, marine. Soft unstable winter with low-power and short snow cover creates favorable conditions for growing wood-shrub breeds.
The average annual precipitates (570-650 mm) are distributed over a year relatively evenly and create quite high air humidity. A good development of forestry with a soft climate contributed to the fact that the average annual growth of wood reached 6.8 m 3 / hectares. This increase is 3 times higher than the growth of wood in the northern countries. Oak (QUERCUS ROBUR), Elmus Procera, Ash (Fraxinus Excelsior), Lipa (Tilia Cordata), occur birch (Betula Pendula) and aspen. There are almost no natural coniferous forests in Denmark, but there are large areas of artificial coniferous landing, which completely changed the former rock formation of Denmark forests. Now they are represented by small arrays, of which only a few reach 5 thousand hectares. About 26% of forest areas do not exceed 50 hectares each. The most obsesshed areas of the country - the North and Central part of Zealand and the center of Jutland.
The total forest area of \u200b\u200bDenmark is 490 thousand hectares. Coniferous plantings prevail - 267 thousand hectares. The area of \u200b\u200bdeciduous - 153 thousand hectares. Substitution - 12%. When creating forest crops, a spruce spruce, the pine, ordinary, European larch, Lyzuez Menziesii (Psedotsuga Menziesii) was used. For the afforesting of the heather paddies, the pine mountain (Pinus Mugo) was planted. Currently, 405 thousand hectares of high-seat forests (seed origin).
Total wood supply - 45 million m 3, annual increase -2.1 million m 3. The average margin of plantings per 1 hectare - 114 m 3. From the overall stock of the wood, 48% it comes from coniferous rocks, 52% - to deciduous.
Reserves of hardwood are superior to coniferous reserves, since the latter are mainly represented by young plant landscapes and a high current increase. In recent years, the volume of billets increased slightly and reached 2.1 million m 3 in 1978. Over 300 thousand m 3 businesswood imported from other countries, including from Russia.
Danish forest belongs prefer an artificial method of refinery, which makes it possible to create new plantings from better quality trees. By 2010, there were about 140 thousand hectares of forest crops in the country, which is over 30% of the total forest area. It is exclusively planting coniferous rocks, as their wood is in great demand. The overall length of forest bands is over 60 thousand km. Forest management carries out a forestry directorate under the Ministry of Agriculture. Forests are divided into forest areas, which are guided by specialists with higher education. In areas there are forest areas with an area of \u200b\u200bup to 400 hectares each. Forestry specialists are preparing the Fountation Faculty of the Royal Higher Veterinary and Agricultural School in Copenhagen and Medium Forest Schools.
There are 8 small reserves in the country, 50 protected forest areas and more than 200 separate monuments of nature.
Forest France
Area - 551.6 thousand km 2. Population - 65 million people. Four types of climate allocate in France: Sea (Atlantic); transition from marine (atlantic) to continental; subtropical Mediterranean; mountain. Most of the country enters the subzone of the coastal forests of a moderate belt, the Mediterranean coast - to the zone of evergreen xerophilic forests and shrubs of a subtropical belt. On the plain and at lowlands, mostly small arrays of beech, oak, chestnut, oak-robber and less frequent forests are common. The largest arrays of oak forests are preserved in the Loire Pool. This is an Orleans Forest (34 thousand hectares), Bellem, Bereza, Tronse and others.
Significant arrays of coniferous-wide and coniferous forests are concentrated in the mountainous areas of the central massif, the veins, Jurassic, the Western Alps, which are prevailing the forests of the ordinary pine, and in the mountains of Languedoc Provisons and Provence also Pinus Halepensis. In the plain western part (Landa), large artificial forests from the Pinus Pinaster, which occupy about 13% of the country's forest area are growing. Major breeds in the central part of France -Dube puffed and oak rocky (Quercus Petraea). Here are well-preserved beech areas (Fagus Sylvatica). In Normandy, large areas are occupied by the pine ordinary and fir whites (Abies Alba). For this area, forest areas with noble chestnut (Castanea Sativa) and Scharb (Carpinus Betulus) are characterized, and for valve areas - poplar plantations (more than 100 thousand hectares), which occupy over 50% of the area of \u200b\u200bFrance's popolevous plantations. In the territory closer to the vehicles, the beech becomes the main rock, and in the mountains, as in the Alps and on Jura, are coniferous - white fir, pine ordinary (especially in southern slopes) and occasionally (in vehicles and on Yura) erener (at height 800 m), which in the Alps at an altitude of 900-1000 m are replaced by forests from the European larch, inferior to the place at an altitude of 1000-1200 m mountain (Pinus Uncinata and P. Mugo) and the European cedar (Pinus Cembra).
For southern France, forests are characterized by fluffy oaks (Quereus Pubescens), evergreen stone (QUERCUS ILEX), cork (QUERCUS SUBER), as well as shrub communities Gariga and McWis.
At the foot of the Pyreneev (120-150 m above sea level), the oak stone is replaced with a bug with a fir white, dominant at altitudes 750-1200 m. Even above, within 1800-2300 m., Mountain pine communities are common.
Most forests (60%) are located on the territory below 400 m above sea level, 29% - in areas from 400 to 1000 m, 11% - above 1000 m.
Forest area of \u200b\u200bFrance - 13,022 thousand hectares (the share of conifers accounts for 2 194 thousand hectares). Average forestry - 24%. Public forests occupy 36% of the area, of which 14% submit state ownership, 22% - municipal and urban. The rest of the forest area (64%) is located in private logbooks and is divided into a variety of fragmented areas (37% of the area of \u200b\u200bprivate forests - areas up to 10 hectares, 22% - from 10 to 50 hectares, the rest are over 50 hectares).
Deciduous plantings are dominated in the country, which account for 67% of forest areas. From hardwood different types of oak occupy 35%, beech - 15% and grab -10%. As a result of forestry events, the share of coniferous breeds in France's forests has recently increasing.
Total wood supply - 1307 million m 3, of which 453 million m 3 (30%) are wood coniferous rocks. The overall annual increase is 43 million m 3 (15 million m 3 - deciduous). Middle coniferous rocks and 28 million m 3 Wood stock on 1 heater forest - 89 m 3. Average with an increase - 3.9 m 3. The annual volume of wood blanks - 34 million m 3, business - 28.1 million m 3.
In France, different ways of logging are used. In mountain forests performing water protection functions, selective and uniformly gradual logging are carried out. At the same time, from the dark forests - spruce and fir - on steep slopes, they seek to create multi-industrial plants that best perform their water protection functions. In each reception, 10 - 15% of the stock of wood remove, repeating them in 10-15 years. On more gentle slopes, four-rated gradual cuttings are carried out, removing 20-30% of the wood of wood every 5-6 years.
The main part of the cutting is renewed by naturally. In the same cases, when this does not occur, crops are planted using a large-dimensional planting material: fir and fir of four years, pine-three years old. To create crops from fast-growing rocks, 1600-1700 seedlings are used for 1 hectares, from slow-growing - 2-3 thousand copies. If wood is grown on cellulose raw materials (balances) and mining rack, then the number of seats increases to 4-5 thousand copies. Preference is given to pure cultures, without impurities of other breeds.
Foresting forest strips are widely introduced into peasant farms.
Forest plantings are created on irrigated lands, mainly from the poplar. The bands not only protect the fields from the wind, but also serve as a source of wood. To this end, the state redeems such lands from private owners.
Many of the newly created forests are designed for recreation areas. By the beginning of 2001, 1.1 million hectares of cultures were already created in France, of which coniferous - 979 thousand hectares, deciduous - 121 thousand hectares. Of the coniferous breeds of pine ordinary, black and seaside occupy 374 thousand hectares. The fraction of the rest of conifers accounts for 605 thousand hectares. In recent years, in order to quickly obtain raw materials for the pulp and paper industry, the poplar is widely used. Popol plantations are common on fertile flooding lands, in which mineral fertilizers are added. In France, this breed covers an area of \u200b\u200b250 thousand hectares and gives 2.2 million m 3 of high-valued wood annually. Currently, much attention is paid to increasing the productivity of low-power strokes. For this purpose, fast-growing coniferous rocks are introduced (Lyetsuga, Spruce Sitkha, Fir Caucasian, etc.), the stroke farms are replaced by seeds, the reconstruction of low-value young people is carried out.
The leadership of forestry is carried out by two organs: national forest management - in public and public forests and administration (association) of private owners - in private forests. National Forest Management - Home Forest Inspectorate of the country; it also defines the program scientific research In the Research Institute of Forestry, located in Nancy. The institute has several experienced stations. The main school management is subject to the Higher Educational Institution, which is preparing for forestry specialists.
Nature Protection Activities are carried out by the National Council for Nature Protection, Protection Service and Rational Use natural resources and the Interdepartmental Council of National Parks. There are many small forest reserves and reserves (0.5 million hectares) in the country, where areas with valuable forests and nature monuments are preserved. Based on the Law on National Parks and Reserves (75 thousand hectares) in 1960, three national parks were organized. This is the Park Vanoise (60 thousand hectares), created in 1963 in the Savoy Department, on the border of Western Europe with the Italian National Parc Paradise.
Picturesque landscapes with European larch, white fir, ordinary and mountain pine, alpine meadows, glaciers, waterfalls, etc. are guarded in the park, the Pelvi Park (13 thousand hectares) is also popular, European cedar, Pinus Cembra) and a mountain pine (R. uncinata). Park was also created in Navarre (50 thousand hectares) on the site of Western Pyrenees, border with Spain. There are landscapes with mountain pine, European chestnut and stone oak.
Forest Belgium
Area - 30.5 thousand km 2. The population is over 11 million people. The climate is moderate, soft, marine. In the nearby past, the territory of Belgium was covered with broad forest, consisting of oak rock, cherry and beech forest (European). The area of \u200b\u200bthese forests is currently much declined. In the plain part of the country, oak-birch forests prevail. On sandy sediments surrounding the Campin channel, the groves from ordinary, black Austrian and Calabrian pines are artificially planted in the XIX and XX centuries. Significant part of modern forests of Belgium is coniferous cultures.
Pine forests grow on the plains, the wastelands and sands of the northeastern part of the country, where the pine was cultivated before. The last replace the Pines Austrian and Calabrian. On the brown forest soils of the central part of Belgium, oak and beech forests grow. To the southeast, they are inferior to the coniferous place in which Spruce prevails. The most thickly covered with forests area Ardennes. Here at an altitude of 200-500 m above sea level, high-seat bucan forests are growing with an admixture of oak and birch, and at an altitude of more than 500 m - with an admixture of fir (Picea Abies) and cultivated menziesi (pseudotsuga menziesii), Japanese larch (LARIX LEPTOLEPIS) and European (L. Decidua).
The overall forest area of \u200b\u200bBelgium is 618 thousand hectares, the forest is covered with 603 thousand hectares, or 20% of the country's territory. Deciduous plantings prevail - 338 thousand hectares, the share of conifers accounts for 265 thousand hectares. The total wood supply in the forests of Belgium is 57 million m 3, including wood coniferous rocks 31 million m 3, deciduous - 26 million m 3. The average stock of wood per 1 hectare - 95 m 3. Among the coniferous plantings of ancient with a margin of over 150 m 3 / ha occupy 48%, among deciduous - 30%. The overall growth of wood - 6 million m 3, including coniferous rocks of 1.6 m 3, deciduous 4.4 million m 3. The average growth of wood is 4.4 m 3 hectares.
The volume of logging in 2008 amounted to 3.0 million m 3, including the businesswood of 2.6 million m 3.
In the form of the ownership of the forest, they are divided into public, occupying 47% of the area, and private - 53%. Public forests are managed by the management of water and forests of the Ministry of Agriculture; The influence of the latter does not apply to the forests of private owners. The law on the protection of private forests allows in some cases to prevent their excessive cutting. Belgian forest belongings create mixed forests: they are more resistant to diseases and pests, persist and valuable properties soil.
In Belgium, forest-reserving works are carried out in relatively large volumes. At the end of 2008, 296 thousand hectares of forest crops were created. Thus, almost half of the forests of Belgium artificial origin. Soft breeds predominate in landings. The largest squares are busy pine - 83 thousand hectares, the share of other conifers accounts for 180 thousand hectares. Great attention is paid to protective forest area in Belgium. Stripes mainly linear, laid on the fields and meadows. Four types of strips are common: coniferous, coniferous-deciduous, with emitting of shrubs and from several hardwood. Most deciduous crops are different types of poplar.
For the protection of valuable forest landscapes in Belgium, 7 national parks and 23 reserves have been created. In the parks of Boaão Mambr, Biojor de Calmthaw, forest and scrap, and on-foant are preserved oak-birch forests, dune forms of pine, limestone flora, oak pine, juniper, rosehip, sphagnum peatman with cranberries and Andromeda; Here is the place of rest and wintering migratory and nesting forest and waterfowl.
Woods of Holland
Territory - 36.6 thousand km 2. Population - 16.7 million people. Approximately 2/5 of the territory lies below the sea level. These areas are protected by a system of dam, dams and other hydraulic structures.
The climate is mild, marine, characterized by significant humidity and cloudiness. In the seaside strip and the valleys of rivers are developed fertile marches (Polders) and alluvial-meadow soils. In the forests, poor turf-podzolic soils are common. Podzolic soils also cover the sublime southeast part of the country. Significant area, especially in the north and east of the country, are occupied by swamp soils. Natural floral cover in the Netherlands is strongly changed by man. Effective natural forests are formed by oak (Fagus Sylvatica), ash (Fraxinus Excelsior), a hub (carpinus betulus) with an admixture of tees (Taxus Baccata). They are represented by separate curtains and groves. Together with artificially created forests and roadside allery landings, they occupy 8% of the forest area. Forests from ordinary pine and sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides) are common on the dunes (Hippophae Rhamnoides) (52 thousand hectares) with a shrub (S. Procumbens) and Juniperus (Juniperus Communis) on the dunes.
Dubovoy-beech forests that covered the country in the past were severely cutting down. From the XIX century Coniform breeds begin to prevail in forest plantings. In recent years, oaks and other deciduous breeds in the coniferous forest are sized. The ordinary pine, previously dominated in artificially created forests, is currently divorcing, like other local coniferous and broader rocks, in smaller quantities and is replaced by more productive species: Japanese larch (LARIX LEPTOLEPIS), Lsytesuga (Pseudotsuga Menziesii), oak North (QUERCUS Borealis) and Book (Fagus Sylvatica). When fixing coastal dunes, black pine is used (Pinus Nigra). A large industrial value for the Netherlands has a beech forest and ash (Fraxinus Excelsior) with an admixture of oak (QUERCUS Borealis), Maple (Ulmus Procera) and Birch (Betula Pendula). There are small natural poplar forest arrays (R. Alba and Popul Nigra). On the banks of the rivers and for the strengthening of the dam, the landing of Willow, which comes to the manufacture of wicker products. To protect farms from winds on their territory, a poplar is planted in combination with ash (F. Excelsior) and the Yavor (A. Pseudoplatanus).
The overall forest area of \u200b\u200bthe Netherlands is 328 thousand hectares, which is 8% of the country's territory. The greatest forest science is celebrated in the central part of the country, as well as on the border with Germany and Belgium.
In the form of ownership of forests, they are divided into private - 58% and public - 42%. Half of public forest forests. All forests, regardless of the form of ownership, are under the supervision of the State Forest Service, which is part of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. The forests occupy an area of \u200b\u200b276 thousand hectares, including coniferous 197 thousand hectares, deciduous 79 thousand hectares. Under shrubs - 52 thousand hectares.
The total stock of wood in the forests - 22.0 million m 3, of which the timber of coniferous rocks accounts for 15 million m 3, deciduous - 7 million m 3. Annual increase - 910 thousand m 3, including coniferous 820 thousand m 3, deciduous 90 thousand m 3. The average increase is -3.6 m 3 / ha. The volume annually prepared in the woods of wood-800-900 thousand m 3 3 and almost reached the annual growth in the exploited forests. 95% of the businesswood are harvested, the rest is the firewood. Own wood blanks satisfy the needs of the country by only 15%. The missing amount is imported from abroad.
Every year, local work is carried out on the territory of 1.5-3 thousand hectares. By 2010, the area of \u200b\u200bartificial forests reached 275 thousand hectares. Artificial plantations are characterized by relatively low productivity, which is associated with the poverty of the soils on which they grow. Measures are taken to increase productivity by more correct selection of forest crops and improving soil fertility. To preserve the most valuable forest landscapes, four national parks have been created in the Netherlands, from them velor and "Kenneurian dunes" include forests and vessels on the dunes, and Hoge velor (5.7 thousand hectares) - the most valuable forests from the European beech, white fir and ordinary pine. In eight reserves, plots of coniferous forests, shrubs, peat swamps and heather empty are preserved.
Luxembourg forests
Area - 2.6 thousand km 2. Population - 285 thousand people. Forest arrays are distributed over the slopes of Ardennes and are formed mainly by the beech (Fagus Sylvatica) and oak (QUERCUS ROBUR).
Overall forest area - 83 thousand hectares. Directly forest is engaged in 81 thousand hectares and shrubs - 2 thousand hectares, or 31% of the country's territory. In the form of ownership of the forests, they are divided into public (43% of forest area) and private (57% of the area). In the breed composition, deciduous plantings predominate (75%), mainly the cherry oak and the European beech. Coniferous rocks, mostly pine ordinary and European spruce, are focused on 25% of the forest area, their share in artificial plantings is constantly increasing. Forest crops occupy the territory of 26 thousand hectares.
The total wood supply in Luxembourg forests is 13 million m 3, of which 9 million m 3 - deciduous rocks. The average stock of plantations is 148 m 3 / ha. Annual growth of wood - 266 thousand m 3, including coniferous 117 thousand m 3, deciduous 149 thousand m 3.
The volume of annual logging has in recent years amounted to 200 thousand m 3 of wood. National forests of Luxembourg are managed by the administration of water and forest resources, which also controls the hunt and fishing. Events on the natural resumption of forest, forest landing and cutting forest cuts will allow specialists to provide Luxembourg in the future necessary forest resources.
The protection of nature is carried out on the basis of the law adopted in 1945. The most valuable forest landscapes are maintained in the Evrop-Park Interstate National Park (33 thousand hectares).
Forest Switzerland
Area - 41.4 thousand km 2. The population is about 7.6 million people. The total forest area of \u200b\u200bthe country is 981 thousand hectares, of which the forest employs 960 thousand hectares, shrubs - 21 thousand hectares. Average forestry - 24%. In the forest area are unevenly distributed. Approximately half of the forests are located in the Alps and their foothills (800-1800 m above sea level). Significant forest arrays on Yura (secondary forestry - 37%). There are mixed forests from European beech, white fir and spruce (Picea Abies). In the Alps, forest science does not exceed 17%. Forests are represented by coniferous rocks. Spruce and fir occupy the lower parts of the slopes; Above 800-1000 m, larch predominates (L. Decidua), at altitudes 1200-1600 meters - European cedar (R. Cembra), Mountain pine (R. Uncinata) and ordinary. The Swiss Plateau previously grew wide breeds, especially oak (Q. Robur and Q. Petraca). Currently, as a result of planting ate and pine ordinary, mixed forest arrays extends here.
Three types of deciduous forests are distinguished: oak-ram, oak-birch and beech, growing on fertile brown soil valleys. In birch forests of dry alpine mountain valleys, pine appears. In more wet mountain valleys, fir and fir, forming spruce-fir-fir forests grow. Coniferous plants occupy 67% of forest areas, deciduous - 10, mixed - 23%. High-seat plantings are characteristic of 75% of the area. Much attention is paid to maintaining water protection functions and an increase in its useful properties. Over 60% of the country's forests are declared security and serve to protect against adverse climatic influences, avalante, landslides and erosion. In these forests are prohibited solid logging.
The overall supply of wood - 270 million m 3 (80% - coniferous rocks and 20% - deciduous). The average forest supply of forest -251 m 3 / hectare, the average increase is 4.7 m 3 / ha.
The overall annual increase - 4.5 million m 3 (85% of the increase accounted for the share of conifers, 15% is the share of hardwood). About 3.7 million m 3 of wood prepared annually (business is 65%, firewood - 35%). Forest cabings are mainly selectively. The needs of the country in wood with their own blanks are not provided, it is imported in the amount of 25 - 40% of the total consumption.
In Switzerland, a large number of public forests (75% of the total area). The share of state forests is insignificant (5%). In the private sector there are 20% of forests.
Every year, forest-reserving work is carried out in the territory of 2 thousand hectares. In recent years, 40 thousand hectares of cultures have been created in the country, of which 30 thousand hectares are coniferous rocks, 8 thousand - deciduous. When creating new plantations, preference is given to mixed types of forest crops.
Switzerland has long been carried out to combat mountain erosion. Recently, there has been the need to create a system of protective plantings and in the valleys.
To preserve the most remarkable and valuable landscapes based on the law on the protection of nature, adopted in 1965, the National Engadine Park (17 thousand hectares) in the central part of the Alps (pine and larch forests, alpine meadows and glaciers) was organized in Switzerland; More than 450 small reserves have been created and over 200 forest monuments of nature.
Forests of Austria
Area - 83.8 thousand km 2. Population - 8.4 million people. The climate of the foothills and the plain areas is moderate. The precipitation falls 500-900 mm per year (in the mountains 1500-2000 mm or more). The forests occupy 3,675 thousand hectares and are mainly located in the foothill and mountainous regions of the Alps. In forest science, which averages 44%, Austria refers to the number of countries relatively rich in the forest, yielding only Finland and Sweden. Almost 3/4 are in private ownership. The height of 600-800 meters there are separate sections of the oak of the cherry and Austrian, the beech of the European, ash of ordinary; Above - from 800 to 1200 m, the beech forms a solid forest belt and occupies more than half of the forest area. Coniferous breeds appear at an altitude of 1200-1400 m: spherical fir, European larch, white fir, black and ordinary pine. Coniferous-wide (from fir and beech) and coniferous (from ate and fir) forest form almost 30% of forest areas and rise to the mountains up to 1800 m above sea level. Above, they are replaced by subalpian communities of the stabel rock pine pine pine (Pinus Mugo), and sometimes the making shape of the cedar (R. Cembra Var. Depressa), at an altitude of 2000 m. - Alpine meadows. The share of conifers accounts for 71% of the forest area (including fir-58% - 58%, fir -5%, larch - 3%, pine - 5%), to the share of deciduous -29%, including poplar and willow occupy 27%.
Wood stock in forests, exploited operation (on an area of \u200b\u200b2.8 million hectares), - 681 million m 3. The average productivity of exploited forests is 240 m 3 / hectare, the annual growth of wood is 6 m 3 / ha; Accordingly, the productivity of protective forests performing mainly water protection and soil-protective functions in the mountains - 190 m 3 / ha, their annual increase is 2.8 m 3 / ha. The turnover of rowing in high-ranking forests is determined in 120 years, in low-power (threshormal) - 30-40 years.
On cuttings are created mainly by the pops of central Europe and the total volume of forest crops - over 360 thousand hectares. Every year, work on forestry and reforestation on an area of \u200b\u200b26 thousand hectares are being held on the area of \u200b\u200b26 thousand hectares (deforestation, breeding of forests on wasteland and mountain slopes, gardening places, etc.). The legislation of Austria is forbidden to translate forest land in agricultural land.
Every year in the country as a result of solid and sample logging, as well as cutting of care, about 12 million m 3 of wood are harvested, 17% of which are 17% in state forests. Conifer breeds make up about 83-85% of the total volume of blanks. Austria exports lumber and sleepers, chipboard and tree fiber plates.
Forest management is carried out by the Forest Section of the Ministry of Lands and Forests and the General Directorate of Forests, having a number of inspection points. Forestry specialists are prepared at the Faculty of Higher Vienna School of Agriculture. Maintenance practical questions Forestry is developing a federal forest experimental station, and the theoretical-specialists of forest disciplines of the highest school of agriculture. The problems of environmental protection studies the Institute for Nature Protection. To preserve the most valuable forest landscapes and species of plants and animals, more than 60 reserves were created on an area of \u200b\u200bover 600 thousand hectares and three natural parks were organized: Cartwell in Tyrolean Alps (72 thousand hectares), where there are beech-fir-fir, fir and fir forests; Hinterstoder-adhere in Upper Austria (60 thousand hectares) and Schladminger-Tauern in Styria (67.5 thousand hectares), where mountain landscapes are preserved with valuable boreal relics.
Forest Germany
Area - 357 021 thousand km 2. The population is about 81.8 million people. The surface in the north is flat, most of it is the north-german lowland. South, in the middle part of the country, stretch the average mountains (600-700 meters above sea level), alternating with areas of valleys formed by the Rhine and Danube's tributaries. Mountain names (Schwarzvald, Czech Forest, Bavarian Forest, etc.) indicate a wide distribution of mountain forests here.
In the past, most of the country was covered with forests, over the past two centuries, their area has declined significantly. The composition of the forests has changed. Primary deciduous forests, formed by oak and beech, on the plains and plateaus, mixed, coniferous and flattened and coniferous in the mountains and sections of pine forests on sandy soils (in the north) gave way to indulgent, cleaned forests with a predominance of coniferous rocks.
According to the valleys of the Rhine, Elba, Weser, the Danube is common floodplain forests from Waway Belaya (Salix Alba), White Poplar (Populus Alba) and alder black (Alnus glutinosa). On lowlands, plateau and lower slopes of hardwood mountains grow european, oak puffy, rhine, maple, ash, linden and alder. Especially Germany is characterized by beech and oak forests. In the middle of the mountainside (up to 800 m above sea level), mixed forests of beech and oak with admixture of fir, fir and sometimes pines are growing.
The coniferous forests of fir white, spruce and pine are dominated above in the mountains. Pine forests are widespread in the mountains, and in the plain areas.
At an altitude of 800-1200 m in the Black Forest and up to 1600-1800 m in the Alps, fir and spruce-fir-fir forests are common. Above 1800 meters in the Alps, the stabular communities from the mountain pine are growing (R. Mugo).
The overall forest area of \u200b\u200bGermany is 7210 thousand hectares, which is about 30% of the country's territory. Closed forests occupy 6837 thousand hectares, and the community of mountain stabers - 373 thousand hectares. The share of coniferous woods accounts for 2/3 forests. From the total forest fund of the country, state forests occupy 31%, public - 29%, private - 40%. The main part of the forest tree is extremely high full.
Total wood supply in forests -1040 million m 3. The average stock of plantations is 142 m 3 / ha. In coniferous plantings, an alder with a margin of wood is less than 50 m 3 / ha occupy about 2 million hectares, from 50 to 150 m 3 / ha - 546 thousand, more than 150 m 3 / ha - over 2.2 million hectares.
The common one-year growth of wood - 38 million m 3, of which 63% are on coniferous rocks and 37% - to deciduous. The average annual increase is 5.5 m 3 / ha. According to the calculations of forest products, the possible amount of annual forest management is 27.5 million m 3. The actual annual logging volume for 2008-2010. amounted to 29 million m 3, including 26 million m 3 businesswood. From this volume of billets on the share of conifers accounted for 67%, the share of deciduous - 33%. The country's need in wood is satisfied by 50-60%; The missing 50-40% of wood is imported in Germany from other countries (Austria, etc.).
For 75% of the forestry territory, economic plans designed for a 10-year period are compiled; They are scheduled to improve the forestry and leaving system, as well as its protection, restoration of plantings, afforestation of rush lands, etc. in 2000-2010. Annual seasons in the country were carried out on an area of \u200b\u200b40 to 60 thousand hectares.
In the south-western part of the country, forest landing on the territory of more than 1 million hectares is expected, and first of all in the slopes of the steepness over 8 °. They are grown in the main trees whose wood is on construction and other needs.
Currently, it is important for the soil and water-regulating, sanitary and aesthetic functions of forests.
Forestry is under the jurisdiction of the federal ministry of nutrition, agriculture and forests. Direct leadership of forestry and logging are carried out by the management of the forest branch of the economy, which are part of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forests of individual lands. The lower link of Central Europe in public and private forests are forestry.
Forest specialists with higher education are preparing forest faculties at universities and agricultural institutions. Foreign qualifications are preparing special forest schools.
The scientific foundations of nature conservation activities are developing the Institute for Nature and Landscape Planning and implements the Office of Nature and Landscape Planning. On the territory of the country there are 864 reserves, 33 Natural Park (2 million hectares) and about 35 thousand monuments of nature. The largest natural parks - Bergshtras-Odenwald on the land of Hesse (170 thousand hectares); Harz - in Lower Saxony (95 thousand hectares); Zudefel (39.5 thousand hectares) - on the border with Luxembourg (part of the EUROPA-1 interstate park); Hoor-Fogelsberg (27.5 thousand hectares), where bakery and fir forests are preserved, in which forest-state work over the past 150 years; Park Spessart (157 thousand hectares); Hochtown Park (114 thousand hectares) and others.
