Quantitative and qualitative changes in the psyche. Psychology. Memory: definition, functions and main types
Developmental psychology is a branch of psychological science that studies the age dynamics of the human psyche, the ontogeny of mental processes and the psychological qualities of a developing person's personality. The object of developmental psychology is age-related changes in the psyche, behavior, life and personality of a person. The sections of developmental psychology are child psychology, adolescent psychology, youth psychology, adult psychology, and gerontopsychology. Developmental psychology studies age-related features of mental processes, the possibility of acquiring knowledge, the leading factors in personality development, etc. Developmental psychology is inextricably linked with educational psychology.
Developmental psychology is a field of knowledge containing information mainly about the laws of the age-related transformation of human psychology.
Developmental psychology notes fundamental quantitative and qualitative changes that occur in the psyche and behavior of a person during his transition from one age group to another. Typically, these changes span significant periods of life, from a few months for infants to several years for older people. These changes depend on the so-called “permanent” factors: the biological maturation and psycho-physiological state of the human body, its place in the system of human social relations, the level of intellectual and personal development.
Age-related evolutionary and revolutionary changes in the psyche and behavior are usually stable, irreversible and do not require systematic reinforcement, while situational changes in the psyche and behavior of the individual are unstable, reversible and require their consolidation in subsequent exercises. Evolutionary and revolutionary changes transform the psychology of a person as a person, and situational ones leave it without visible changes, affecting only private forms of behavior, knowledge, skills and abilities.
Another component of the subject of developmental psychology is a specific combination of psychology and individual behavior, which is denoted by the concept of "age". It is assumed that at each age a person has a unique combination of psychological and behavioral characteristics characteristic only for him, which, beyond this age, is never repeated.
Age is a specific, relatively time-limited stage of mental development. It is characterized by a set of regular physiological and psychological changes that are not associated with individual differences that are common to all normally developing people (therefore they are called typological). Age-related psychological characteristics are due to the specific historical conditions in which a person develops, heredity and, to some extent, the nature of upbringing, the characteristics of the activity and communication of the individual, which, basically, only affect the time periods of transition from one age to another.
Each age has its own specific social situation of development, i.e. a certain correlation between the conditions of the social sphere and the internal conditions for the formation of personality. The interaction of external and internal factors generates typical psychological characteristics common to people of the same age.
The third component of the subject of age psychology and at the same time the psychology of age development are the driving forces, conditions and laws of the mental and behavioral development of a person. Under the driving forces of mental development are understood those factors that determine the progressive development of a person, are its causes, direct it, contain energy and incentive sources of development. Personality develops due to the emergence of internal contradictions in its life. They are determined by its relationship to the environment, successes and failures, imbalances between the individual and society. But external contradictions, even acquiring a conflict character (for example, conflicts between a child and parents), do not in themselves become an engine of development. Only by internalizing, causing in the individual himself opposite tendencies that come into conflict with each other, do they become a source of his activity aimed at resolving internal contradictions by developing new ways of behavior. Contradictions are resolved through activities that lead to the formation of new properties and qualities of the individual. Some contradictions, being overcome, are replaced by others. If they do not find their resolution, developmental delays occur, and in cases where they relate to the motivational sphere of the personality, painful disorders, psychoneuroses. The conditions for development determine those internal and external constantly operating factors that, while not acting as the driving forces of development, nevertheless influence it, directing the course of development, shaping its dynamics and determining the final results. As for the laws of mental development, they determine those general and particular laws with the help of which it is possible to describe the mental development of a person and, relying on which, this development can be controlled.
Developmental psychology notes those comparatively slow but fundamental quantitative and qualitative changes that occur in the psyche and behavior of children as they move from one age group to another.
Typically, these changes span significant periods of life, from a few months for infants to several years for older children. These changes depend on the so-called "permanent" factors: biological maturation and the psycho-physiological state of the child's body. its place in the system of human social relations. achieved level of intellectual and personal development. Age changes psychology and behavior of this type are called evolutionary, because they are associated with relatively slow quantitative and qualitative transformations.
Important aspects in the study of the development of the psyche were the ratio of the qualitative and quantitative parameters of this process, the analysis of the possibilities of the revolutionary and evolutionary ways of the formation of the psyche.
Speaking about the development of the human psyche, first of all, one should point out the continuity of this process. Some signs of a human being (physical, physiological, mental, etc.) are constantly increasing and others are decreasing.
In addition, "breaks in continuity" constantly occur, that is, qualitative changes, the appearance of some and the disappearance of other qualities (features, properties), due to quantitative changes. For example, the human body grows physically, the size of individual organs, body weight, muscle strength, speed of movement (quantitative changes) change, but the transformation of the germ cell into a human being or the process of maturation of the body already refers to qualitative changes.
Qualitative changes also occur in the functioning of the nervous system, expressed, in particular, in the transition from the unconditioned reflex implementation of its regulatory functions to regulation based on conditioned reflexes, language, in changing the ratios of the first and second signal systems in the higher nervous activity of a person, and the like.
Quantitative changes in mental development are constantly taking place. This, in particular, is an increase (decrease) with age in associations created, skills developed, ideas about the world, passive and active vocabulary, attention span, perception, memory, reaction speed, and the like.
It should be borne in mind that the development of mental functions is uneven: psychomotor, speech, intellectual skills develop in “waves” (A. Gesell), the acceleration of the development of some functions is accompanied by a slowdown in the development of others and vice versa (B.G. Ananiev).
At the same time, qualitative changes occur at all stages of the development of the human psyche. Let us consider the following in this connection. Due to the infant's interaction with the surrounding social and natural environment, diffuse activity turns into actions that are regulated by the images of objects, which, in turn, leads to the enrichment of sensory knowledge of the world. Later, the child's actions consist of different types of its objective activity (play, teaching, etc.), and determine the further development of mental processes.
The development of the arbitrariness of memorization and reproduction gradually makes these processes special actions (mnemonic, reproductive), causing the emergence of the ability not only to reproduce images of previously perceived objects, but also to transform them, to form an idea of the situation that was not in direct experience. Subsequently, this process acquires relative independence, contributing to the design of goals and the course of activities.
The emerging (through the perception and manipulation of objects) at the end of the stage of early childhood visual-effective thinking with the help of speech becomes visual-figurative. turns into a mental action, carried out first aloud, and then “to oneself”. Then there are transitions to concrete-conceptual thinking and to its abstract form, etc.
Innate elementary unconditioned reflex emotions (pleasure, displeasure, anger, etc.) associated with the organic needs of a person are supplemented by conditioned reflex emotions that arose as a result of the formation of secondary, specifically human needs.
Developmental psychology notes those comparatively slow but fundamental quantitative and qualitative changes that occur in the psyche and behavior of children as they move from one age group to another. Typically, these changes span significant periods of life, from a few months for infants to a number of years for older children. These changes depend on the so-called "permanent" factors: the biological maturation and psycho-physiological state of the child's body, his place in the system of human social relations, the level of intellectual and personal development achieved.
Age-related changes in psychology and behavior of this type are called evolutionary , since they are associated with relatively slow quantitative and qualitative transformations. They should be distinguished from revolutionary which, being deeper, occur quickly and in comparatively short term . Such changes are usually timed to crises of age development that occur at the turn of the ages between relatively calm periods of evolutionary changes in the psyche and behavior. The presence of crises of age development and the revolutionary transformations of the child's psyche and behavior associated with them was one of the reasons for dividing childhood into periods of age development.
Important aspects in the study of the development of the psyche were the correlation of the qualitative and quantitative parameters of this process, the analysis of the possibilities of the revolutionary and evolutionary ways of the formation of the psyche. This was partly related to the question of the pace of development and the possibility of its change.
Initially, based on Darwin's theory, psychologists, as mentioned above, believed that the development of the psyche occurs gradually, evolutionarily. At the same time, there is continuity in the transition from stage to stage, and the pace of development is strictly fixed, although it can partially accelerate or slow down depending on conditions. Stern's work, in particular his idea that the rate of development of the psyche is individual and characterizes the characteristics of a given person, somewhat shook this view, fixed by Hall and Claparede. However, the postulates of natural science, which proved the connection between the mental and the nervous system, did not allow one to question the progressive nature of the development of the psyche, associated with the gradual maturation of the nervous system and its improvement. So, P. P. Blonsky, linking the development of the psyche with growth and maturation, proved the impossibility of its acceleration, since the rate of mental development, in his opinion, is proportional to the rate of somatic development, which cannot be accelerated.
However, the works of geneticists, reflexologists, psychiatrists, psychoanalysts have shown that the human nervous system is a product of its social development. This was also proved by the experiments of behaviorists, who demonstrated the flexibility and plasticity of the psyche in the formation and reformation of behavioral acts, as well as the work I. P. Pavlova, V. M. Bekhtereva and other scientists who have established the presence of fairly complex conditioned reflexes in young children and animals. Thus, it was proved that with a purposeful and clear organization of the environment, it is possible to achieve rapid changes in the child's psyche and significantly accelerate his mental development (for example, when teaching certain knowledge and skills). This led some scientists, in particular Russian leaders of the sociogenetic direction, to the idea that not only evolutionary, but also revolutionary, spasmodic periods in the development of the psyche are possible, during which there is a sharp transition of accumulated quantitative changes into qualitative ones. For example, research on adolescence has shown A. B. Zalkinda to the idea of its crisis nature, which ensures a sharp transition to a new stage. He emphasized that such a qualitative leap is determined by three processes - stabilization, which consolidate the previous acquisitions of children, crisis proper, which are associated with drastic changes in the child's psyche, and new elements that appear during this period, already characteristic of adults.
However, in general, the development of the psyche was still characterized by most psychologists as predominantly evolutionary, and the possibility of completely changing the direction and individual characteristics of the process was gradually rejected. The idea of a combination of lytic and critical periods in the formation of the psyche was later embodied in Vygotsky's periodization.
Another type of change that can be seen as a sign of development is related to the influence of a particular social situation. They can be called situational . Such changes include what happens in the psyche and behavior of the child under the influence of organized or unorganized education and upbringing.
Age-related evolutionary and revolutionary changes in the psyche and behavior are usually stable, irreversible and do not require systematic reinforcement, while situational changes in the psychology and behavior of the individual are unstable, reversible and require their consolidation in subsequent exercises. Evolutionary and revolutionary changes transform the psychology of a person as a person, while situational changes leave it without visible changes, affecting only private forms of behavior, knowledge, skills and abilities.
Question12
Age is one of the fundamental and complex categories of psychology. There are two levels of analysis of this concept:
Absolute(or calendar, chronological) age is expressed by the number of time units (minutes, days, years, millennia, etc.) separating the moment of the object's appearance from the moment of measuring its age. This is a purely quantitative, abstract concept, denoting the duration of the existence of an object, its localization in time. The definition of absolute age is called dating.
Conditional age (or age of development) is determined by establishing the location of an object in a certain evolutionary genetic series, in a certain process of development, on the basis of some qualitative and quantitative features. Establishment of conditional age - element periodization, which involves the choice of not only chronological units of measurement, but also the reference system itself and the principles of its division.
An analysis of the individual development of a person shows that the category of age in terms of the life path of a particular person can be considered from several positions.
biological age is determined by the state of metabolism and functions of the body compared with the average statistical level of development characteristic of the entire population of a given chronological age, based on those genetic, morphological, physiological and neurophysiological changes that occur in the body of each person. Thanks to the statistical data obtained about the chronological age at which changes should occur, certain age standards were established. Accordingly, if at a given age a person has not yet experienced the expected changes, it means that he is lagging behind in his biological development, that is, his biological age is less than the chronological one. If, on the contrary, changes have occurred that should occur at an older age, then they say that the biological age of a person exceeds his chronological age.
Psychological age is established by correlating the level of mental (mental, emotional, etc.) development of the individual with the corresponding normative level.
social age is measured by correlating the level of a person's social development (for example, the measure of mastering a certain set of social roles) with what is statistically normal for his peers.
There is also subjective age personality, having an internal reference system. This concept implies a person's own assessment of his age, age-related self-awareness, depending on the tension, eventfulness of life. The basis of subjective age is self-awareness. Therefore, subjective age is relatively free from chronological age. A person may feel older than their years, younger or according to their age.
The problem of criteria for periodization of development in psychological science has been raised repeatedly, while the classification of age periods was based on biological, social and psychological parameters, which were often mixed with each other.
The first calendar periodization was proposed by Pythagoras. In a person's life, they were allocated four periods.
I. Spring, up to 20 years - the period of formation, characterized as "time not to work."
II. Summer, up to 40 years old - youth, age, considered as "time to work."
III. Autumn, up to 60 years - the prime of life, the period when "the time to work with the greatest return" comes.
IV. Winter, 60-80 years - old age and fading, the time of decline in working capacity.
Thus, this periodization was based on a social criterion - the ability to benefit society.
In developmental and child psychology, a group of periodizations based on the biological principle is distinguished, for example, the periodization of St. Hall, A. Gesell, 3. Freud, P. P. Blonsky and others.
Analysis and systematization of the existing approaches to solving the problem of periodization of mental development were carried out by L. S. Vygotsky. In accordance with the theoretical foundations of the periodization schemes proposed in science child development he divided them into three main groups.
The first group included periodizations that provide not for the division of the very course of a child's development, but for the allocation of periods on the basis of a stepwise construction of other processes, one way or another connected with child development. To this group L. S. Vygotsky attributed periodizations based on the biogenetic principle, where the stages of phylogenetic development are taken as the basis. Such, for example, are the concepts of K. Buhler and Getchinson, in which there is a desire to consider the periods of child development by analogy with the development of the animal world or the stages of human culture.
K. Buhler never considered himself a biogeneticist, but his views testify to the commitment to the theory of recapitulation: he identified the stages of child development with the stages of animal development. In the development of a child, as well as in the development of an animal, K. Buhler singled out three stages of development: instinct, training and intelligence.
Hutchinson, student of St. Hall, based on the theory of recapitulation, created a periodization of mental development, the criterion in which was the method of obtaining food. Moreover, the actual facts observed in the development of the child were explained by a change in the method of obtaining food, which, according to Getchinson, is leading not only for biological, but also for mental development. He identified five phases, the boundaries of which were not rigid, so the end of one stage did not coincide with the beginning of another:
from birth to 5 years - the stage of digging and digging: at this stage, children like to play in the sand, make Easter cakes and manipulate with a bucket and scoop;
from 5 to I years - the stage of hunting and capturing: this stage of development is characterized by the fact that children begin to be afraid of strangers, they have aggressiveness, cruelty, a desire to isolate themselves from adults, especially strangers, and the desire to do many things in secret;
from 8 to 12 years old - the shepherd stage: during this period, children strive to have their own corner, they usually build it in the yard, in the forest, but not in the house; they love animals and strive to have them so that they have someone to take care of and who to patronize; children, especially girls, have a desire for affection and tenderness;
from 11 to 15 years - the agricultural stage: associated with an interest in the weather, natural phenomena, with a love of gardening; at this time, children develop observation and prudence;
from 14 to 20 years - the stage of industry and trade, or the stage modern man: at this time, children begin to realize the role of money, the importance of arithmetic and other exact sciences, there is a desire to change various subjects.
Hutchinson believed that the era of civilized man begins with the shepherd stage, that is, from the age of 8, and it is from this age that a person can be systematically trained, which was impossible in previous stages.
As L. S. Vygotsky noted, not all attempts to periodize this group are equally untenable, since it contains classifications in accordance with the stages of upbringing and education of the child, with the structure of the education system adopted in this country. This group includes the periodization of the French psychologist R. Zazzo, in which child development, in accordance with the accepted levels of education, is divided into the following periods: from 0 to 3 years, 3-6 years, 6-9 years, 9-12 years, 12-15 years , 15-19 years old. And although the approach to distinguishing periods on the basis of the stages of education was considered by L. S. Vygotsky as erroneous, it is to a large extent approaching the true definition of the stages of childhood, since the very division of education into stages is based on extensive pedagogical experience.
L. S. Vygotsky included numerous attempts aimed at isolating any one feature as a conditional criterion for dividing childhood into periods into the second group. A typical example is the periodizations of P. P. Blonsky and 3. Freud.
P. P. Blonsky saw in childhood a successive change of three epochs, determined by dentition, that is, the appearance of teeth: toothless childhood (from 8 months to 2-2.5 years), childhood of milk teeth (up to approximately 6.5 years) and childhood permanent teeth (ends with the appearance of the third posterior molars - “wisdom teeth”). In the eruption of milk teeth, in turn, P. P. Blonsky distinguished three stages: absolutely toothless childhood (the first half of the year), the stage of teething (the second half of the year), the stage of eruption of promolars and canines (the third year of life).
In other periodizations built on the same principle, psychological criteria are put forward. Such is the periodization of V. Stern. He distinguished early childhood, which is characterized only by play activity (up to 6 years), the next is a period of conscious learning with the division of play and labor; the period of youthful maturation (14-18 years) is characterized by the development of individual independence and the determination of plans for later life. At the same time, it should be noted that V. Stern, like his other contemporaries, was a supporter of the theory of recapitulation, so he associated the development of the child with the stages of evolution of the animal world and humanity.
In accordance with the views of V. Stern, a child in the first months of infancy with still incomprehensible reflex and impulsive behavior is at the stage of a mammal, "in the second half of the year he masters grasping objects and is distinguished by imitation, which indicates the achievement of the stage of a higher mammal - a monkey. In the future, having mastered the upright gait and speech, the child reaches the initial stages of the human condition; in the first five years of play and fairy tales, he stands at the level of primitive peoples; admission to school, associated with mastering broader social responsibilities, speaks of the child's entry into culture with its state and economic organizations, etc.
3. Freud, in accordance with his sexual theory of the psyche, reduced the stages of development of the psyche to the stages of transformation and movement through different erogenous zones of sexual energy. Each stage, according to Freud, has its own sexual zone, the excitement of which creates libidinal pleasure.
Oral stage (0-1 year). The source of pleasure is focused on the zone of activity associated with feeding. The leading erogenous zone is the mouth - a tool for feeding, sucking and primary examination of objects. This stage is subdivided into two phases: early (first half year), when the child does not yet separate his sensations from the object by which they were caused, and late (second half year), when the idea of another object (mother), a being independent of him.
Anal stage (1-3 years). At this stage, the energy of the libido is concentrated around the anus, which becomes the object of attention of the child, accustomed to control over the natural functions of the body. It is noted that by this moment the instance of “I” is already fully formed and it is able to control the impulses of “It”.
Phallic stage (3-5 years). The genital organs become the leading erogenous zone. Children begin to realize gender differences, experience attachment to adults, especially to their parents. At this stage, the instance of "I" is differentiated. Thus, by the end of the phallic stage, all three mental instances are already formed and are in constant conflict with each other.
The latent stage (5 - 12 years) is characterized by a decrease in sexual interest. The instance of "I" completely controls the needs of "It". The energy of the libido is transferred to the development of universal human experience and the establishment friendly relations with peers and adults outside the family environment.
Genital stage (12 - 18 years). This stage is characterized by an increase in children's sexual aspirations: all former erogenous zones unite and a teenager, from the point of view of 3. Freud, strives for one goal - normal sexual intercourse. However, this kind of communication can be difficult, and then one can observe the phenomena of fixation or regression to one or another of the previous stages of development with all their features.
According to L. S. Vygotsky, the periodization of this group is also distinguished by a certain inconsistency due to the following circumstances. First, the authors take as a basis a subjectively chosen criterion, depending on which side the researcher will focus on. Secondly, the disadvantage is the allocation of a single criterion for all ages, while in the course of development the value, the value of the selected feature changes. For example, the sign of puberty is important in adolescence, but not significant in earlier ages. The third drawback of these schemes, emphasized L. S. Vygotsky, is that they are focused on the study external signs, and not the inner essence of child development, the internal laws of this process.
The third group of attempts to divide child development into stages is characterized by the desire to move from a “purely symptomatic and descriptive principle to highlighting the essential features of child development itself.” S. Vygotsky proposed to consider here the periodization of A. Gesell, built in accordance with the internal tempo and rhythm of child development.
Gesell drew attention to the decrease in the rate of development with age, on the basis of which he concluded that the younger the child, the faster the changes in his psyche occur. L. S. Vygotsky, agreeing with the position on the maximum rate of development of elementary functions at an early age, emphasized, however, that development should not be limited to the “more-less” scheme: if we consider the formation of higher mental functions, then here the result will be the opposite - the rate and their rhythm is minimal in the first years of life and maximal in its final.
The problem of periodization of child development and the search for its criteria did not become less relevant in subsequent years. And although scientists relied on psychological criteria (for example, in the concept of J. Piaget, the stages of mental development are identified with the stages of development of the intellect), a significant part of periodizations could not correctly resolve the issue of identifying periods of child development.
Of the foreign concepts of mental development, the concept of the French psychologist A. Wallon deserves attention, in which the planned stages reflect the formation of the child's personality.
A. Vallon believed that mental development is a successive change of stages. The transition from one stage to another is not just the result of the accumulation of quantitative changes, but a qualitative reorganization of the psyche. According to his ideas, child development is divided into the following stages.
1. Stage of intrauterine development.
2. Stage of motor impulsivity - up to 6 months. This is the period of the beginning of the formation of conditioned reflexes, the emergence of a revival complex.
3. Emotional stage - up to 1 year. During this period, the child is completely immersed in his emotions, thanks to which he merges with the corresponding situations that cause these emotional reactions. The child is not able to perceive himself as a being different from other people, as a separate person.
4. Sensorimotor stage - 1-3 years. At this stage, interest in the outside world is shown, walking and speech skills are formed. The behavior of the child shows that during this period he is constantly busy with something: he explores objects, plays, communicates with adults and children, constantly changing roles with partners. But at the same time, he still cannot separate his actions from the actions of his partner - they remain part of the whole for him. By the age of three, the merging of an adult and a child suddenly disappears, and the person enters a period of affirmation and upholding of his own independence, which leads him to many conflicts.
5. Stage of personalism - from 3 to 12-13 years old: includes two periods, the change of which occurs at the age of about 7 years. This is the stage of the positive formation of the personality, its self-awareness and the increase of independence. In the first period, the upbringing of a child, as A. Vallon points out, should be saturated with sympathy, affection for people. Depriving a child of this attachment can lead to fears and anxiety.
6. Stage of puberty and youth - 12-18 years.
Thus, in the history of child psychology, attempts have been repeatedly made to divide child development into periods. However, it should be recognized that the criteria singled out by the majority of scientists do not reflect the objective internal laws of child development.
Activities
There are three genetically replacing each other and coexisting throughout the life path of the type of activity: play, learning and work. They differ in the final results (product of activity), in organization, in the peculiarities of motivation.
Labor is the main type of human activity. The end result of labor is the creation of a socially significant product. It can be a crop grown by a collective farmer, steel smelted by a steelmaker, a scientist's scientific discovery, a lesson taught by a teacher.
The game does not create a socially significant product. The formation of a person as a subject of activity begins in the game, and this is its great, enduring significance. Education is a direct preparation of the individual for work, develops it mentally, physically, aesthetically, and only at the final stage of mastering the profession is associated with the creation of material and cultural values. Labor is the process of creation by a person of the material and spiritual values of society.
In the mental development of a child, play acts primarily as a means of mastering the world of adults. In it, at the level of mental development reached by the child, the objective world of adults is mastered. The game situation includes substitutions (instead of people - a doll), simplifications (for example, the external side of the reception is played out). In the game, thus, reality is coarsely imitated, which allows the child for the first time to become the subject of activity himself.
The game is organized freely, unregulated. No one can oblige a child to play board games from 10 to 2 o'clock, and after 2 o'clock - to play mother-daughters. The child's play can be organized, but he himself must accept the offer. This does not mean that the child should not have a strict daily routine. Sleep, food, walks, play and exercise times must be strictly defined. But the content of the game, the involvement of the child in it, the cessation of the game is difficult to regulate. The child himself moves from one game to another.
Teaching and labor proceed in organizational forms that are obligatory for a person. Work begins at a precisely set time, and during it, in accordance with the plan and the given productivity, the products of labor are produced. The same picture is observed in teaching. Classes begin according to the schedule, and throughout the lesson the student is engaged in this particular subject.
Various forms of organization of activities are also associated with their different motivations. The motive of the game is the pleasure that the child experiences from the very process of the game.
The main motive for learning and work is a sense of duty, a sense of responsibility. These higher feelings are no less a strong stimulus for activity than interest. However, both in teaching and in work, one should arouse in a person an interest in the very process of activity or in its results. It is equally important to create the habit of working.
A variety of activities complement each other, coexist, interpenetrate. AT kindergarten a preschooler not only plays, but also learns to count, draw. The student plays with pleasure after the end of classes.
Game moments are also successfully introduced into the organization of the lesson: A lesson with elements of game situations captivates schoolchildren. The game is an imaginary journey through a map of our country or a map of the globe in geography lessons, during which students, based on imagination, tell what. they see". Students are willing to take on roles in the classroom. foreign language: teacher, guide, seller - and on the basis of the role actively master the language. The worker not only works, but also studies (at an evening school, at a technical school, at a higher educational institution, or is engaged in self-education). He can play chess and participate in other sports recreational games.
Although activities do not exist in isolation, they have different meanings at different periods of a person's life. For one period of life, the leading activity is the game, for another - teaching, and for the third - work. Thus, we can talk about the types of activities that are leading in a particular period of personality development. Before the child enters school, the leading activity is play. The leading activity of a schoolchild is teaching, an adult is work.
The game. Analyzing the game as a kind of activity, one should first of all find out its nature. Biological theories of play are widespread in bourgeois psychological literature, according to which a child's play liberates the innate biological need for activity, which is equally inherent in both animals and humans. They try to connect the development of the child's play with the corresponding stages in the development of human society. Interest in playing in the sand, digging holes - the stages of arable farming, playing with animals - cattle breeding, etc.
Scientific analysis of play activity shows that play is a reflection of the world of adults by the child, a way of knowing the world around. A convincing fact that breaks the inconsistency of the biologization theory of the game is given by K. K. Platonov. An ethnographer on one of the islands Pacific Ocean a tribe was discovered that lived in isolation from others. The children of this tribe did not know how to play with dolls. When the scientist introduced them to this game, at first both boys and girls became interested in it. Then the girls lost interest in the game, and the boys continued to invent new games with dolls. Everything was explained simply. The women of this tribe took care of getting and cooking food. The men took care of the children.
In the first games of the child, the leading role of adults clearly appears. Adults "beat" the toy. Imitating them, the child begins to play independently. Then the initiative to organize the game passes to the child. But even at this stage, the leading role of adults remains.
As the child develops, play changes. In the first two years of life, the child masters movements and actions with surrounding objects, which leads to the emergence of functional games. In a functional game, the properties of objects unknown to him and ways of acting with them are revealed to the child. So, having opened and closed the door for the first time with a key, the child begins to repeat this action many times, trying at every opportunity to turn the key. This real action is transferred to the game situation. While playing, children make a movement in the air, reminiscent of turning a key, and accompany it with a characteristic sound: “backgammon”.
More complex are constructive games. In them, the child creates something: builds a house, bakes pies. In constructive games, children comprehend the purpose of objects and their interaction.
Functional and constructive games belong to the category of manipulative games, in which the child masters the surrounding objective world, recreates it in forms accessible to him. Relations between people are comprehended in story games. The child plays “daughter-mother”, “shop”, taking on a certain role. Role-playing games appear in 3-4 years. Until this age, children play side by side, but not together. Role-playing games involve collective relationships. Of course, the inclusion of a child in collective games depends on the conditions of education. Children brought up at home are included in collective games with greater difficulty than children attending kindergarten. In collective plot games, which become longer by the age of 6-7, children follow the plan of the game, the behavior of their comrades. Role-playing games teach children to live in a team. Gradually, rules are introduced into games that impose restrictions on the behavior of partners.
Collective role-playing game expands the child's social circle. He gets used to obey the rules, the requirements that are imposed on him in the game: he is either the captain of a spaceship, then its passenger, or an enthusiastic spectator watching the flight. These games bring up a sense of collectivism and responsibility, respect for teammates, teach to follow the rules and develop the ability to obey them.
Games by the rules are widely represented in the lives of schoolchildren and adults. In sports competitions, in solving crossword puzzles and other games that require mental stress, a person switches to another type of activity, improves his mental and physical forces gets an emotional release.
Being the main activity of the child preschool age, the game does not exclude other activities. From the age of 3-4, the child gets acquainted with the work of self-service. He must wash, dress, put away toys. At the age of 5, the labor duties of the child become caring for indoor plants, helping the elders in cleaning the room, etc. In kindergarten, children are willing to be on duty in the dining room, in a living corner, in the playroom.
Feasible chores around the house form and strengthen labor skills and instill in the child positive character traits: a responsible attitude to business, concern for comrades.
Elements of learning are also included in the life of a preschooler. They are associated with didactic games that develop the cognitive abilities of children. For example, the loto “Animals” is a game that teaches a child to classify the items shown on the card. In kindergartens, classes are held in native speech (enrichment of vocabulary), according to the bill. Currently, classes are organized in the older groups that prepare children for school. There is a positive experience of teaching music, drawing, and a foreign language to preschoolers in children's institutions.
All of these activities: play, elements of labor and learning - prepare the child for school.
Teaching takes place where a person's actions are controlled by the conscious goal of acquiring certain knowledge, skills, abilities, forms of behavior and activity. Teaching is a specifically human activity, and it is possible only at that stage in the development of the human psyche, when he is able to regulate his actions with a conscious goal. This ability appears only by about four or five years, being formed on the basis of the previous types of behavior and activities of the child - games, verbal communication, practical actions.
Any activity is a set of some physical actions, practical or verbal. Consequently, learning is also accomplished through the performance of various actions by a person: movements, writing, speech, etc. But life observations and special experiments show that motor activity is by no means an obligatory condition for learning. In some cases, it seems to play an important role (for example, for mastering the motor skills of writing, speaking, swimming, drawing, driving a car), in others it does not have a special meaning (for example, for memorizing words or text, solving mathematical problems , recognition and distinction of objects).
Studies have shown that, in addition to practical activities, a person is able to carry out a special gnostic activity. Its purpose is the knowledge of the world around. Gnostic activity, like practical activity, can be objective and external. It can also be a perceptual activity (for example, viewing, listening, observing) or a symbolic activity (for example, an image, designation, statement). In the learning process, these activities are usually closely intertwined. In different cases, the ratio of these activities is different.
The work of many psychologists has shown that internal activities arises from the external in the process of internalization, due to which objective actions are reflected in the consciousness and thinking of a person. For example, the objective action of separating, disassembling, separating a thing in solving the corresponding problems is replaced by an action “in the mind” (dismembering a thing on the basis of its image or concept of it).
In the process of internalization, the objective action turned into the action of mental analysis. Systems of such mental (mental) actions unfolding on an ideal plane are internal activity. It has been established that the main means of interiorization is the word. It allows a person, as it were, to “tear off” the action from the object itself and turn it into an action with images and a concept of the object.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE PSYCHE (eng. development of mind) - consistent, progressive (although including some moments of regression) and, in general, irreversible quantitative and qualitative changes in the psyche of living beings. These changes cause the transition of living beings from lower (simpler) to higher (more complex) forms of interaction with the environment. Being determined by the biological, socio-historical and ontogenetic development of life, changes in the psyche are included in this process of interaction as one of its important factors. The scientific study of the origin and R. of the item is the way of knowing its nature and essence, its vital significance.
In the light of modern scientific data, the psyche in its rudimentary form (sensitivity, i.e., the ability to sense) arose from the irritability of living beings as an active reflection by them of changes in the environment that are vital for them, regulating their behavior. R. p. was accompanied by the evolution of animals in connection with the formation and development of their n. With. R. p. was characterized by a transition from sensory to perceptual and intellectual (in higher animals) methods of regulating behavior; changes in the ratio of its instinctive and conditioned reflex mechanisms towards an increase in the role of the latter and the adaptation of animals to the environment. The biological evolution of the psyche was the "prehistory of the human spirit" (F. Engels), the formation of which took place under the decisive influence of the joint labor activity of people, in the process of the emergence and development of human society (see Anthropogenesis). Features of the human psyche, his consciousness - a product of socio-historical development. In it, the successive social connection of human generations came to the fore, the transfer by the older generation to the younger of the results of practical and cognitive theoretical and any other activity that arose on its basis, the mastery of these results by the younger generation (tools, language, knowledge, norms of behavior, etc.) , its role in the further creation of material and spiritual values (see Assimilation).
The historical R. of a person is accomplished in the course of its ontogenesis. Phylogeny determines ontogenesis by creating the natural prerequisites and social conditions necessary for it. The human individual is born with the natural possibilities of human mental development (see Making abilities, Formation of abilities), which are realized in the social conditions of his life with the help of means created by society. The psyche, consciousness develops in the process of interaction of a person with his social environment, training and education, mastering socially developed methods of action with various objects, language means communication, achievements of science, technology and art, inclusion in the life of society and its creative activity (see Leading activity, Education and development). Gradually, a person becomes the subject of communication, teaching, knowledge and work; is formed as a person with an inherent system of mental properties that internally determine the organization and stability of behavior in accordance with her social position and her consciousness and self-awareness.
In general, R. p. takes place gradually, but in some periods jumps in development are observed in it. Quantitative changes prepare the qualitative changes in the psyche, which are made by differentiating the whole, isolating individual functions in it and re-integrating them. Differentiation of functions leads to the emergence of new actions (perceptual, mnemonic, mental, etc.), integration - to their association, subordination, to the formation of new structures of mental activity. New structures emerge from old ones by reorganizing them. The old (worked out earlier actions, operations, images, concepts, etc.) enters the newly formed structures, undergoing certain changes. A new, more complex structure is being prepared by an old, more elementary structure that does not have the features of a whole new structure, but only its elements that are synthesized in the new structure. At the same time, the complication of forms of mental activity also includes the processes of coagulation, stereotyping of individual components that are necessary condition economical and efficient operation.
R. p. of a human individual is a conditioned and at the same time an active self-regulating process. This is an internally necessary movement, “self-movement” from lower to higher levels of life activity, in which external circumstances, training and education always act through internal conditions; with age, the role of the individual's own activity in his mental development, in shaping him as a personality gradually increases. Anticipating his future, realizing his achievements and shortcomings, a person strives for self-improvement through his own activities, learning, games, labor and communication with other people. In his desire for self-education and self-education, he acts as the subject of his own development. By actively changing the circumstances of his life, a person forms himself as a person, as a subject of activity and actions.
The driving forces of R. p. of a person as a subject of activity, as a person, are internal contradictions. The contradictions that arise in a person’s life between goals, objectives and the means available to achieve them, between aspirations and opportunities to satisfy them, between tendencies towards variability and towards stereotypy, between the old and the new, etc. are resolved through the activity of the individual, giving way to new contradictions .
The ontogeny of the human psyche has a stage-by-stage character. The sequence of its stages, periods (infancy, early childhood, preschool childhood, junior, middle and senior school age...) is irreversible and predictable. At the same time, in each age period, significant individual differences in R. p. can be observed. The process of R. p. continues into adulthood. Its main factors are self-education, professional work, social work, sports and other activities, family life, raising their children.
A person goes through a complex path of mental development from birth to maturity. The psyche of a child in the first year of his life and the psyche of a child of five or six years of life has not only a quantitative, but also a qualitative difference. Memory small child not just weaker or stronger, he has a different one than that of an older student. The process of development of the child's psyche is staged. Each stage in the development of the child's psyche is an independent stage of development, and all stages differ from each other primarily in their qualitative rather than quantitative characteristics.
There are a large number of approaches to the problem of the development of the child's psyche. In different approaches, different stages of development of the child's psyche are distinguished.
Soviet psychologist, student of L.S. Vygotsky A.N. Leontiev identifies seven stages in the development of the child's psyche:
- newborn baby (up to 2 months);
- early infancy (2 to 6 months);
- late infancy (6 to 12-14 months):
- preschool age (from 1 year to 3 years);
- preschool age (from 3 to 7 years),
- primary school age (from 7 to 12 years);
- adolescence and the beginning of adolescence (from 13-14 to 17-18 years).
The outstanding Russian psychologist B.G. Ananiev also identifies 7 stages in human development from birth to adolescence:
- newborns (1-10 days);
- infant(10 days - 1 year);
- early childhood (1-2 years);
- the first period of childhood (3-7 years);
- the second period of childhood (8-12 years for boys, 8-11 years for girls);
- adolescence (13-16 years for boys, 12-15 years for girls);
- youth (17-21 years for men, 16-20 years for women).
There are certain differences between these approaches. Let us consider the characteristics of the psychological content of the stages identified by A.N. Leontiev.
The first stage is the stage newborn(up to 2 months). This stage is characterized by the fact that the child is born with relatively highly developed sense organs, organs of movement and the nervous system, the formation of which occurs in the prenatal period. The newborn has visual and auditory sensations, sensations of body position in space, olfactory, skin and taste sensations, as well as many elementary reflexes. The nervous system of the newborn, including the cerebral cortex, in general, is already fully anatomically designed. But the development of the microscopic structure of the cortex is not yet complete.
The way of life of a newborn differs little from his way of life in the prenatal period: at rest, the child retains its former embryonic position; sleep takes 4/5 of the time; the external activity of the child is largely focused on satisfying his needs for food; manual and moving movements are absent. At the same time, this stage is the first stage at which behavior begins to form in the form of the simplest acts, and most importantly, the sphere of sensations is especially intensively formed. There is an early differentiation of gustatory and olfactory sensations that are associated with the nutrition of the child. Skin sensations from the cheeks, lips, and mouth reach a high level of development. At first, visual perception of forms is absent, the child reacts only to large or bright moving objects, and orienting reactions develop (calming down to sound, and above all to the whisper of the mother).
At the age of three to four weeks, the child begins to prepare for the transition to the next, higher stage of development. A peculiar complex reaction appears (“the reaction of revival”), which is expressed in the general revival of the child in the presence of a person (in response to the approach talking person the child begins to smile), that is, the first signs of objective perception begin to appear in the child.
early infancy(from 2 to 6 months). At this stage of mental development, the child begins to operate with objects, and perception is formed in him. It all starts with attempts to grab or feel an object with simultaneous visual fixation on this object, which leads to the formation of visual-tactile connections that underlie object perception. The child operates with objects most actively (with simultaneous visual fixation) at the age of five to six months, so it can be assumed that at this age there is a rapid development of the processes of perception. Moreover, by this time the child can already sit on his own, which provides him with the further development of movements when reaching for objects. At the same time, the child begins to recognize people and things. Visual concentration and visual expectation develop.
In this way, main feature this stage is the development of actions with objects and processes of objective perception.
late infancy(from 6 to 12-14 months). In the second half of the first year of life, the child masters new actions, which is associated with a change in his attitude to the world around him. At the seventh month of life, the child already has well-developed manual object movements. He can take an object, bring it to his mouth, push it away. In this case, the child can sit down on his own, roll over from his stomach to his back; he begins to crawl, rises, trying to cling to the surrounding objects. Thus, strengthening the musculoskeletal system leads to the development of the child's range of motion, which, in turn, is a prerequisite for an increase in the flow of information from the environment. All this leads to an increase in the independence of the child. His relationships with adults are increasingly acquiring the form of joint activity, in which the adult most often prepares the child's action, and the child performs the action itself. With the help of such interaction, it is already possible to establish communication with the child through objects. For example, an adult moves an object towards a child - the child takes it. The child moves the object away from himself - the adult removes it.
Consequently, the activity of the child in a given period of development is no longer controlled by the perception of individual objects or their combination, but by the complex correlation of the child's own objective action and the action of the adult. On this basis, the child begins to have the first comprehension of objects. In the course of the established “objective” contact, the child begins to form speech. He increasingly begins to respond with action to the word of an adult. Somewhat later, the child develops gestures addressed to an adult, while the child's actions are increasingly accompanied by sounds denoting something objective.
Another important difference of this age is that in the process of objective communication with an adult, a non-impulsive imitation of adults becomes possible in a child. As a result, the child begins to imitate the adult more consciously, which indicates that the child has the opportunity to master socially developed methods of action. This, in turn, ensures the appearance at the end of this stage of specifically human motor operations with objects. During these operations, the thumb is opposed to the rest, which is typical only for humans. Gradually, the child begins to grasp and hold objects with his hand in an increasingly perfect way. By the end of the period, the child masters independent walking.
Thus, the main characteristics of this period are: a change in relations with the outside world on the basis of objective communication; comprehension of objects and the appearance of the first signs of speech; the appearance of non-impulsive imitation of adults and the development of specifically human motor operations with objects; learning to walk independently.
preschool age(from 1 to 3 years) is characterized by the emergence and initial development of a child's specifically human, social in nature activity and a form of conscious reflection of reality specific to a person. The essence of the main changes in the child's psyche during this period lies in the fact that the child masters a human relationship to the world of objects that directly surrounds him. The knowledge of the properties of objects is carried out by the child through imitation of the actions of adults with them, that is, the knowledge of objects occurs simultaneously with the comprehension of their functions. The child masters the functions of objects in two ways: the development of the simplest skills, such as the ability to use a spoon, cup, etc., and manipulate them during the game.
The game marks a new stage in the development of the child's psyche, i.e., he already learns the world not only through interaction with an adult, but also independently.
The child also masters words that he recognizes primarily as denoting an object with its functions. At the same time, in the course of the game, speech increasingly becomes included in the activity, more and more often it begins to perform the function of not only designating objects, but also a means of communication. However, a distinctive feature of the child's games at this age in comparison with the next stage - the stage of preschool age - is the absence of an imaginary situation in the game. The child, manipulating objects, simply imitates the actions of adults, without filling them with content, but in the process of playing the child intensively develops perception, the ability to analyze and generalize, that is, there is an intensive formation of mental functions. By the end of this stage, the activity of the child is already caused not only by a direct encounter with the object, but also by the intentions of the child himself. At this time, the child seeks to perform an ever larger range of known actions. The frequent appearance of the phrase "I myself" marks the beginning of a new stage in the development of the child's psyche.
Consequently, the main features of the child's mental development at this stage are in mastering the attitude inherent in a person to surrounding objects, in imitating the behavior of adults and in the formation of the basic functions of thinking.
preschool age(from 3 to 7 years). The main difference of this age is the presence of a contradiction between the child's desire for actual mastery of the world of objects and the limitations of his capabilities. At this age, the child strives to do not what he can, but what he sees or hears. However, many actions are still inaccessible to him. This contradiction is resolved in the story game. Unlike the previous age period and the manipulation game, the story game is filled with content that reflects the real content of the copied action. If earlier the child only approached the mastery of specific human relations to objects, now objects for him appear as characterizing precisely human relations and the various functions of people. To master an object for a child means to take on a certain social role - the role of a person operating this object. That's why story games contribute to the mastery of the social relationships of the world of people. It is no coincidence that story games are often called role-playing games. The sources of games are the impressions of the child, everything that he sees or hears.
In the process of role-playing, the formation of creative imagination and the ability to arbitrarily control one's behavior takes place. Role-playing games also contribute to the development of perception, memorization, reproduction and speech.
Another important feature of this stage is the process of formation of the child's personality. During this process, the character traits of the child are laid. During this period, the child quite freely masters the basic norms and rules of behavior. This is facilitated not only by story games, but also by reading fairy tales, drawing, designing, etc. According to A.N. Leontiev, at the end of this stage of development of the psyche, the child strives to master socially significant activities. Thus, he begins to enter a new stage of his development, characterized by the performance of certain duties.
Junior school age(from 7 to 12 years). Entering school characterizes a new stage in the development of the child's psyche. Now his system of relations with the outside world is determined not only by relationships with adults, but by relationships with peers. In addition, he now has responsibilities to society. His future, his place in society depends on the fulfillment of these duties.
It should be noted that the child studied at the previous stages of his development, but only now does study appear to him as an independent activity. During school years educational activity begins to take center stage in a child's life. All major changes in mental development observed at this stage are primarily related to learning.
The main pattern of mental development at this stage is the mental development of the child. The school makes serious demands on the attention of the child, in connection with which there is a rapid development of arbitrary (controlled) attention, arbitrary purposeful observation. Education at school makes no less serious demands on the memory of the child. The child now must not only memorize, he must memorize correctly, being active in mastering the educational material. In this regard, the productivity of the child's memory greatly increases, although during the first period of learning, memory retains a predominantly figurative, concrete character. Therefore, children literally memorize even the textual material that does not need to be learned by heart.
The thinking of children develops especially intensively at primary school age. If at the age of seven or eight years the child's thinking is concrete, based on visual images and ideas, then in the process of learning, his thinking acquires new features. It becomes more connected, coherent and logical. At the same time, a child at this age has a rapid development of speech, which is largely due to the mastery of written speech. He not only develops a more correct understanding of words, but he learns to use grammatical categories correctly.
In the process of learning, the child develops his personality. First of all, his interests change. Children's interests due to the development of cognitive processes are replaced by educational interests. Children show an increased interest in learning new material, especially in the primary grades. They listen with great interest to stories about animals, travel, etc.
The team plays an extremely important role in shaping the personality of the child. Having started to study at school, the child for the first time is faced with a situation where the peers around him are united by a certain goal and certain responsibilities are assigned to them. For the first time he encounters the concepts of "collective" and "collective responsibility". All the people who surrounded him earlier, including children in kindergarten, were not a team. The main socially significant unit for the child was the family.
Another feature of this period is that at its final stage there is a division of activity into
"male" and "female". Boys are more and more interested in male activities, and girls in female ones.
Thus, primary school age is characterized by the rapid development of all cognitive mental processes, the continuing formation of personality, and the acquisition of the first experience of adaptation in a team.
Adolescence and early adolescence(from 13-14 to 17-18 years old) is characterized by continuing education. At the same time, the child is increasingly included in the life of society. At this time, the orientation of the child, depending on gender, towards “male” and “female” activities is completed. Moreover, striving for self-realization, the child begins to show success in a particular type of activity, to express thoughts about the future profession.
At the same time, there is a further development of cognitive mental processes and the formation of personality. In the process of personality formation, the interests of the child change. They become more differentiated and persistent. Educational interests are no longer of paramount importance. The child begins to focus on "adult" life.
It should also be noted that the formation of personality during this period is influenced by the process of puberty. At young man there is a rapid development of the body, the activity of individual organs (for example, the heart) undergoes certain changes. ending gender identity teenager.
Under the influence of the whole complex of factors, a change in the psychological appearance of the child occurs. In the behavior of boys, masculine traits are more and more noticeable, and women's behavioral stereotypes are increasingly manifested in girls.
It should be noted that the development of the psyche does not end in adolescence. A certain dynamics of mental development is also noted at a later time. Therefore, in modern psychology, it is customary to distinguish two more periods: the acmeological period of development, or the period of adulthood, and the period of gerontogenesis.
Acmeological period of development covers ages 18 to 60. For the first time, the term "acmeology" was proposed by the domestic psychologist N.N. Rybnikov in 1928. This term ( acme- the highest point, flourishing, maturity, the best time) it is customary to designate the period of maturity as the most productive, creative period of a person's life. Unlike the youthful period, the acmeological period is characterized by the fact that it completes the general somatic development and puberty of a person who reaches his optimum. physical development. This period is also characterized by the highest level of intellectual, creative, professional achievements.
Probably, the most complete characterization of this period was given by B. G. Ananiev, who distinguished two special phases in the ontogenetic development of man. First phase spans adolescence, early adulthood, and early middle age. It is characterized by a general frontal progress of functions. In particular, the volume and indicators of switchable attention increase by the age of 33, and then begin to decrease. The highest rates of short-term verbal memory are noted at the age of 18-30 years, and after 33 they begin to decline. Similar changes occur with the intellect. So, the Scottish doctor, who was the first to propose using fingerprints from the scene to search for and identify criminals, Fulds and Honorary Professor of the University of Edinburgh (Scotland) Raven believe that if the level of development of the logical ability of 20-year-olds is taken as 100%, then at 30 years old he will be 96%, at 40 - 87%, at 50 years old - 80%, and at 60 - 75%.
Second phase of this period, according to B.G. Ananiev, is characterized by the specialization of mental functions in relation to a certain activity. At this phase, operating mechanisms act as the main ones, and the duration of this phase is determined by the degree of activity of a person as a subject and personality. At this age, functions that are relevant to a person continue to develop, which should be understood as those mental functions that are most significant for the main type of activity of a particular person. For some people, this is an eye, accuracy, movements, for others - thinking, memory, attention. Achieving a high level of development of actual mental functions in mature years is possible because they are under conditions of optimal load, increased motivation, and operational transformations.
Period gerontogenesis - this is the late period of human life. It is customary to distinguish three phases: elderly age(for men - 60-74 years old, for women - 55-74 years old); senile age - 75-90 years; centenarians - 90 years and older.
In general, this period is characterized by the extinction of physical and mental functions. There is a decrease in the intensity of carbohydrate, fat and protein metabolism. The ability of cells to carry out redox processes is reduced. The overall activity of the body decreases. At the same time, there is a decrease in the possibilities of mental functions, especially memory, attention, thinking.
Every human age is beautiful in its own way. At a late stage of ontogenesis, the role of the individual, his social status, his inclusion in the system of social relations is especially great for maintaining a person's ability to work. Changes in this period are largely determined by individual features person. Of particular importance for the opposition to the involution of man is his creativity. Examples are outstanding scientists and artists who have maintained their labor and creative activity for a very long time. So, for example, I.P. Pavlov created "Twenty Years of Experience" at the age of 73, and "Lectures on the work of the cerebral hemispheres" at the age of 77. L.N. Tolstoy wrote Resurrection at 71, and Hadji Murat at 76. Voltaire, I.V. Goethe, Michelangelo, O. Renoir, B. Shaw and others.
There are currently many classifications and characteristics of the stages of development of the human psyche, but their content and patterns of dynamics will basically correspond to the above characteristics. In this way:
- 1. The emergence of consciousness in humans has both biological and cultural-social conditions. As a result of the evolution of nature, the nervous system, and primarily the brain, has reached a level of development that allows a person to work. Under the influence of labor, which is of a collective nature, mental processes began to develop in a person, which led to the emergence of consciousness - the highest level of mental development inherent only in man.
- 2. The development of the child's psyche in many respects repeats the laws of the socio-historical development of man. In the process of development, due to various forms of activity, the formation of human consciousness takes place;
- 3. The main conditions for the emergence and development of consciousness are the appropriate level of biological organization, the presence of a social environment and collective work, the emergence of consciousness outside of society is impossible.
test questions
- 1. What are the main characteristics of consciousness as the highest level of mental reflection of reality?
- 2. Explain what is "irritability", "sensitivity", "sensation"?
- 3. Behavior as a form of adaptation to environmental conditions.
- 4. Explain the essence of the concept of "consciousness".
- 5. What is the "I-concept" and what is its role in the regulation of human behavior?
- 6. What is the role of reflection in the regulation of human behavior?
- 7. Tell us about the origin of consciousness and the hypothesis of A.N. Leontiev.
- 8. What is the role of labor in the emergence of human consciousness (according to A.N. Leontiev)?
- 9. What is the relationship between the development of the brain and consciousness?
- 10. State the main provisions of the cultural-historical theory of the development of higher mental functions by L.S. Vygotsky.
- 11. Describe the main stages in the development of the human psyche.
Topics for abstracts
- 1 "I-concept" as a system of self-regulation.
- 2. The staged nature of the development of the human psyche.
- 3. The relationship between an adult and a child as a form of joint activity.
- 4. Cultural-historical theory of the development of higher mental functions.
- 5. The concept of the zone of proximal development (L.S. Vygotsky).
