Active and passive stock of the Russian language. Active and passive vocabulary. They are heterogeneous in terms of
“William Shakespeare's dictionary, according to researchers' count, is 12,000 words. The dictionary of the Negro from the cannibalistic tribe "Mumbo-Yumbo" is 300 words. Ellochka Shchukina easily and freely got along with thirty ", - everyone knows this quote from" The Twelve Chairs "by Ilf and Petrov. The satirists, and along with them the readers, laughed a lot at the narrow-minded and undeveloped, but overly self-confident and arrogant Ellochka, all of whose interests, thoughts and emotions could easily fit into thirty words. Meanwhile, starting to write texts, many, without noticing it, turn into a cannibal Ellochka. Whatever they want to write about, the same "Ho-ho!" and "Rude, kid!". In this lesson, we will talk about how to get rid of the problem of the cannibal Ellochka, expand your vocabulary. And in the next lesson we will learn how to learn how to use it correctly.
Vocabulary
Vocabulary (dictionary, lexicon) is a set of words that a person understands and uses in his speech.
Vocabulary is usually divided into two types: active and passive.
Active vocabulary - these are the words that a person regularly uses in speech and writing.
Passive vocabulary - this set of words that a person knows and understands by ear or when reading, but does not use them himself. You can check your passive vocabulary on this site.
Usually the volume of the passive vocabulary exceeds the volume of the active vocabulary several times. At the same time, the volumes of active and passive vocabulary are movable quantities: a person constantly learns new words and at the same time forgets or stops using words that he has already learned.
What should be the volumes of active and passive vocabulary? Suddenly it turned out that the answer to this question is rather difficult. The volume of V.I. Dahl has two hundred thousand words, the academic dictionary of the modern Russian literary language - about one hundred and thirty thousand, the latest edition of Ozhegov's explanatory dictionary - seventy thousand words. Obviously, such values exceed the vocabulary of even the most erudite person. Unfortunately, there is no exact scientific data on what the average active and passive vocabulary of an educated adult is. Active vocabulary scores range from five thousand to thirty-five thousand words. As for the passive vocabulary, the range is from twenty thousand to one hundred thousand words. Most likely, the truth, as always, lies somewhere in between. It is reasonable to assume that the active vocabulary of an adult reaches about fifteen thousand words (as you know, the active vocabulary of such a master of the word as Pushkin was about twenty thousand words), and the passive vocabulary - forty to fifty thousand words (it is difficult to imagine an ordinary person, who would know all the meanings of words from Ozhegov's dictionary).
There is a simple way to roughly estimate the volume of passive vocabulary. Take an explanatory dictionary, for example, the same Ozhegov dictionary, open it on an arbitrary page, count how many of the defined words you know. Be honest with yourself: if a word seems familiar to you, but you do not know its meaning, then you do not need to count this word. Next, multiply this figure by the number of pages. Of course, keep in mind that this is an approximate result: you must assume that all pages contain the same number of articles, from which you know the same number of words. For the purity of the experiment, you can repeat these steps several times. However, you still won't get the exact result.
If you are too lazy to tinker with the dictionary and calculations yourself, you can use our test.
Ways to expand your vocabulary
When writing texts, it is very important that the words used are as varied as possible. This, firstly, allows you to most accurately express your thought, and secondly, it makes the perception of the text easier for the reader. There are several rules to help you expand your vocabulary. They were designed primarily for people learning foreign languages, but can also be used effectively for their native language.
Passive vocabulary
Read as much as you can. Reading- this is one of the main sources of new information and, accordingly, new words. At the same time, try to choose literature of the highest possible level - it does not matter whether it is about fiction, historical literature or journalism. The higher the level of the authors, the greater the chance that they use a variety of vocabulary, and most importantly, they use words correctly. This way you will not only memorize new words, but also the correct ways to use them.
Don't be afraid to sound ignorant. Many people feel extremely uncomfortable when their interlocutor seems very educated, well-read and uses a lot of unfamiliar words. In such a situation, many are afraid of being branded as ignorant, and therefore hesitate to ask about the meaning of this or that new word. Never do this. It is always better to ask about a word you are not familiar with than to remain in the dark for the rest of your life. Do not think that you will look this word in the dictionary when you get home. You will simply forget it. If your interlocutor is really smart, your question will never seem funny to him.
Use a dictionary. It is useful to have a collection of academic dictionaries and encyclopedias at home that you can refer to when needed. Naturally, good dictionaries are not cheap, often in small print runs, and take up a lot of shelf space. Fortunately, with the development of the Internet, the problem of accessing dictionaries has been resolved. Now you can find dictionaries and encyclopedias on almost any topic. Portals are quite convenient to use: slovari.yandex.ru and www.gramota.ru.
Active vocabulary
The above tips help to expand, above all, passive vocabulary. However, the main theme of our lessons is effective writing. Therefore, the goal is not only to learn new words, but also to learn how to actively use them in writing. Here are some exercises aimed at converting a word from a passive vocabulary to an active one:
Method of notes. You need to take cards, leaflets or colored stickers. On one side, you write the word you want to remember, on the other - its meaning, synonyms, examples of use. Such cards can be sorted out at home, in transport, at work. Fast, convenient and efficient!
A notebook of synonyms. You can take a simple notebook or create an electronic document where you will write down words and rows of synonyms for them. For example, let's take the word result. A number of synonyms for it: consequence, consequence, trace, fruit, amount, result, conclusion, conclusion. It must be remembered that not only synonymous words can be added here, but also whole constructions: thus, so, from this we can conclude that we came to the conclusion that, etc. Also, in such a notebook, you can make notes about the nature of this or that word: outdated, high, vernacular, pejorative. If you use an electronic document, then words on one subject can be combined into separate blocks. In addition, such a notebook can also be supplemented with antonyms.
Thematic cards. They are convenient to use if you want to remember and translate several words related to a common theme into your active dictionary at once. Write them down on one card and attach them in a prominent place. As a result, if you remember at least one word from the card, the rest will inevitably come to your mind.
Association method. Try to accompany the memorization of words with associations: figurative, color, olfactory, tactile, gustatory, motor. The presence of such an association will help you remember much faster the right word... Moreover, you can rhyme an important word for you in a short rhyme or insert it into a stupid and meaningless, but memorable statement.
Presentations and compositions. We are accustomed to the fact that presentations and essays are school exercises, and after graduating from school, we can never return to them. Meanwhile, they help to dramatically improve your writing skills and expand your active vocabulary. Presentations are suitable for a situation where you have read a text in which you come across a lot of unfamiliar but useful words. Summarize this text in writing using these keywords and they will remain in your memory. As for essays, you do not need to write long treatises, a short story of five sentences is enough, in which you insert new words.
Memory calendar. This is a repetition chart for the words you want to translate into the active dictionary. It is based on research into how human memory works. Scientists have long found out that after a week a person forgets eighty percent of all new information received. However, this percentage can be significantly reduced by repeating the material at regular intervals. Then he gets into long-term active memory. For this, the so-called rational repetition mode was developed. For convenience, here's a table:
- First repetition. Immediately after finishing reading
- Second repetition. After half an hour
- Third repetition. In one day
- Fourth repetition. After two days
- Fifth repetition. After three days
- Sixth repetition. A week later
- Seventh repetition. In two weeks
- Eighth repetition. A month later
- Ninth repetition. After two months
To achieve the maximum effect, it is advisable not to deviate from the schedule. It's also best not to try to memorize a large array of words at the same time. Better to break words into small ones thematic groups and for each group create its own recurrence calendar.
Crosswords, language games and puzzles. Great way combine the useful with the pleasant: practice the learned words and play! Here are some of the most common language games: scrabble (in Russian - polymath, bald), anagrams, antiphrases, burime, metagrams, hat, contact.
Test your knowledge
If you want to test your knowledge of the topic of this lesson, you can take a short test consisting of several questions. In each question, only 1 option can be correct. After you have selected one of the options, the system automatically proceeds to the next question. The points you receive are influenced by the correctness of your answers and the time spent on passing. Please note that the questions are different each time, and the options are mixed.
Lecture number 11, 12.
Plan.
1. Active and passive stock.
2. Obsolete words:
a) historicisms;
b) archaisms (forest, semantic).
3. Neologisms.
1. Active and passive stock.
The vocabulary of the language is almost continuous absorbs the newly emerging words caused by changes in social order, development of production, culture, science, etc. The accumulation of more and more words in the dictionary, the replenishment of its stylistic resources, along with the improvement of the grammatical structure, reflects the general forward movement of the language.
At the same time, the reverse process occurs in the vocabulary.- the disappearance of obsolete words from its composition. Freeing the vocabulary from unnecessary words (and only such words “fall out” of it) is just as natural and necessary as enriching it with new words: it allows speakers to get rid of unnecessary lexical doublets, to remove obsolete words from their active stock, and thereby contributes to more effective implementation language of its main function - to be a means of human communication. These processes of the appearance of new words and the disappearance of obsolete ones are accompanied by processes of a semantic order: the emergence of new meanings y words and the loss of old ones.
Since the fixation in the language new words and meanings, and especially the departure from the outdated language is a gradual and long-term process, then in the vocabulary of the language as a whole there are always two layers of words at the same time: active vocabulary, on the one hand, and passive vocabulary - with another.
TO active vocabulary the stock of the language includes all the familiar and everyday vocabulary used in a particular area of linguistic communication, which has neither a shade of obsolescence, nor a shade of novelty. The active stock includes both words of general use and words that are limited in their use (terms, professionalism, book words, emotional vocabulary, etc.), so it cannot be identified with the active vocabulary of a particular native speaker.
Complex and ramified terminology of physicists, for example, will be largely unknown linguists, doctors, gardeners, workers, etc .; the current emotional vocabulary in the language is intolerant in the sphere official relations, in scientific works, etc., but from this neither the terminology of physicists, nor the currently existing emotional vocabulary ceases to be facts of modern vocabulary.
TO passive vocabulary the stock of the language (should not be confused with the passive vocabulary of one or another native speaker, depending on his profession, education, daily work, etc.) includes everything that is rarely used, that has not yet become necessary or has ceased to be necessary, habitual and mandatory in a particular area of communication. In other words, the passive vocabulary of the language as a whole includes: 1) words that are leaving the language (obsolete words), and 2) words that have not yet entered into general literary use or have just appeared in it (neologisms).
2. Obsolete words.
Loss of a word or one or another of its meaning- the result of a long process of archaization of the corresponding linguistic fact, when it is initially made the property of a passive vocabulary from the phenomenon of an active vocabulary and only then is gradually forgotten and completely disappears from the language. This process is not always straightforward: in some cases, obsolete words are subsequently returned to the active vocabulary. Naturally, in this case, as a rule, a sharp change in their meanings occurs (compare, for example, the meanings of words such as decree, soldier, ministry and etc.).
Obsolete words, collectively which form the outdated vocabulary of the Russian language, represent a complex and multi-layered system.
They are heterogeneous in terms of:
1) the degree of their obsolescence,
3) the possibilities and nature of their use.
By the degree of obsolescence First of all, a group of words stands out, which are currently completely unknown to ordinary speakers of the modern Russian literary language, therefore, they are incomprehensible without appropriate information.
These include:
a) words that have disappeared from the language, not found at the present time, even in the composition of derived words (lohm - puddle, Cahors - argument, prosinets - February, strict - paternal uncle, netiy - sister's nephew, cancer - grave, tomb, etc.);
b) words that are not used in the language as separate words, but occurring as root parts of derived words: rope - rope, swear - mockery (prygat), warm - boil (boil, ravine), beef - cattle (beef, beef), sleep - leather (burr), buldyga - bone (bogeyman), muzhura - darkness, haze (screw up), thin - skillful (artist), soon - skin (furrier), crafty - blacksmith (deceit), tax collector - tax collector (ordeal), give - serve (alms) etc.;
c) words that have disappeared from the language as separate significant units, but are still used as part of phraseological turns: falcon - old battering gun, big battering ram (naked like a falcon); zga - road path; not visible); count - small piece of land (no stake, no yard) and etc.
All these words fell out completely from the vocabulary of the language and are now firmly forgotten. All of them have nothing to do with the lexical system of the modern Russian literary language and do not even enter into its passive vocabulary. All of them, finally, are facts of previous, in general, distant eras of the development of the Russian language. Unlike obsolete words, they are best called old.
The question arises, is there any sense to consider such facts when analyzing the vocabulary of the modern Russian literary language, in which they do not really exist? It turns out that there is: old words (or obsolete words of the second degree) are still occasionally used in the right cases even now, usually with the necessary explanations. It is this that does not allow excluding them from consideration in the analysis of modern vocabulary, despite the fact that they have nothing to do with the latter.
Old words (specific cases their use, see below) is opposed in terms of obsolescence by a group of obsolete words. These are already real units of the language, however, having a limited scope of use and specific stylistic properties: versta, horse tram, vershok, student, policeman, bursa, this(that), in vain(seeing) iroism, barber, tokmo(only), to verb(talk), so that(to), coldness(cold) etc.
Naturally, in the degree of obsolescence of this or that word and a particular meaning, the time of its exit from active use plays an important role.
To a large extent, however, it is also determined:
1) the place of a given word with the corresponding meaning in the nominative system of the common language,
2) the initial prevalence of the word and the duration of its use in the active vocabulary; 3) the presence or absence of a clear and direct connection with related words, etc.
Sometimes a word long gone out of active use, yet still not forgotten by speakers, although it is very rare in their speech, and, on the contrary, there are cases when a word is forgotten and dropped out of the language, which has moved into the passive vocabulary of the language relatively recently.
For example, the words hunger, lie, disaster left the active vocabulary of written speech (in spoken language they did not exist before) more than 100 years ago, but they are still understandable in their basic meanings by those who speak modern Russian. On the contrary, forgotten, unknown for the overwhelming number of Russian speakers now are the words ucom(county committee), continuous, used in active use in comparison with previously noted hunger, lie, disaster recently.
Since toponymy(names of rivers, lakes, settlements, etc.) and anthroponymy(personal and family names) are the most stable facts in the dictionary material, then a lot of what has already left the language as common nouns is preserved in toponymy and anthroponymy as proper names: river Shuya (shuya - left), station Bologoye (bologoye - good, kind, beautiful), city Gorodets (Gorodets - town, with the suffix -ets), city Mytishchi (mytishche - the place where they collected washing), the village Scarlet (scarlet - red), cook Gloomy (gloomy - gloomy, cf. cloudy) etc.
As the lexical system evolves in each of the languages, according to its internal laws inherent only to it, then obsolete and even old, completely gone from the Russian language, words can be preserved in other closely related Slavic languages as lexical units of an active vocabulary. Wed the words Velmi - in Belarusian, luska - in Polish (Russian luska lives in a derivative lusk), krak - in Bulgarian (cf. Russian derivative ham), u1 - in Czech (in Russian it is included as a root in words beehive, street etc.), бъз - in Bulgarian (cf. Russian derivative elder) etc.
Words can fall out of active use and go into a passive vocabulary (and then disappear altogether) both because the phenomena they call disappear, objects, things, etc., and because they are as designations of any phenomena, objects, things, etc. . in the process of use can be supplanted in other words. In the first case, we are dealing with historicisms , in the second - with archaisms .
a) Histories present by myself passive vocabulary words that serve as the only expression of the corresponding concepts. If it is necessary to name a phenomenon, object, thing, etc. that has already disappeared, we willy-nilly resort to historicism, for in modern Russian literary language they have no synonyms... Historicisms in the novel
A. N. Tolstoy "Peter I", for example, are the words boyar, coachman, steward, falconer, altyn, epancha, feryaz(men's long-brimmed dress), chain mail, samopal, squeaker, unicorn(kind of gun), etc.
b) As for archaisms, then in the vocabulary of the modern Russian literary language, next to them must necessarily exist and exist synonyms that are words of active use (cf. catcher- hunting, voyage- travel, koi- which, Baltic- Baltic, complacency- complacency, hand- curtain, drink- poet, etc.).
If the reasons for the departure of words from active use as part of historicisms are always completely clear and do not require any special explanations, the establishment of the reasons for the transformation of words from the fact of an active vocabulary into archaisms, the reasons for the repression, replacement of one word with another is, as a rule, a very difficult matter.
It’s quite clear to us why, for example, the words caftan, policeman, petition others turned into historicisms (the corresponding objects, phenomena, things, etc., disappeared); on the contrary, special linguistic research is required in order to answer the question why words finger, this, hitherto, brow have been supplanted from active use by words finger, this one, still, forehead, if they have thus become archaisms.
Depending on whether, whether the whole word is obsolete as a certain sound complex that has a certain meaning, or only its semantic meaning turned out to be outdated, archaisms can be divided into lexical and semantic .
In the examples below, all highlighted words are archaisms:
I love the grapes on the vines,
Ripe in the hands under the mountain,
Beauty my valley vicious,
Joy autumn golden,
Oblong and transparent,
How fingers virgin young.
Here I see two lakes, azure plains,
Where is the sail fisherman sometimes turns white.
Oh, if only Apollo
Piitov wonderful gift
Influenced in my chest now.
Faded away like beacon wondrous genius,
The solemn wreath has withered.
(Lermontov.)
Anastasevich is only one,
My faithful godson reader and son,
He assures with his prose
What idol mine will crown
Laurel crown offspring.
“The recruitment was a celebration greedy ruler, because all the rich peasants paid off from him in turn, until, finally, the choice fell on scoundrels or ruined. " (Pushkin.)
However, between them there is a definite difference. The words finger, fisherman, drink replaced by words finger, fisherman, poet and are no longer used at the present time. it lexical archaisms ... The words influenced, beacon, reader, idol, villain exist in active use even now, but not with the meanings that characterize them in the given contexts (influenced - poured in; light - large candle, torch; reader - reader; idol - the statue; scoundrel - unfit, in this case - unfit for military service). it semantic archaisms .
On closer examination of lexical archaisms, given above, it can be noted that they are not the same in relation to those words that displaced them from active use. In one case (finger) we are dealing with words that have now been supplanted into a passive vocabulary by words with a different non-derivative stem. it proper lexical archaisms ... For example: vile - in vain mania - will, desire, bosom - breast, that is - that is, before - because, Victoria - victory, sail - sail, until - while, actor - actor, ya - neck, shuitsa - left hand, always - constantly, in spruce - very, like - which the, day case - morning dawn this - this, finger - finger, young lady - teenage girl, veins - eyelids, etc.
Otherwise (fisherman) we are dealing with words which now correspond to words with the same non-derivative stem as the linguistic shell of the concepts they express. it lexico-derivational archaisms (cf .: shepherd - shepherd, answer - answer, frenzy - ferocity, warrior - warrior etc.). In this case, the word used in the active dictionary now differs from archaism only from the point of view of the word-formation structure. Fisherman and fisherman different from each other not by their non-derivative basis fish-, and the suffixes attached to it -ar in one word i-ak - in friend.
For example, some archaisms of this kind, we observe in the novel by A.S. Pushkin's "Eugene Onegin": neighboring, stops, obeying, flirting, Baltic (cf .: neighboring, stops, obeying, flirting, Baltic).
In the third case (peet) we have a business with words that are currently replaced in the active vocabulary by words of the same root but with a slightly different sound appearance as a linguistic shell of the corresponding concepts. it lexico-phonetic archaisms : They should not be confused and identified with phonetic archaisms , which represent obsolete phenomena not in words, but in sounds. For example, phonetic archaism would be pronunciation e as [e], not as [o] in front of hard accented consonants (drip, but not flowed, more, but not yet etc.), pronunciation of soft R in words like top etc. Lexico-phonetic archaisms are words such as mirror(mirror), smooth(hunger), lie (in ron), klob(club), voxal(railway station), Iroism(heroism), store(INTO, etc.
Semantic archaisms- these are words that exist in the modern Russian literary language, but have outdated meanings. Semantic archaism, in other words, is an outdated meaning of a word, which in other meanings is an ordinary word in the modern Russian literary language.
Here are some examples:
The rumor about me will spread throughout the great Russia,
And everyone will call me real in it language.
Gudal sits down for the last time
On a white-maned horse,
And the train set off ...
(Lermontov.)
Laws disgraceful disgrace,
Weak tears were captive ...
"Magnet and electrical substance have attractive power", (" Dictionary of the Russian Academy "); “Now the caretaker, realizing all the circumstances, guessed that the disease was feigned” (Pushkin.); " Direct Onegin Child Harold went into brooding laziness "(Pushkin).
Highlighted words in the examples provided used now, but in different meanings. So the word real acts in the given context in the meaning of "existing", the word language in the meaning of "people", the word train- in the meaning of "cavalcade", the word disastrous shame - in meaning "spectacle of doom", the word attractive - in meaning "attractive", the word think - in meaning "ponder", the word straight - in meaning "real".
The groups of obsolete words outlined above they also differ in the nature and possibility of their use in various styles of the modern Russian literary language. Archaisms can only be used for a specific stylistic purpose; outside the artistic, expressive and pictorial setting, their use cannot be justified and is a mistake from the point of view of modern word usage. Historicisms, sometimes used for the same purposes as archaisms, are also possible outside certain stylistic conditions. They, as the only expression of disappeared concepts, phenomena, objects, are used in historical works, in descriptions of the past, memories, etc.
Archaisms are used in fiction mainly for three different stylistic purposes:
1) to recreate the real historical setting and speech of the heroes. We observe this use of archaisms and historicisms in historical novels and stories;
2) to create a solemn style, emotional and pathetic speech.
In such a role, archaisms(very often of Old Slavonic origin) we observe in Pushkin's poems "Prophet", "Anchar", "Liberty", "Slanderers of Russia", "October 19",< (Олегов щит» и др., в стихотворениях Лермонтова «Умирающий гладиатор», «Поэт», «Пророк», «Сосед» и т. п., в ряде авторских отступлений у Гоголя и т. д.; 3) как одно из средств создания комического, иронии, сатиры, сарказма. Мастером употребления архаизмов в таких целях был Салтыков-Щедрин.
Originally as archaisms and historicisms can be very diverse. Among them there are also primordial Russian words (lya, so that, this, violence, semo - here, flash - anxiety, breeder - instigator, etc.), and Old Church Slavonic (smooth, kiss, shrine, verb - word, broadcast etc.), and borrowed from other languages (abshid - resignation, voyage - travel, sicourse - help, nature - nature, polite - politeness, axamit - velvet, etc.).
In the works of the past(both artistic, and business, and scientific, etc.), even if they were written relatively recently, we encounter historicisms and archaisms that are such only for us, but were not them at the time of writing the analyzed work.
Hence, there are archaisms and historicisms stylistic use (in contemporary works of art, as already noted, they should and are only such) and there are archaisms and historicisms of the time (they are found - sometimes next to obsolete words of stylistic use - only in works written in the past).
These two types of obsolete words within the same literary and artistic context are presented in excerpts from Pushkin's "Boris Godunov":
Come,
You, Trubetskoy, and you, Basmanov: to help
Needed by my diligent voivods.
Chernigov was besieged by the rebel.
Rescue hail and citizens.
(Tsarist Duma; Tsar.)
Yes sir clerk, v orders gray,
Calmly see on the right and the guilty,
Listening to good and evil indifferently,
Not knowing no pity, no anger.
(Cell in the Chudov Monastery; Gregory.)
How good! Here is the sweet fruit of learning!
How can you from the clouds survey
Everything kingdom suddenly: borders, cities, rivers.
(The royal chambers; the king.)
In the above passages, we observe among outdated words and historicisms - voivode, clerk, order(meaning "institution), kingdom(meaning "state led by a king"), and archaisms - to help(help), hail, citizens(city residents), ripen(watch), heed(hear), be in charge(know), all of a sudden(meaning "immediately"). They were used by Pushkin in a tragedy on a historical theme.
However, it would be wrong to consider that all these words are used by the poet as an artistic and pictorial means with a certain stylistic setting. It would be wrong to ascribe any stylistic function to historicism. kingdom, semantic archaism all of a sudden... For Pushkin, these were ordinary words its active vocabulary, everyday use. They passed into the passive stock of Russian vocabulary and, in this connection, acquired a certain expressive-stylistic coloring later.
Speech is a powerful tool thanks to which you can perform actions not only local, but also global plan... Look at the outstanding lecturers, announcers, professors, priests, trainers - they all constantly have to feed themselves lexically in order to effectively and effectively work with the public.
Understanding the word: etymology and morphemes
Failure to understand the stored information strongly hinders its adequate reproduction in the future.
Let's take poetry, for example. The same verse.
First option- this is rote memorization through pronunciation, that is, cramming, which is also used in relation to tongue twisters - we do not delve into the meaning at all, but only mindlessly repeat and repeat the same set of words;
Second option- complex, to the point, characterized by stronger neural connections, which are responsible for memorizing, preserving and reproducing material.
Therefore, if possible, it is imperative to understand the origin of the word, its structure and determine its close and distant relatives.
Instant word injection - or the flashcard method
The so-called method of cards is familiar to many of us firsthand, it is actively used by teachers of schools and universities in the classroom, most often in a foreign language, but it also happens that the methodology is implemented in the classroom on the culture of speech.
There is absolutely nothing complicated in it: collect the words to be transferred into the active stock, fix them on cards and try to use them as often as possible. If it is written in a foreign language, then it is highly undesirable to use Russian for translation, it is better to use the target language to determine the meaning of the word or bright pictures.
Fixing a word in the active stock using writing
To memorize single words or constructions from them, you need a little patience and imagination.
- Take a specific word or stable phrase, if you are still at the initial levels of the language, you should not burden your speech production with cumbersome, difficult forms for a beginner.
But do not think that you should completely forget about them and then get by with only simple vocabulary. Of course not, as soon as your active vocabulary reaches a confident level, feel free to start paying attention to complex structures. - . Make sentences using the selected word. Relax and try to throw in as many ideas as possible, write in a narrative, interrogative, imperative form and actively use tenses that are familiar to you.
- Have increase complexity gradually, try to place words not only in the middle of the sentence, but also along its edges, so memorization will be more effective, according to the "edge effect" of Hermann Ebbinghaus.
- Come up with a bright, interesting story with the selected word, it can be small, but it should be saturated with emotions and associations, this is done to better consolidate the material in long-term memory.
- Check it out. Review the results aloud several times.
- Completely correct grammatical inaccuracies by contacting native speakers, and if you have a personal tutor or friend who can soon give a detailed feedback then this is just great!
Hello friends!
Today I have prepared an incredibly useful post for you - so be sure to read it to the end!
In we talked in some detail about expanding vocabulary, discussed dictionaries and ways to more effectively memorize new words and expressions.
Today we will continue to talk about vocabulary. And here it is important to note that passive and active vocabulary is distinguished. And it's hard to say which one is more important ...
Active and passive vocabulary
Passive vocabulary is all words and phrases that you recognize in the text, but cannot use in speech. A passive vocabulary, as a rule, is quite voluminous (much more active) - due to a passive vocabulary, a person recognizes a word in a text or audio material, but does not use it in speech. This is why students almost always understand a lot more than they can actually express in the language.
Active vocabulary is all those words and expressions that you actively use in speech. That is, this is the vocabulary with which you can freely operate in speech. Active vocabulary much less passive, and all studying foreign language are rightly trying to increase their active vocabulary.
How is a passive dictionary compiled?
Passive vocabulary is recruited through two key skills - Listening and Reading. That is why it is so important to listen and read something every day - you thereby expand your passive vocabulary. Very, very important constantly typing a passive dictionary... This will allow you better understand English by ear... Well, you can already work with a passive dictionary and translate words and expressions into an active dictionary, which will make your speech much more beautiful and richer.
How to translate words from passive to active stock?
As you may have already guessed, the activation of the passive vocabulary occurs at the expense of 2 other skills - Speaking(speaking) and Writing(letter). These are productive skills that require active brain activity. It is in the process speaking and writing words begin to be translated from passive to active stock.
Of course, there are also special techniques that allow you to purposefully convert words and expressions from passive to active.
- First of all, I definitely advise get a special notebook... In it you need to write out interesting and useful words and expressions. Or you can make such a notebook on any mobile device if it's so convenient for you. However, if you write out new expressions with your hand, you will activate motor memory, and there will be more chances that you will remember this expression.
- Reading or listening to something on English language, write out new expressions and try immediately apply them in speech... For example, come up with a proposal that is specifically about you and your loved ones(not abstract) in which this phrase is used. Think of several situations at once - it is desirable that these were emotionally colored sentences and situations (if possible).
- Come up with an association for a word or expression- again, it's better to be funny, so that it clings and is better remembered. Much has been written about the associative method, so I will not dwell on it in detail.
- Play games in English... There are absolutely amazing board games, which I have talked about more than once in my webinars. This is very good way"Stir up" your vocabulary. One of the best, in my opinion, is a game called Taboo. By the way, in the open classes of the Conversation Club, we played such a game online - it was great! The essence of the game is to explain the meaning of the word indicated on the card without using taboo words... And the trick is that taboo words are exactly the words that come to mind in the first place. In a word, 100% speaking practice is guaranteed to you!
- Singing in English- another very nice way to activate the dictionary!
By the way, in the open classes of the Conversation Club, we played Taboo online - it was great!
I can't help but mention wonderful ANKI vocabulary program... I'm sure ena that once you get to know her better, you will understand how useful she is.
Work both ways
I think you have already grasped the main idea - it is important to work in two directions at once - and expand the passive vocabulary, and constantly translate words into an active vocabulary. If you lag behind in one direction or the other, it will be quite uncomfortable. 
As one polyglot put it, a passive vocabulary is like a large reservoir with a small hole, from which words and expressions “seep” in a thin trickle into a receptacle called “Active Dictionary”. And the more voluminous the "passive reservoir", the more words and expressions can get into the "active reservoir". Of course, if you will not be silent, but will actively use it.
Vocabulary is the most fluid language level. Changing and improving vocabulary is directly related to the production activity of a person, with the economic, social, political life of the people. All processes are reflected in the vocabulary historical development society. With the emergence of new objects, phenomena, new concepts arise, and with them - and words for the names of these concepts. With the withering away of certain phenomena, they go out of use or change their sound appearance and the meaning of the words that call them. Considering all this, the vocabulary of the common language can be divided into two large groups: active vocabulary and passive vocabulary.
The active vocabulary includes those everyday words, the meaning of which is understandable to people who speak the given language. The words of this group are devoid of any shades of obsolescence.
The passive vocabulary includes those that are either outdated, or, conversely, due to their novelty, have not yet received widespread recognition and are also not used daily. Thus, the words of the passive stock are divided, in turn, into obsolete and new (neologisms). Those words that have fallen out of active use are considered obsolete. For example, words that have ceased to be used in connection with the disappearance of the concepts that they denoted are clearly outdated: boyar, clerk, veche, archer, oprichnik, vowel (member of the city council), mayor, etc. The words of this group are called historicisms, they are more or less known and understood by native speakers, but not actively used by them. V modern language they are addressed only when it is necessary to name obsolete objects, phenomena, for example, in special scientific and historical literature, as well as in language works of art in order to recreate a particular historical era.
If the concept of an object, phenomenon, action, quality, etc. is preserved, and the names assigned to it, in the process of language development are replaced by new ones, more acceptable for one reason or another for a new generation of native speakers, then the old names also pass into the category of passive vocabulary, into the group of so-called archaisms (Greek archaios - ancient). For example: before - because vezhdy - eyelids, guest - merchant, merchant (mostly foreign). Some of the words of this type are practically beyond the limits of even the passively existing lexical stocks of the modern literary language. For example: thief - a thief, a robber; stryi - paternal uncle, stryinya - paternal uncle's wife; uy - maternal uncle; stride - down; sling - 1) roof and 2) celestial vault; vezha - 1) a tent, a wagon, 2) a tower; fat - fat, lard and many others. Some of the archaisms are preserved in the modern language as part of phraseological units.
The process of transition of words from a group of active use to a passive group is long. It is due to both extra-linguistic reasons, for example, social changes, and linguistic ones proper, of which the systemic connections of obsolete words play a very significant role: the wider, more diverse and durable they are, the slower the word passes into the passive layers of the dictionary.
Outdated words can be both primordial words (for example, shelom, brave, shell, etc.) and borrowed, for example, Old Church Slavonicism (vezhdi - eyelids, alkati - starve, fast, robe - clothes, hand - palm, etc.).
Depending on whether the word becomes completely obsolete, whether its individual elements are used, whether the phonetic design of the word changes, several types of archaisms are distinguished: proper lexical, lexical-semantic, lexico-phonetic and lexical-derivational.
Actually lexical ones appear when a word becomes completely obsolete and passes into passive archaic layers, for example: cdmon - a horse, mocking - perhaps gleb - to sink, get stuck, bored - because, because, etc.
Some polysemantic words that have one or more meanings out of date are considered lexico-semantic. For example, the word “guest” has the outdated meaning “foreign merchant, merchant”, and the rest have survived, although they have been somewhat rethought: guest-1) a person who came to visit someone; 2) a foreigner (in modern language - an outsider, invited or admitted to any meeting, meeting). One of the meanings of words belongs to such archaisms: shame is a spectacle; humanity - humanity, humanity.
Lexico-phonetic archaisms include words in which, in the process of the historical development of the language, their sound form has changed (while maintaining the content): prospekt - avenue, English - English, Sveisk - Swedish, state - state, voxal - station, piit - poet and many other.
Lexico-derivational archaisms are those that have survived in the modern language in the form of separate elements.
Stylistic functions obsolete vocabulary (historicisms and archaisms) are very diverse. Both are used to reproduce the flavor of the era, to recreate some historical events... For this purpose, they were widely used by A. Pushkin in Boris Godunov, A. N. Tolstoy in Peter I, A. Chapygin in the novel Stepan Razin, V. Kostylev in Ivan the Terrible, L. Nikulin in the novel "Russia's Faithful Sons" and many others. Both types of obsolete words, especially archaisms, are often introduced by writers, poets, publicists into the text to give speech a special solemnity, sublimity, pathos.
Outdated vocabulary can sometimes be used as a means of humor, irony, satire. In this case, archaizing words are often used in a semantically alien environment.
New words, or neologisms, are called, first of all, such words that appear in the language to designate new concepts, for example: cybernetics, lavsan, letilan (antimicrobial fiber), interferon (medicine), oceanaut, ewem (from a computer - electronic computing machine), power line (from power transmission line - power line), etc. Especially many neologisms arise in the field of scientific and technical terminology. Such words form a group of proper lexical neologisms.
The emergence of new names for those concepts that already had a name in the language is also one of the ways of the emergence of neologisms. In this case, the loss of some words occurs due to the activation of others, synonymous with the first, then the transition of the repressed words into the passive layers of vocabulary, that is, their archaization.
Words that are newly formed according to certain normative models from words that have existed for a long time are also neologisms. For example: asset - activist, activist, activist, activism, activation; atom - nuclear-powered ship, nuclear engineer, nuclear engineer; moon - lunar, lunar, lunar rover; rocket - rocket launcher, missile carrier, launch vehicle, rocket launcher; space - a cosmodrome, cosmonaut, space helmet, cosmovision and many other simple and complex words that make up a group of so-called lexico-word-formation neologisms.
Neologisms also include such words and phrases previously known in the Russian language, which have developed a new meaning, for example: pioneer - discoverer and pioneer - a member of a children's communist organization; a foreman - a military rank in the tsarist army and a foreman - the head of a team of people at an enterprise, etc. Words that arose as a result of rethinking earlier known to the language nominations, some researchers call lexico-semantic neologisms.
Semantic renewal of words is one of the most active processes that replenish the lexical system of the modern Russian language. Around a word that begins to live anew, completely new lexemes are grouped, new synonyms, new oppositions appear.
The neologism that has arisen together with a new object, thing, concept does not immediately enter the active composition of the dictionary. After a new word becomes commonly used, publicly available, it ceases to be a neologism.
Due to the continuous historical development of the vocabulary of the language, many words, even in the 19th century. perceived as neologisms (freedom, equality, citizen, public, humanity, realism, fiction, liberty, reality, immediacy, idea, and the like1), in modern Russian they are the property of an active vocabulary.
Consequently, the specific linguistic repertoire that characterizes and reveals this concept is changeable and depends on the historical process of the development of society and language.
In addition to neologisms, which are the property of the common language, new words are distinguished, formed by this or that writer with a specific stylistic purpose. The neologisms of this group are called occasional (or individually stylistic).
If you can get the necessary ideas about outdated vocabulary (historicisms and archaisms) in explanatory dictionaries, as well as in special historical dictionaries of the Russian language, then a special dictionary of new words did not exist until recently, although interest in neologisms arose a very long time ago.
The study of outdated vocabulary is provided for by all programs in the Russian language and literary reading in elementary school, but the most
this topic is fully presented in the educational system "School 2100", the educational-methodical set "Russian language" and "Literary reading" R.N. Buneeva, E.V. Buneeva and O.V. Pronina, as well as UMK "Harmony"
M.S. Soloveichik, N.S. Kuzmenko "To the secrets of our language."
A set of textbooks on the Russian language R.N. Buneeva, E.V. Buneeva, O.V. Pronina. In the analyzed textbooks Buneeva R.N., Buneeva E.V., Pronina O.V. the largest number of archaisms and historicisms is presented, especially widely - proper lexical and lexico-phonetic archaisms. Example: grade 3, part 1, exercise. 83.
In ancient times, in the Russian language there was a word around, which meant
“Around, about, on all four sides” (archaism).
2. A set of textbooks on literary reading by R.N. Buneeva, E.V. Buneeva, O.V. Pronina. In the analyzed textbooks Buneeva R.N., Buneeva E.V., Pronina O.V. obsolete vocabulary is present in all grades (1 through 4). A large number of historicisms and archaisms are presented in grades 3-4. Example: Grade 2: "Small door in Big world"2 hours:
Pyotr Ershov "The Little Humpbacked Horse"
They began to think and guess -
As if a thief to spy ...
It began to get dark again ...
Then Ivan gets off the stove,
Malachai puts on his ...
To peep - to spy (archaism).
Syznova - again (archaism).
Malachai - long, wide clothes without a belt (historicism).
3. A set of textbooks by M.S. Soloveichik and N.S. Kuzmenko. After analyzing the textbooks "To the secrets of our language" under the program "Harmony", we came to the conclusion that in this teaching materials on the Russian language
historicisms and archaisms are found only in the second and fourth grade in
small volume. Example: class 2, part 2, exercise. 36.
Lo and behold - over flowing waters
White swan swims ... (A. Pushkin)
Swan - female, now swan - male. (archaism)
Russian language 2nd grade UMK " Primary School 21st century "
LESSON TOPIC: "Obsolete words."
GOALS:
promote the development of ideas about the reasons for the obsolescence of words in the Russian language;
to give general concept about historicisms and archaisms;
learn to use an explanatory dictionary to determine the meanings of obsolete words;
EQUIPMENT: presentation, museum exhibits (ruble, grapple, cast iron, towels, bast shoes, mortar, rocker).
DURING THE CLASSES.
I. Organizational moment.
1. Organization of the class.
I will open my notebook
And I will put it down.
I won't hide my friends from you
I hold the pen like this
I will not bend straight to sit
I'll get to work.
Write down the number. Classwork.
The herald enters
TSARSKY ORDER
In the glorious kingdom far away,
In a state of thirty
Behind Kudykina Mountain
King Peas II lives
Tired of the king's father to sit on the rubble,
Yes, singing spring songs to the harp.
He sent the mother the queen to scrape through the barns, to put
Bake pies, crumpets, rolls, cheesecakes.
Invite everyone to an honest feast, under a wide pine tree
The feast is not easy: to carry out tasks, to show cunning and ingenuity!
What words from the decree of Tsar Pea are not familiar to you?
Do we use these words in everyday speech? (No, we do not use them in Everyday life, because objects have gone into the past, and with them the words that denote them).
What words do you think we will talk about today in the lesson?
(Children: ancient words, old words, obsolete words)
Lesson topic - Obsolete words. Cspruce and tasks
Are we going to visit King Peas? Then we hit the road, but first you need to take with you the “Baggage of Knowledge”.
- Changes are constantly taking place in the Russian language: some words are born, others are used less and less often, that is, they become obsolete and completely die. Why it happens?
- Yes, because a person's life is changing. If an object, for example, a mortar, a kerosene lamp, bast shoes, passes away, the word also disappears with it.
B) Writing to the reference book.
Obsolete words.
Historicals Archaisms
(objects are gone, (words are outdated, and objects
which these words remained)
were called)
Chainmail finger
In our modern speech, obsolete words are very rare. Where can we meet them more often?
(In poems, songs, proverbs, epics, fairy tales).
Our journey is fabulous.
Here is a map of our trip
1 stop - Nesmeyankina Polyanka
Princess Nesmeyana meets us:
I cried every now and then.
I didn't want grooms
And now I want, but now
Nobody gets married.
He sent me one letter,
He gave me a riddle here.
Write words in pairs
eyes lips
mouth of the eye
finger forehead
barber finger
brow hairdresser
Hedge slob
hut fence
Host of the Troops
dirty house
Examination
2 stop - forest of friends
Here someone comes, we need to get to know each other.
I'm a funny gingerbread man
I have a rosy side.
Here the fox grabbed me,
But she let go before dinner.
She told me to fix something here
Then he won't eat me.
Task - to write off, highlight obsolete words
Examination
Physical minute.
Click your fingers
Smile with your lips
Tilt the neck forward, back.
Pat your cheeks.
Lift your eyes up, right, left, down.
Stop 3 - Cinderella's Garden
They call me Cinderella
I work from morning to night:
I sweep, I clean
Sewing, sorting through the grain.
And here the Stepmother said
That she mixed words.
You need to arrange them in the text.
Exercise.
Read the suggested text below. From the "Words for Reference" section, select and insert in place of the gaps those words that correspond to the content of the text
Once upon a time there were an old man with an old woman. The old man asked the old woman to bake a bun. But there was no flour in ... ... .. What to do? The old woman went, …… .. scraped, …… swept and took flour. She kneaded the dough, baked a bun and put it on the window to cool. Tired of lying down. He jumped from the window onto ... ..., from the embankment onto the path - and ran away ...
Words for inquiries: hut, ssek, barn, zavalinka.
Examination
4 stop - tower of Tsar Pea
Tasks of the King of Peas:
So, we learned that words can become obsolete, go out of use. But they remain living in the books of past years, and we must know, be able to determine their meaning. For this purpose, scientists are creating dictionaries in which all words that exist to our time are interpreted (exhibition of dictionaries).
Pay attention to the exhibition of dictionaries. They will help you speak modern Russian correctly. And language is our wealth, our heritage, which must be protected.
Exercise 1.
To complete the next task, you will need your explanatory vocabulary in the textbook. Read passages from fairy tales, find outdated words.
1.I'll also make a face of a skate
Only three inches tall,
On the back with two humps
Yes with arshin ears.
2. ... And the queen laugh,
And shrug your shoulders
And wink your eyes
And click with your fingers ...
3. “In the sixteenth year
You will meet trouble
At this age
Hand youspindle
You scratch my light
And you will die in the prime of life "(V. Zhukovsky "The Sleeping Princess")
4. “I'm catching food, their water arrives
I see one small island -
Hares gathered on it in a crowd.
With every minute the water was getting closer
To the poor animals, already under them there is
Smallerarshina land wide. " (N.A. Nekrasov "Grandfather Mazai and the hares")
5. "Dadon says, yawning -
Huh? ... Who's there? ... What's the trouble?
Voivode is talking:
"The cockerel is screaming again." (A.S. Pushkin "Cockerel golden comb")
6. "The cat dressed up incaftan , red boots, a hat. He took the harp, came to the fox's hole, and sang: Stren-brenguseries , golden strings. "
(Russian folk tale"The Cat and the Fox")
Examination
Find out in the explanatory dictionary what they mean?
Rewrite the interpretation of these words in your notebook.
Reflection learning activities at the lesson.
- Another Russian lesson is coming to an end. What have we learned in this lesson?
Who remembered what historicisms and archaisms are?
Where can we apply our knowledge?
In case of difficulty, who will come to your aid? (Dictionary)
Presenting the medals "UMNIK"
Write out sentences with outdated words from a reading book, if you wish, you can describe your mother's appearance using outdated words.
I want to end the lesson with the following lines:
Russian is the best language in the world!
He is the greatest and most
rich,
And he keeps a lot of secrets, guys!
All these secrets must be unraveled
And with joy to learn Russian.
Then your class will become very literate,
And the Russian language will become your friend!
Ministry of Education and Science of the Astrakhan Region
OAO SPO "Astrakhan social - pedagogical college"
Specialty 050146 "Teaching in primary grades"
INDEPENDENT WORK
Vocabulary of the modern Russian language of active and passive stock
Performed
student of group 3 A
