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The most important historical events in France. History of France Important events in the history of France

• 1789–1791
  
• 1791–1793
  
• 1793–1799
  
• 1799–1814
  Napoleon's coup and the establishment of an empire
• 1814–1848
  
• 1848–1851
  
• 1851–1870
  
• 1870–1875
  Revolution of 1870 and the establishment of the Third Republic

In 1787, an economic recession began in France, which gradually turned into a crisis: production fell, the French market was flooded with cheaper English goods; to this were added crop failures and natural disasters that led to the death of crops and vineyards. In addition, France has spent a lot on failed wars and supporting the American Revolution. There was not enough income (by 1788 expenses exceeded income by 20%), and the treasury took out loans, the interest on which was unaffordable for it. The only way to increase revenue to the treasury was to deprive the first and second estate of tax privileges. Under the Old Order, French society was divided into three estates: the first was the clergy, the second was the nobility, and the third was all the rest. The first two estates enjoyed a number of privileges, including exemption from the need to pay taxes..

Attempts by the government to abolish the tax privileges of the first two estates failed, meeting the resistance of the noble parliaments Parliaments- before the revolution, the supreme courts of fourteen regions of France. Until the 15th century, only the Paris Parliament existed, then the other thirteen appeared.(that is, the highest courts of the Old Order period). Then the government announced the convening of the States General States general- a body that included representatives of the three estates and convened at the initiative of the king (as a rule, to resolve political crisis). Each estate sat separately and had one vote., which included representatives of all three estates. Unexpectedly for the crown, this caused a wide public upsurge: hundreds of pamphlets were published, voters drew up instructions to deputies: few aspired to revolution, but everyone hoped for change. The impoverished nobility demanded financial support from the crown, at the same time counting on the limitation of its power; the peasants protested against the rights of the lords and hoped to get the land as property; among the townspeople, the ideas of enlighteners about the equality of all before the law and about equal access to offices became popular (in January 1789, the widely known brochure of Abbot Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes "What is the third estate?" ? - Everything. 2. What has it been politically so far? - Nothing. 3. What does it require? - To become something "). Based on the ideas of the Enlightenment, many believed that the nation, and not the king, should have the supreme power in the country, that the absolute monarchy should be replaced by a limited one and that traditional law should be replaced by a constitution - a collection of clearly written laws that are the same for all citizens.

Great French Revolution and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy

Taking of the Bastille on July 14, 1789. Painting by Jean Pierre Huel. 1789 year

Bibliothèque nationale de France

Chronology

The beginning of the work of the States General

Proclamation of the National Assembly

The taking of the Bastille

Adoption of the Declaration of Human and Citizen Rights

Adoption of the first French constitution

On May 5, 1789, a meeting of the States General was opened at Versailles. Traditionally, when voting, each estate had one vote. The deputies from the third estate, of whom there were twice as many as the deputies from the first and second, demanded an individual vote, but the government did not agree to this. In addition, contrary to the expectations of the deputies, the authorities submitted only financial reforms for discussion. On June 17, deputies from the third estate declared themselves the National Assembly, that is, representatives of the entire French nation. On June 20, they vowed not to disperse until a constitution was drawn up. Some time later, the National Assembly declared itself the Constituent Assembly, thus declaring its intention to establish a new political system in France.

Soon, rumors spread throughout Paris that the government was pulling troops to Versailles and was planning to disperse the Constituent Assembly. An uprising began in Paris; On July 14, hoping to seize weapons, the people stormed the Bastille. This symbolic event is considered the beginning of the revolution.

After that, the Constituent Assembly gradually turned into the supreme power in the country: Louis XVI, who sought to avoid bloodshed at any cost, sooner or later approved any of his decrees. Thus, from 5 to 11 August, all peasants became personally free, and the privileges of the two estates and individual regions were canceled.

Overthrow of the absolute monarchy
On August 26, 1789, the Constituent Assembly approved the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. On October 5, the crowd went to Versailles, where Louis XVI was, and demanded that the king and his family move to Paris and approve the Declaration. Louis was forced to agree - and absolute monarchy ceased to exist in France. This was enshrined in the constitution adopted by the Constituent Assembly on September 3, 1791.

Having adopted a constitution, the Constituent Assembly dispersed. Laws were now approved by the Legislative Assembly. The executive power remained with the king, who turned into an official, obeying the will of the people. Officials and priests were no longer appointed, but elected; the property of the church was nationalized and sold.

Symbols

"Freedom equality Brotherhood
". The formula "Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité", which became the motto of the French Republic, first appeared on December 5, 1790 in an unspoken speech by Maximilian Robespierre, one of the most influential French revolutionaries, elected to the States General from the third estate in 1789.

Bastille. By July 14, there were only seven prisoners in the Bastille, the ancient royal prison, so its assault had a symbolic rather than pragmatic meaning, although they took it in the hope of finding weapons there. By the decision of the municipality, the taken Bastille was destroyed to the ground.

Declaration of the rights of man and citizen. The Declaration of Human Rights stated that “people are born and remain free and equal in rights” and declared the natural and inalienable human rights to freedom, property, security and resistance to oppression. In addition, it consolidated freedom of speech, press and religion and abolished estates and titles. As a preamble, it entered the first constitution (1791) and still forms the basis of French constitutional law, being a legally binding document.

Execution of the king and establishment of a republic

The last moments of the life of Louis XVI. An engraving based on a painting by Charles Benazech. 1793 year

Wellcome library

Chronology

The beginning of the war with Austria

Overthrow of Louis XVI

Start of the National Convention

The execution of Louis XVI

On August 27, 1791, in the Saxon castle of Pilnitz, the Prussian king Frederick William II and the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II (brother of Louis XVI's wife Marie Antoinette), under pressure from aristocrats who emigrated from France, signed a document declaring their readiness to support the King of France, including military ... Girondins Girondins- a circle formed around the deputies from the Gironde department, advocating further transformations, but adhering to relatively moderate views. In 1792, many of them opposed the execution of the king., the supporters of the republic, took advantage of this to persuade the Legislature to war with Austria, which was declared on April 20, 1792. When French troops began to suffer defeat, the royal family was blamed for this.

Overthrow of the constitutional monarchy
On August 10, 1792, an uprising took place, as a result of which Louis was overthrown and imprisoned on charges of betraying national interests. The Legislative Assembly resigned: now, in the absence of the king, a new constitution had to be written. For these purposes, was assembled new law The organ is the elected National Convention, which first proclaimed France a republic.

In December, a trial began, which found the king guilty of an act against the freedom of the nation and sentenced him to death.

Symbols

Marseillaise. March, written by Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle (military engineer, also poet and composer) on April 25, 1792. In 1795, the Marseillaise became the national anthem of France, lost this status under Napoleon, and finally returned it in 1879 under the Third Republic. By the second half of the 19th century, it had become an international song of leftist resistance.

Jacobin dictatorship, Thermidorian coup and establishment of the Consulate

The overthrow of Robespierre at the National Convention on July 27, 1794. Painting by Max Adamo. 1870 year

Alte Nationalgalerie, Berlin

Chronology

The Extraordinary Criminal Tribunal was established by a decree of the Convention, which will be renamed the Revolutionary Tribunal in October

Creation of the Public Safety Committee

Expulsion of the Girondins from the Convention

Adoption of the Constitution of the 1st year, or the Montagnar Constitution

Decree on the introduction of a new calendar

Thermidorian coup

Execution of Robespierre and his supporters

Adoption of the Constitution of the III year. Formation of the Directory

Coup 18 Brumaire. Change of Directory by the Consulate

Despite the execution of the king, France continued to fail in the war. Inside the country, monarchist revolts broke out. In March 1793, the Convention created the Revolutionary Tribunal, which was supposed to judge "traitors, conspirators and counter-revolutionaries", and after it - the Committee of Public Safety, which was supposed to coordinate the domestic and foreign policy of the country.

Expulsion of the Girondins, Jacobin dictatorship

The Girondins gained great influence in the Committee of Public Safety. Many of them did not support the execution of the king and the imposition of emergency measures, some expressed outrage that Paris was imposing its will on the country. The Montagnards who competed with them Montagnards- a relatively radical group, relying, in particular, on the urban poor. The name comes from the French word montagne - mountain: at Legislative meetings, members of this group usually took seats in the upper rows on the left side of the hall. directed against the Girondins disgruntled urban poor.

On May 31, 1793, a crowd gathered at the Convention, demanding the exclusion of the Girondins, who were accused of treason. On June 2, the Girondins were placed under house arrest, and on October 31, many of them were guillotined by the Revolutionary Tribunal.

The expulsion of the Girondins led to a civil war. Despite the fact that at the same time France was at war with many European states, the constitution, adopted in 1793, did not come into force: before the onset of peace, the Convention introduced a "temporary revolutionary order of government." Virtually all power was now concentrated in his hands; to the places the Convention sent commissars with enormous powers. The Montagnards, who now had a huge advantage in the Convention, declared their opponents enemies of the people and sentenced them to guillotine. The Montagnards abolished all senior duties and began to sell the land of the emigrants to the peasants. In addition, they introduced a maximum to which the prices of the most essential goods, including bread, could rise; in order to avoid a shortage, they had to take grain from the peasants by force.

By the end of 1793, most of the revolts had been suppressed, and the situation at the front was reversed - the French army went on the offensive. Nevertheless, the number of victims of terror did not decrease. In September 1793, the Convention passed the "Suspicious Law", which ordered to keep under arrest all people who were not accused of any crime, but could commit it. From June 1794, the Revolutionary Tribunal abolished the interrogation of the defendants and their right to lawyers, as well as the obligatory interrogation of witnesses; for people found guilty by the tribunal, now only one punishment was provided - the death penalty.

Thermidorian coup 


In the spring of 1794, the robespierres started talking about the need for the last wave of executions, which would cleanse the Convention of the opponents of the revolution. Almost all members of the Convention felt that their lives were at stake. On July 27, 1794 (or 9 Thermidor II year according to the revolutionary calendar), the leader of the Montagnards Maximilian Robespierre and many of his supporters were arrested by members of the Convention, who feared for their lives. They were executed on July 28.

After the coup, the terror quickly subsided, the Jacobin Club Jacobin Club- a political club, formed in 1789 and gathered in the Jacobin monastery. The official name is the Society of Friends of the Constitution. Many of its members were deputies to the Constituent and Legislative Assemblies, and then to the Convention; they played an important role in the ongoing policy of terror. was closed. The authority of the Public Safety Committee has diminished. Thermidorians Thermidorians- members of the Convention who supported the Thermidorian coup. proclaimed a general amnesty, many of the surviving Girondins returned to the Convention.

Directory

In August 1795, the Convention adopted a new constitution. In accordance with it, the legislative power was entrusted to a bicameral Legislature, and the executive power to the Directory, which consisted of five directors, whom the Council of Elders (the upper house of the Legislative Corps) selected from a list presented by the Council of Five Hundred (the lower house). The members of the Directory sought to stabilize the political and economic situation in France, but not very successfully: for example, on September 4, 1797, the Directory, with the support of General Napoleon Bonaparte, extremely popular as a result of his military successes in Italy, declared martial law in Paris and annulled the election results in The legislative body in many regions of France, since the royalists, who now constituted a fairly strong opposition, received the majority there.

Coup 18 Brumaire

A new conspiracy has matured within the Directory itself. On November 9, 1799 (or 18 Brumaire of the VIII year of the Republic), two of the five directors, together with Bonaparte, carried out a coup, disbanding the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of Elders. The Directory was also stripped of power. Instead, the Consulate arose - a government consisting of three consuls. They were all three conspirators.

Symbols


Tricolor. In 1794, the tricolor became the official flag of France. TO white Bourbons, used on the flag before the revolution, were added blue, the symbol of Paris, and red - the color National Guard.

Republican calendar. On October 5, 1793, a new calendar was introduced into circulation, the first year according to which was 1792. All months in the calendar received new names: the time from the revolution had to start anew. In 1806, the calendar was canceled.

Louvre Museum. Despite the fact that some parts of the Louvre were open to the public before the revolution, the palace turned into a full-fledged museum only in 1793.

The coup of Napoleon Bonaparte and the establishment of an empire

Portrait of Napoleon Bonaparte, First Consul. Detail of a painting by Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres. 1803-1804 years

Wikimedia Commons

Chronology

Adoption of the Constitution of the VIII year, which established the dictatorship of the first consul

Adoption of the Constitution of X year, which made the powers of the first consul for life

Adoption of the Constitution of the XII year, the proclamation of Napoleon as emperor

On December 25, 1799, a new constitution (Constitution of the VIII year) was adopted, created with the participation of Napoleon Bonaparte. A government came to power, consisting of three consuls, named directly in the constitution by name, and elected for ten years (as a one-time exception, the third consul was then appointed for five years). The first of the three consuls was named Napoleon Bonaparte. Almost all real power was concentrated in his hands: only he had the right to propose new laws, appoint members of the State Council, ambassadors, ministers, senior military leaders and prefects of departments. The principles of separation of powers and popular sovereignty were virtually abolished.

In 1802 State Council submitted to a referendum the question of whether Bonaparte should be made consul for life. As a result, the consulate became life-long, and the first consul received the right to appoint a successor to himself.

In February 1804, a monarchist conspiracy was revealed, the purpose of which was the assassination of Napoleon. After that, proposals began to arise to make Napoleon's power hereditary in order to exclude such a thing in the future.

Establishment of an empire
On May 18, 1804, the XII Constitution was adopted, approved by a referendum. The administration of the republic was now transferred to the "emperor of the French", whom Napoleon Bonaparte was declared to be. In December, the emperor was crowned by the Pope.

In 1804, the Civil Code, written with the participation of Napoleon, was adopted - a set of laws that governed the life of French citizens. The code affirmed, in particular, the equality of all before the law, inviolability of land property and secular marriage. Napoleon managed to normalize the French economy and finances: through constant recruits in the army both in the countryside and in the city, he managed to cope with the surplus of workers, which led to higher incomes. He harshly cracked down on the opposition and limited freedom of speech. The role of propaganda became enormous, glorifying the invincibility of French weapons and the greatness of France.

Symbols

Eagle. In 1804, Napoleon introduced a new imperial coat of arms, which depicted an eagle - a symbol of the Roman Empire, which was present on the coats of arms of other great powers.

Bee. This symbol, dating back to the Merovingians, became the personal emblem of Napoleon and replaced the lily flower in heraldic ornaments.

Napoleondor. Under Napoleon, a coin called Napoleon d'or, literally "golden Napoleon", received circulation: it depicted Bonaparte's profile.

Legion of Honor. Order established by Bonaparte on May 19, 1802 following the example knightly orders... Belonging to the order testified to the official recognition of special services to France.

The Bourbon Restoration and the July Monarchy

Freedom leading the people. Painting by Eugene Delacroix. 1830 year

Musée du Louvre

Chronology

Napoleon's invasion of Russia

The capture of Moscow

Battle of Leipzig ("Battle of the Nations")

Abdication of Napoleon from the throne, proclamation of Louis XVIII as king

Proclamation of the Charter of 1814

Napoleon's escape from Elba

Taking Paris

Battle of Waterloo

Abdication of Napoleon

Accession to the throne of Charles X

Signing of the July Ordinances

Mass riots

Abdication of Charles X from the throne

The Duke of Orleans' oath of allegiance to the new Charter. From that day on, he became King of the French, Louis Philippe I

As a result of the Napoleonic wars, the French Empire turned into the most powerful European power with a stable state system and well-organized finances. In 1806, Napoleon forbade all European countries under his control to trade with England - as a result of the Industrial Revolution, England drove French goods out of the markets. The so-called continental blockade damaged the English economy, but by 1811 it caused economic crisis affected all of Europe, including France. The failures of the French forces in the Iberian Peninsula began to destroy the image of the invincible French army. Finally, in October 1812, the French had to begin their retreat from Moscow, which had been occupied in September.

Bourbon restoration
On October 16-19, 1813, the Battle of Leipzig took place, in which the Napoleonic army was defeated. In April 1814, Napoleon abdicated and went into exile on the island of Elba, and Louis XVIII, brother of the executed Louis XVI, ascended the throne.

Power returned to the Bourbon dynasty, but Louis XVIII was forced to grant the people a constitution - the so-called Charter of 1814, according to which each new law had to be approved by two houses of parliament. In France, a constitutional monarchy was re-established, but not all citizens and not even all adult men had the right to vote, but only those who possessed a certain level prosperity.

One Hundred Days of Napoleon

Taking advantage of the fact that Louis XVIII did not have popular support, Napoleon fled from Elba on February 26, 1815 and landed in France on March 1. A significant part of the army joined him, and in less than a month Napoleon occupied Paris without a fight. Attempts to negotiate with European countries about the world failed, and he had to re-enter the war. On June 18, the French army was defeated by the Anglo-Prussian troops at the Battle of Waterloo, on June 22 Napoleon abdicated the throne again, and on July 15 surrendered to the British and went into exile on the island of St. Helena. Power returned to Louis XVIII.

July revolution

In 1824, Louis XVIII died and his brother Charles X ascended the throne. The new monarch took a more conservative course. In the summer of 1829, while the chambers of deputies were not working, Karl appointed the extremely unpopular prince Jules Auguste Armand Marie Polignac as foreign minister. On July 25, 1830, the king signed ordinances (decrees that were in force state laws) - on the temporary cancellation of freedom of the press, the dissolution of the Chamber of Deputies, an increase in the electoral qualification (now only landowners could vote) and the appointment of new elections to the lower house. Many newspapers were closed.

Charles X's Ordinances sparked widespread outrage. On July 27, riots broke out in Paris, and on July 29 the revolution was over, the main city centers were occupied by the rebels. On August 2, Charles X abdicated the throne and left for England.

The new king of France was the Duke of Orleans, Louis Philippe, a member of the younger branch of the Bourbons, with a relatively liberal reputation. During his coronation, he swore allegiance to the Charter of 1830, drawn up by the deputies, and became not "king by the grace of God", like his predecessors, but "king of the French." The new constitution lowered not only property, but also the age limit for voters, deprived the king of legislative power, banned censorship and returned the tricolor flag.

Symbols

Lilies. After the overthrow of Napoleon, the coat of arms with the eagle was replaced by the coat of arms with three lilies, symbolizing royal power already in the Middle Ages.

"Freedom leading the people." The famous painting by Eugene Delacroix, in the center of which depicts Marianne (symbolizing the French Republic since 1792) with the French tricolor in hand as the personification of the struggle for freedom, was inspired by the July Revolution of 1830.

Revolution of 1848 and the establishment of the Second Republic

Lamartine in front of the Paris City Hall rejects the red flag on February 25, 1848. Painting by Henri Felix Emmanuel Filippoto

Musée du Petit-Palais, Paris

Chronology

The beginning of the riots

Resignation of the Guizot government

Approval of the new constitution, which consolidated the republican form of government




General Presidential Election, victory of Louis Bonaparte

By the end of the 1840s, the policies of Louis Philippe and his Prime Minister François Guizot, supporters of gradual and cautious development and opponents of universal suffrage, ceased to suit many: some demanded an expansion of suffrage, others - the return of the republic and the introduction of suffrage for all. There was a poor harvest in 1846 and 1847. Hunger began. Since rallies were banned, political banquets gained popularity in 1847, at which the monarchical power was actively criticized and toasts to the republic were proclaimed. Political banquets were also banned in February.

Revolution of 1848
The ban on political banquets sparked riots. Prime Minister François Guizot resigned on 23 February. A huge crowd awaited his exit from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. One of the soldiers guarding the ministry fired a shot - most likely by mistake, and this gave rise to a bloody clash. After that, the Parisians built barricades and moved towards royal palace... The king abdicated the throne and fled to England. France proclaimed a republic and introduced universal suffrage for men over the age of 21. Parliament (which returned the name "National Assembly") became unicameral again.

On December 10-11, 1848, the first general presidential election was held, which was unexpectedly won by Napoleon's nephew, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, who received about 75% of the votes. In the elections to the Legislative Assembly, Republicans won only 70 seats.

Symbols


Barricades. Barricades were erected on the streets of Paris with every revolution, but it was during the revolution of 1848 that almost all of Paris was barricaded. The Parisian omnibuses launched in the late 1820s were also used as material for the barricades.

The coup of 1851 and the Second Empire

Portrait of Emperor Napoleon III. Fragment of a painting by Franz Xaver Winterhalter. 1855 year

Chronology

Dissolution of the National Assembly

The promulgation of a new constitution. The changes made to its text on December 25 of the same year created the Second Empire

Napoleon's proclamation III emperor French

The Republicans no longer enjoyed the confidence of the president, parliament, or the people. In 1852, Louis Napoleon's term as president was drawing to a close. According to the constitution of 1848, he could be elected again only after the expiration of the next four-year term. In 1850 and 1851, supporters of Louis Napoleon several times demanded a revision of this article of the constitution, but the Legislative Assembly was opposed.

Coup of 1851
On December 2, 1851, President Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, relying on the support of the army, dissolved the National Assembly and arrested its opposition-minded members. The riots that began in Paris and in the provinces were brutally suppressed.

Under the leadership of Louis Napoleon, a new constitution was drafted, extending presidential powers for ten years. In addition, the bicameral parliament was returned, and the deputies of its upper house were appointed by the president for life.

Rebuilding an empire
On November 7, 1852, the Senate appointed by Louis Napoleon proposed the restoration of the empire. As a result of a referendum, this decision was approved, and on December 2, 1852, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte became Emperor Napoleon III.

Until the 1860s, parliament's powers were reduced and freedom of the press was limited, but the course changed from the 1860s. In order to strengthen his authority, Napoleon began new wars. He planned to reverse the decisions of the Vienna Congress and rebuild all of Europe, giving each nation its own state.

Proclamation of the Republic
On September 4, France was again proclaimed a republic. A provisional government was elected, headed by Adolphe Thiers.

On September 19, the Germans began a siege of Paris. There was famine in the city, the situation escalated. In February 1871, elections to the National Assembly were held, in which the monarchists won the majority. Adolphe Thiers became the head of the government. On February 26, the government was forced to sign a preliminary peace treaty, which was followed by a German parade on the Champs Elysees, which many townspeople perceived as treason.

In March, the government, without any means, refused to pay the salaries of the National Guard and tried to disarm it.

Paris commune

On March 18, 1871, an uprising broke out in Paris, as a result of which a group of left-wing radical politicians came to power. On March 26, they held elections for the Paris Commune, the council of the city of Paris. The government led by Thiers fled to Versailles. But the power of the commune did not last long: on May 21, government troops launched an offensive. By May 28, the uprising was brutally suppressed - the week of fighting between the troops and the Communards was called "Bloody Week".

After the fall of the commune, the position of the monarchists again strengthened, but since they all supported different dynasties, in the end the republic was preserved. In 1875, Constitutional Laws were passed, establishing the office of president and parliament, elected on the basis of universal male suffrage. The third republic lasted until 1940.

Since then, the form of government in France has remained republican, with executive power transferred from one president to another as a result of elections.

Symbols

Red flag. The traditional republican flag was the French tricolor, but members of the commune, among whom there were many socialists, preferred the one-color red. The attributes of the Paris Commune - one of the key events for the formation of the communist ideology - were taken over, among other things, by Russian revolutionaries.

Vendome Column. One of the important symbolic gestures of the Paris Commune was the demolition of the Vendome Column, erected in honor of Napoleon's victory at Austerlitz. In 1875, the column was re-installed.

Sacre Coeur. The neo-Byzantine basilica was founded in 1875 in memory of the victims of the Franco-Prussian War and became one of the important symbols of the Third Republic.

The editors would like to thank Dmitry Bovykin for his help in working on the material. 

1789 - The French Revolution ends the royal unrestricted monarchy. The Bastille, a state prison and a symbol of the unlimited power of kings, was taken by the people of Paris on July 14, 1789 and destroyed a little later. There are no more subordinates here, but there are citizens. Civil equality has been established, human rights have been proclaimed.

1792 - After going through the crises and atrocities of this period that followed the revolution, and which is called the era of terror, the government - the National Convention - proclaims the first republic in France.

1804 - Becoming emperor under the name Napoleon, Bonaparte proclaims an empire and wages wars against England and the countries of Europe. After some famous victories by the Allied powers, Napoleon's empire collapsed in 1814.

1830 - Revolution of July 1830 ends with the accession to the throne of the French king Louis Philippe. In memory of these events, a bronze column rises on the Place de la Bastille in Paris.

1848 - The revolutionary movement in February 1848 led to the proclamation of the second republic, which ended the monarchy of Louis Philippe.

1852-1870 - The second republic was followed by the restoration of the empire. After the authoritarian period, the empire becomes more liberal. The years of the second empire of Napoleon III were a period of material prosperity, rapid development of industry and trade. The defeat of France in the war of 1870 ended the era of the second empire.

1870 - France declares war on Prussia. Attempts by the French cannot prevent the surrender of Paris. France loses its territories - Alsace and Lorraine.

1871 - The revolutionary government - the Commune of Paris - is overthrown by the standing army of Thiers, who brutally suppresses the uprising.

1870-1940 – Political regime, which arose after the surrender of France in the Franco-Prussian War (Republic 3), carries out democratic reforms: freedom and the press, secular education, separation of church from state.

1914-1918 - In 1914 France is embroiled in a war declared by Germany. In it, she wins, but with great losses.

1939-1944 - France declares war on Germany, but she in turn captures in May 1940. Part of France is occupied, the government adopts a policy of cooperation with the Germans. General de Gaulle creates the Resistance, which organizes and expands. In 1944, the Allies land in Normandy and break through towards Paris, which is liberated on 25 August.

1944 - After the liberation of the country, the constitution adopted by a referendum proclaims the 4th republic.

1958 - After a political and social crisis, the Constitution of the 5th Republic was adopted, which significantly strengthens the authority of President Charles de Gaulle. 1968 - A deep university and social crisis occurs in France in May. General de Gaulle resigns. Other presidents of the 5 republic: George Pompidou, Valerie Giscard d'Estaing, François Mitterrand, Jacques Chirac, Nicolas Sarkozy.

The Great French Revolution is the general name for the processes that swept France in the late 1780s - the first half of the 1790s. The revolutionary changes were radical in nature, they caused:

• breaking the old system,
• liquidation of the monarchy,
• gradual transition to a democratic system.

In general, the revolution was bourgeois, directed against the monarchical system and feudal remnants.

Chronologically, the revolution spans the period from 1789 to 1794, although some historians believe that it ended in 1799, when Napoleon Bonaparte came to power.

Participants

At the heart of the Great French Revolution was the confrontation between the privileged nobility, which was the mainstay of the monarchical system, and the "third estate". The latter was presented by such groups as:

• Peasants;
• Bourgeoisie;
• Manufactory workers;
• Urban poor or plebs.

The uprising was led by representatives of the bourgeoisie, who did not always take into account the needs of other groups of the population.

Prerequisites and main reasons for the revolution

At the end of the 1780s. in France, a protracted political, economic and social crisis erupted. Changes were demanded by the plebs, peasants, the bourgeoisie and workers who did not want to put up with this state of affairs.

One of the most difficult issues was the agrarian one, which was constantly becoming more complicated due to the deep crisis of the feudal system. Its vestiges hindered the development of market relations, the penetration of capitalist principles into Agriculture and industry, the emergence of new professions and production areas.

Among the main reasons for the Great French Revolution, it is worth noting such as:

• The commercial and industrial crisis that began in 1787;
• The bankruptcy of the king and the country's budget deficit;
• Several lean years leading to the peasant uprisings of 1788-1789. In a number of cities - Grenoble, Besançon, Rennes and the outskirts of Paris - a series of plebs took place;
• The crisis of the monarchical regime. At the royal court, attempts were made to solve the problems that arose, but the methods of overcoming the systemic crisis, which the officials resorted to, were hopelessly outdated and did not work. Therefore, King Louis XVI decided to make certain concessions. In particular, the Notables and the States General were convened, which last met in 1614. Representatives of the Third Estate were also present at the meeting of the States General. The latter created the National Assembly, which soon became the Constituent Assembly.

The nobility and the privileged strata of French society, including the clergy, spoke out against such equality, and began to prepare the dispersal of the assembly. In addition, they did not accept the king's offer to tax them. The peasants, bourgeoisie, workers and plebs began to prepare for a popular uprising. An attempt to disperse it brought many representatives of the third estate to the streets of Paris on July 13 and 14, 1789. And so the Great French Revolution began, which changed France forever.

The stages of the revolution

Subsequent events are usually divided into several periods:

• July 14, 1789 - August 10, 1792;
• From August 10, 1792 - to June 3, 1793;
• June 3, 1793 - until July 28, 1794;
• July 28, 1794 - to November 9, 1799

The first stage began with the capture of the most famous French prison - the Bastille fortress. The following events also belong to this period:

• Replacement of old government bodies with new ones;
• Creation of the National Guard, subordinate to the bourgeoisie;
• Adopted in the fall of 1789;
• The adoption of a number of decrees concerning the rights of the bourgeoisie and the plebs. In particular, the class division was liquidated, church property was confiscated, the clergy came under the control of secular authorities, the old administrative division of the country was abolished and workshops were abolished. The most intense was the abolition of feudal duties, but in the end the rebels were able to achieve this as well;
• The emergence of the so-called Varenna crisis in the first half of the summer of 1791. The crisis was associated with the king's attempt to escape abroad. Associated with this event: the shooting of a demonstration on the Champ de Mars; the beginning of the confrontation between the poorest strata of the population and the bourgeoisie, which went over to the side of the nobility; as well as the separation from the revolutionary club of the Jacobins of the moderate political party of the Feuillants;
• Constant contradictions between the main political forces - the Girondins, Feuillants and Jacobins, which made it easier for other European states to penetrate French territory. During 1792-1792. war on the state torn apart by the revolution was declared by Prussia, Sardinia, Great Britain, Austria, the Kingdom of Naples, Spain, the Netherlands and some Germanic principalities. The French army was not ready for such a turn of events, especially since most of the generals fled the country. Due to the threat of an attack on the capital, volunteer detachments began to appear in Paris;
• Activation of the anti-monarchist movement. On August 10, 1792, the final overthrow of the monarchy and the creation of the Paris Commune took place.

The main feature of the second stage of the revolution was the confrontation between the Girondins and the Jacobins. The leaders of the first were J.P. Brissot, J.M. Roland and P.V. Vergniot, who sided with the commercial, industrial and agricultural bourgeoisie. This party wanted an early end to the revolution and the establishment of political stability. The Jacobins were headed by M. Robespierre, J.P. Marat and J.J. Danton, who were middle class and poor bourgeois. They defended the interests of workers and peasants, and also advocated the further development of the revolution, since their demands remained unheard.

The main events of the second period of the Great French Revolution were:

• Struggle between the Paris Commune, controlled by the Jacobins, and the Legislative Assembly of the Girondins. The consequence of the confrontation was the creation of the Convention, whose representatives were elected from the entire male population of France over the age of 21 on the basis of universal suffrage;
• The proclamation of France as a republic on September 21, 1792;
• Execution the last king the Bourbon dynasty on January 21, 1793;
• Continuation of peasant uprisings caused by poverty, landlessness and hunger. The poor took over the estates of their masters and divided up the communal land. The townspeople also rioted, demanding fixed food prices;
• Expulsion of the Girondins from the Convention in late May - early June 1793. This ended the second period of the uprising.

Getting rid of opponents allowed the Jacobins to concentrate all power in their own hands. The third period of the French Revolution is known as the Jacobin dictatorship and is primarily associated with the name of the head of the Jacobins - Maximilian Robespierre. It was a rather difficult period for the young republic - while internal contradictions were tearing the country apart, the troops of neighboring powers were advancing to the borders of the state. France was involved in the Vendée Wars, which engulfed the southern and northwestern provinces.

The Jacobins, first of all, took up the solution of the agrarian question. All communal lands and lands of the fugitive nobles were transferred to the peasants. Then feudal rights and privileges were abolished, which contributed to the formation of a new class of society - free owners.

The next step was the adoption of a new Constitution, which was distinguished by a democratic character. It was supposed to introduce constitutional rule, but a complex socio-political and economic crisis forced the Jacobins to establish a regime of a revolutionary democratic dictatorship.

At the end of August 1793, a decree was passed on the mobilization of the French to fight against foreign invaders. In response, the opponents of the Jacobins inside the country began to carry out massive terrorist acts in all cities of France. As a result of one of these actions, Marat was also killed.

At the end of July 1796, republican troops defeated the interventionist troops near Fleurus. The last decisions of the Jacobins were the adoption of the Vantose decrees, which were not destined to be realized. Dictatorship, repression and the policy of requisition (expropriation) turned the peasants against the Jacobin regime. As a result, a conspiracy arose to overthrow the government of Robespierre. The so-called Thermidorian coup ended the rule of the Jacobins and brought moderate republicans and the bourgeoisie to power. They created a new governing body - the Directory. The new government carried out a number of transformations in the country:

• Adopted a new Constitution;
• Replaced universal suffrage with a qualification one (only those citizens who possessed property worth a certain amount were allowed to participate in elections);
• Established the principle of equality;
• Endowed with the right to elect and be elected only those citizens of the republic who have turned 25 years old;
• Created the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of the Elders, which monitored the political situation in France;
• Waged wars against Prussia and Spain, culminating in the signing of peace treaties. Continued military operations against England and Austria.

The reign of the Directory ended on November 9, 1799, when another coup took place in the republic. It was headed by General of the Army Napoleon Bonaparte, who is very popular among the soldiers. Relying on the military, he managed to seize power in Paris, which was the beginning of a new era in the life of the country.

Results and results of the revolution

• Elimination of the remnants of the feudal system, which contributed to rapid development capitalist relations;
• Establishment of a republican system based on democratic principles;
• Final consolidation of the French nation;
• Formation of government bodies formed on the basis of electoral law;
• Adoption of the first constitutions, the provisions of which guaranteed citizens' equality before the law and the opportunity to use national wealth;
• The solution of the agrarian question;
• Liquidation of the monarchy;
• Adoption of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.

However, the positive transformations also contained a number of negative features:

• Property qualification introduction;
• Ignoring the opinion of the majority of citizens, which led to new riots;
• Establishment of a complex administrative division, which hindered the formation of an effective management system.

People inhabited the territory of France, presumably, 1.8 million years ago. In France, many rock paintings have remained since the Paleolithic era. The first colony in France was founded by the Greeks in 600 BC. in a city then called Massalia, and now called Marseille.

The spread of the Celtic Gauls tribes in France took place between the fifth and third centuries BC, during which most of the borders of modern France were marked. The area was then known as Gaul, and its inhabitants, the Gauls, were at enmity with the Romans until the Romans captured the southern part of their country (Provence) in 125 BC.

The Franks, an ancient German pagan tribe from which the name "France" originated, settled in Gaul and later conquered it, dividing the territory into four regions for the sons of the Frankish king Clovis I. These kingdoms were subsequently united by Charles I the Great.

France played an important role during the Crusades between 1095 and 1291.

Between 1337 and 1453, a series of conflicts took place between France and England, called the "Hundred Years War", after which several civil wars, called "fronda", at the same time there was a war with Spain, between 1635 and 1659.

During European exploration, France founded colonies in the New World. Under the leadership of Louis XV, the Seven Years War (1756-1763) in the New World ended with the loss of the territories of New France, and their conquest by Britain. As a result, France became the main ally of the American colonists during the American Revolution, fighting for independence from Britain, which eventually led to the Peace of Paris in 1783.

Between 1789 and 1799, the Great French revolution, culminating in the storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789, as a result of which the absolute monarchy ended in France, and a constitutional monarchy appeared. The French Revolutionary Wars began in 1792, in the same year France became a republic. King Louis XVI was executed in 1793 for treason, as was his wife, Marie Antoinette.

In 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte came to power in the Republic, who later became emperor. The French Empire began to conquer Europe, under Napoleon's leadership, until his defeat in 1815.

During the nineteenth century, France became the second largest colonial power of all time, with colonies in North America, Southeast Asia, North, West, and Central Africa, the Caribbean, and the Pacific islands. Many of these colonies are still part of the French Republic. France played an important role in both World War I and World War II, and was one of the founders of NATO in 1949.

From the Carolinian Empire in the Middle Ages, the "Kingdom of France" stands out. The Middle Ages brought decentralization to the country. The power of princes in the XI century reaches its climax. In 987, the Capetian dynasty was founded by Hugo Capet. Capetian rule opens the gates for religious wars. The king's vassals seize territories outside France. The most significant was the Norman conquest of England by William I the Conqueror. The Battle of Hastings was immortalized in the Bayeux tapestry.

Philip II Augustus (1180-1223) does a lot for his country. Thanks to Philip II, the University of Paris is founded, the construction of Notre Dame Cathedral continues. He begins the construction of the Louvre. At the time of Philip, it was a fortress castle.

At the end of the 12th century, the French economy slowly began to rise, industry was developing, and power was being centralized, which allowed the country to defeat England and complete the unification of its lands. In the 12-13th centuries, a number of architectural structures were built that became national monuments of France. One of them, Reims Cathedral, is a prime example of Gothic architecture. In 1239, Saint Louis brought the Crown of Thorns from Venice. The Saint-Chapelle chapel is being built to store this relic.

With the death of the last descendant of the Capetian, a conflict ensued between the houses of Valois and the Plantagenets for succession to the throne.

The family of Valois enthroned of the French Empire (1328-1589)

During this period, the country's military operations took center stage. The Hundred Years War begins. After the death of Charles IV, King Edward III of England decides to seize the French throne by force. France is a loser: the battle of Poitiers deprives the country of the color of chivalry, King John the Good is taken prisoner.

France has reached a dead end: there is no army, no king, no money. The entire burden of the situation that has arisen falls on the shoulders of ordinary Frenchmen. The people revolted: Paris, Jacqueria is revolting. The outrage was suppressed. The British decide to take Orleans to open the way to the south of France.

The Virgin of Orleans, Jeanne D'Arc, leads the French army and defeats the English at Orleans in 1429. She persuaded the Dauphin to undergo the coronation ceremony in the cathedral in the Rhine under the name of Charles VII. After 2 years in Rouen, Jeanne dies at the stake in torment. not one architectural structure of this courageous girl. For example, the statue of Jeanne is located in the Sacré-Coeur Basilica, which is located on the hill of Montmartre.

Only in 1453 did the confrontation of the dynasties end with the victory of Valois, which strengthened the French monarchy. The struggle between the two powers for territory and the throne lasted for a long and painful 116 years. France becomes a colonial empire, powerful and powerful. In the second half of the 18th century, the country will lose its positions on all counts.

From Louis to Louis

Until then, in XV - XVII centuries kings replace each other, ruling the country according to their capabilities and abilities. Under Louis XI (1461-1483), the country expanded its territory, science and art flourished, medicine developed, and the post office started working again. It is he who makes the famous and formidable dungeon out of the fortress - the Bastille.

He was replaced by Louis XII (1498-1515), then Francis I (1515-1547) held the reins of government. Under him, a beautiful Renaissance palace was built in the vicinity of Fonteblo. Soon the palace was overgrown with structures around it, and a whole city was formed. The palace is decorated with three gardens: a large parterre, English garden and Diana's garden.

The next ruler of the country was Henry II (1547-1559), famous for increasing taxes. His life ended in the Place des Vosges during a tournament in 1559.

Under his son, Francis II, the Huguenots are protesting against taxation. The reign of Charles IX (1560-1574) plunges the country into religious wars. In fact, power was in the hands of Catherine de Medici (it was she who became one of the mistresses of the "Ladies' castle" - the Chenonceau castle on the river Cher), under which Catholics and Protestants had already openly expressed their intransigence towards each other.

Ten wars have passed in three decades. The most terrible page in them was St. Bartholomew's night from 23 to 24 August 1572, the mass extermination of the Huguenots on the day of St. Bartholomew. One of the best historical television series is “Queen Margot”, which shows these events in a colorful and authentic way.