the main > Well drilling > The main sources for the student body of the 19th century. Russian students: the world of life. List of sources used

The main sources for the student body of the 19th century. Russian students: the world of life. List of sources used

Commentary by Academic Supervisor Marina Fadeeva, Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor, Dean of the Faculty of History of the National Research University Higher School of Economics Alexander Kamensky

IN mass consciousness A Russian student of the late XIX - early XX century usually appears in the form of an eternally hungry, consumptive youth with a feverish gleam in his eyes and with a soul filled with the best revolutionary impulses. However, one has only to seriously think about how, even without referring to special literature, it becomes clear that, like many other stilted images that make up mass perceptions of the past, this one also does not stand up to criticism. After all, if all Russian students of that era were dying of consumption and were concerned not with studies, but exclusively with plans to fight the autocracy, in Russia at the beginning of the last century there would be no brilliant scientists, engineers, lawyers, doctors and people of all other professions who were trained Russian universities. And during the period of revolutionary upheavals and the Civil War, for some reason, the Russian students were for some reason not at all on the side of the Bolsheviks.

The organization of higher education in tsarist Russia, the university as a scientific corporation, and many other topics related to this issue, of course, it is no coincidence that recently have become one of the most prominent areas of historical research. What today is often called the crisis of national education and science, has deep and by no means only economic roots. Researchers are concerned about the problems of the organization of the scientific community, its structure, the system of internal relations, and the norms of scientific ethics. In this context, Marina Fadeeva's appeal to the history of Russian students seems to be quite logical and natural. However, as her scientific advisor, I dare to say that she came to her completely independently. Having become a student at the Faculty of History at the Higher School of Economics, she, apparently, and perhaps even without realizing it herself, experienced curiosity about the phenomenon of studentship, which ultimately led her to this topic. Curiosity, as is well known, is the main driving force of science. Having once begun to study Russian students a century ago, Marina naturally discovered many far from resolved issues in this topic and was seriously carried away by it.

The history of the Russian pre-revolutionary student body is provided, though not too voluminous, but sufficiently representative historiography. In particular, in recent decades, a significant contribution to it has been made by several monographs by A.E. Ivanov, who is rightly considered the best expert on this topic. Marina Fadeeva's work, however, once again proves that in science there are no "closed" topics once and for all, and each new generation of historians asks the past new questions and receives new answers to them.

Marina Fadeeva, as a researcher who is just beginning her career in science and belongs to the youngest generation of Russian historians, is distinguished at the same time by respect for her predecessors, whose works she actively uses, and a healthy distrust of everything that she finds in them, the desire to double-check each one " historical fact”, Document it. Introduced here her course work It bears little resemblance to an ordinary student term paper, significantly surpassing it not only in volume (more than 120 pages!), but also in the variety of subjects covered in it and the methods used. Not to mention the fact that in the coursework written in the second year you do not often find links to archival sources! Another distinctive feature of the presented work is its consistency.

The author began with an attempt to understand what the student body is as a social group, what place it occupied in Russian society, what distinctive characteristics supplied by his contemporaries and subsequent historiography, then moving on to its formal characteristics (number, social origin), and from them - to the reconstruction of reality Everyday life, which she rightly and in full accordance with the ideas of modern science considers as the basis for the formation of a worldview. To a reader not too sophisticated in the peculiarities of modern historical knowledge and expecting to work with a similar title to find, first of all, information about the number of students inspired by the works of Lavrov, Bakunin, Mikhailovsky and Marx, this approach may seem strange, and the abundance of tables and other digital material and completely turn away from attentive reading. But as soon as you read it, you discover with pleasure how the next historical stereotypes begin to crumble. In addition, let us remember that we are facing only an intermediate stage on the road to big science, although it is not devoid of certain stylistic and compositional flaws, but it represents a very serious and thorough application.

Formation of the outlook of the Moscow students of the end XIX - the beginning Xx century

1. The concepts of "raznochintsy", "intelligentsia»

The concept of "student body", like any definition, cannot be unambiguous. The concepts adjacent to it are just as diverse. The diverse component of the student body in the understanding of contemporaries and in the minds of researchers often overshadows other parts of the student body, many define the student body as a young intelligentsia, and therefore, in our opinion, on the eve of discussions about students, we should define what “commoners” and “intelligentsia” are.

Pre-revolutionary historiography already understood the raznochin differently: if Frommet defines raznochintsy as “people without family, without a tribe, sometimes connected with the lower classes, always cut off from all classes of society, with high hopes and penniless, with dreams of a marshal staff and without any social status ", then S. Svatikov, on the contrary, calls the main qualities of a commoner" a high understanding of the personality and an acutely expressed sense of self-esteem. "

B. Frommet's definition is similar to the notions of commoners prevailing in culture. As E. Wirtschafter writes, commoners and educated commoners were called commoners, initially to belittle or condemn demeanor. For example, A.N. Ostrovsky - these are students who have not finished their studies, non-nobles.

In Soviet historiography, the concept of "raznochintsy" is closely intertwined with the criterion of education. According to V.R. Leikina-Svirskaya, to XIX century"Those who received a rank or title by the right of education began to be called commoners."

Modern researchers emphasize the fact that categories of the population that often fall under the criteria of commoners did not use this term for self-determination. E. Wirtschafter also writes about the 19th century as a turning point in the definition of commoners: originally a transitional category of ignorant outsiders, they become part of the educated elite.

If by the period of interest to us the commoners are often defined through the presence of higher education, then it will be interesting to see how in the research literature they relate to the intelligentsia.

Modern historiography pays attention to this issue. Researchers such as S.G. Stafeev, V.V. Bocharov, E.I. Shcherbakov and L.G. Sukhotin either single out the "commoners" as part of the intelligentsia, or identify these concepts. For example, L.G. Sukhotina writes about the intelligentsia as "different in terms of social composition."

In historiography, there are many definitions of the intelligentsia, each of the authors strives to give his own, the most complete and accurate, but no one succeeded in this endeavor. K.B. Sokolov, considering the well-established definitions of the intelligentsia, identifies three main criteria by which one or another part of society is singled out into a single group called "intelligentsia": an intellectual as a person with an appropriate level of education, or as a "good man", a valiant knight, "conscience people ”, educator, protector, or as a dissident.

Most of the definitions of the intelligentsia in the historiography we have examined can be divided into these three groups: V.V. Bocharov and B.I. Kolonitsky and V. Zhivov. Image " good man"Was mainly to the liking of Soviet researchers (in their works, N. G. Chernyshevsky and N. A. Dobrolyubov formed intellectuals as people of the highest spiritual qualities), V.R. Leikina-Svirskaya, M.N. Tikhomirov and A.N. Olive. Both pre-revolutionary and modern authors believe in the "dissidence" of the intelligentsia. This is P.B. Struve, I.A. Ilyin, P.I. Novgorodtsev, E.I. Shcherbakova, E. Wirtschafter, S.M. Usmanov and L.G. Sukhotina.

K.B. himself Sokolov criticizes all three common approaches. In his opinion, “there is no doubt that the intelligentsia is not just a category or just a professional one. These are not just people of "mental labor" ", but also, for example, representatives of the village intelligentsia, and therefore the first criterion does not work. The author proposes to represent the concepts of "intelligentsia" and "educated class" in the form of two concentric circles, then the intelligentsia is an internal initiative, creative circle.

Also, the intelligentsia is only in a fit of narcissism, according to K.B. Sokolova, could position herself as "the conscience of the people." In addition, the defined group itself never identified itself with the revolutionaries, and the revolution did not position its intelligence.

Thus, the selected criteria, according to K.B. Sokolov, do not correspond to reality. However, he himself despairs of the possibility of ever ending the dispute about the intelligentsia once and for all and, it seems, comes to a certain agreement with the philologist V.S. Elistratov, who claims that anything can be found in the meaning of this word, but any definition will imply the best part Russia.

What are the distinguishing features of the intelligentsia? Researchers of different generations and views distinguish in it a split-off (V.M. Zhivov, P.B. Struve, E.I.Shcherbakova, P.I. Novgorodtsev), isolation, alienation (P.B. Struve, I.A. , E. Wirtschafter, L. G. Sukhotina), radicalism (E. I. Shcherbakova, S. M. Usmanov), skepticism, criticality, nihilism (I. A. Ilyin, L. G. Sukhotina, E. I. Shcherbakova ).

“Beggars, unarmed people throw kings from the throne out of love for their neighbors. Out of love for their homeland, the soldiers trample death with their feet, and she runs without looking back. Sages ascend to heaven and dive into hell itself - out of love for the truth. The earth is being rebuilt out of love for beauty. " Researchers imagined the intelligentsia to be just as versatile, and, perhaps, it was just as versatile in reality, not representing a homogeneous mass. We agree with K.B. Sokolov and admitting that "in general, it is already obvious that none of the known definitions of the intelligentsia is able to capture and explain the entire phenomenon as a whole" and it comes on the concept “which does not have a clear detonation and includes an element of interpretation even when it is used,” let us turn to the definition of students and the identification of the characteristic features of its Russian part.

2. Definition of the student body, its characteristics in Russian realities

Student - A student of a higher education institution, university or academy.
V. Dahl. Dictionary living Great Russian language

The student body is viewed as a special society that has formed around a given educational institution and makes an independent contribution to public life.
Feofanov A.M. Students of Moscow University in the second half Xviii - first quarter XIX in.

As epigraphs to this part, we took two definitions of students: given in the Explanatory Dictionary of a contemporary of the period we are considering - V.I. Dahl and formulated in the work of a contemporary researcher. From these statements, it is clear that for two centuries, ideas about the subject of interest to us have not undergone significant changes.

The research literature tends to contrast the student body and its characteristic features depending on the geography of study: in Russian and foreign students they do not see much similarity, except for the fact of obtaining a higher education. An exception is the position of B. Frommet, who, at the beginning of the twentieth century, disputed the widespread assertions that were contemporary to him, “that only in Russia do students dare to claim active participation in the country's political life, [which] is undoubtedly wrong, or at least is greatly exaggerated. "

Most of the researchers who have addressed this issue are inclined to oppose Russian students to foreign students. This tradition begins with pre-revolutionary authors. For example, G.B. Sliozberg sees the answer to the question of whether revolutionaryness is a specific feature of Russian students in the "difference in the composition of students": in Europe, higher education was the lot of the elite, and therefore the material question that played such a big role in the life of Russian students was not there at all.

Our contemporaries V.V. Ponomarev and L.B. Khoroshilov's explanation for such a significant difference is found in the very culture of universities. The Russian path “was the opposite of the Western European path, where the experience, traditions, and culture accumulated in society completely determined the lifestyle of educational institutions, while in our country, in many respects, the opposite - educational institutions, created according to someone else's model, themselves, sometimes by touch, created traditions as well, and culture, shaped the experience that, decades later, will form the basis of the traditions of the next generations of educational institutions. "

Let us turn to questions that are closer to our topic and, on the basis of the Moscow censuses (1882 and 1902), we will look at the share of students in the total mass of the Moscow population and the quantitative changes taking place with this group. First, let us give data that allow us to judge the percentage of the male population of the age we need (from 18 to 30 years - the most common age of students) to the entire mass of the Moscow population, and then we will correlate these men with the number of students.

We will make a reservation in advance that we are interested in the age from 18 to 30 years old and from the variety of all students only students, therefore in the tables we will provide only data on these ages and categories.

Table 1. Distribution by age of the male population (1882) .

Age Husband. Total
15–20 7,00% 12,00%
20–25 8,00% 12,00%
25–30 7,00% 11,00%
Total 57,00% 100,00%

The table shows that out of the entire population of Moscow in 1882, we will be interested in 22% of men. Let's correlate them with the number of students.

Table 2. Distribution by the degree of education of the male population (1882)

Windows. Not OK. Total
Universities 2785 703 3488

So, in total in 1882, 432,447 males lived in Moscow, of which 22% were men aged 18 to 30, i.e. 95,138 people. Of these, 3488 people were listed as students at the university. This means that 0.8% of men in Moscow were students in 1882.

Let us now look at the changes that took place by 1902.

Table 3. Distribution by age of the male population (1902)

Age (years old) Born
In Moscow Outside Moscow Total
18 3148 15 374 18 522
19 2722 14 637 17 359
20 2524 16 025 18 549
21 2288 15 829 18 117
22 2180 17 723 19 903
23 2045 16 506 18 551
24 1937 15 037 16 974
25 2038 16 730 18 768
26 1992 14 754 16 746
27 2022 16 275 18 297
28 2079 16 332 18 411
29 1765 12 346 14 111
30 2080 16 725 18 805

According to these data, of the total population of Moscow in 1882, we will be interested in 38% of men. Let's correlate them with the number of students.

Table 4. Distribution by the degree of education of the male population (1902)

Age (years old) Total [students in tertiary education] Universities
18 1742 173
19 1488 474
20 1430 800
21 1389 962
22 1146 902
23 969 776
24 719 602
25 536 418
26 324 250
27 197 145
28 101 59
29 58 35
30 and more 158 76
Total 43981 5690

In 1882, 613,303 males lived in Moscow, of which 38% were men aged 18 to 30, i.e. 233,113 people. Of these, 5690 people are listed as students at the university, which means that in 1902 0.92% of men in Moscow were students.

Thus, over the 20 years from 1882 to 1902, the number of students at universities increased: from 3488 to 5690 people and increased from only 0.8% to 0.92%.

“What is the appearance of a Russian student? Undoubtedly, the Russian students were a group of young people, imbued in the vast majority with the desire to develop principles for future activities - a group that had its common features and was imbued with a special mood, ”wrote G.B. Sliozberg.

On the basis of the studied historiography, the memoirs of students and professors, as well as information from official reports, we will try to determine these common features and highlight distinctive features Russian students.

There is no less controversy in defining the student body than in the case of the intelligentsia. Thus, according to S. Kassov, the student body was distinguished by "a clear sense of corporate identity", as well as "a sense of the student family." According to A.M. Annenkov, “as a distinctive feature in the student environment of the first third of the 19th century. freedom of opinion and speech can be singled out, ”and G.B. Sliozberg - "the presence among students of heterogeneous elements, alien in upbringing and habits." V.R. Leikina-Svirskaya insists that "the Russian students had a democratic character." “Expectations of beneficial changes in Russian society, typical of the students of that time [late 19th - early 20th centuries],” notes A.Ye. Ivanov. V.E. Baghdasaryan is sure that "the departure of students to the revolution was a manifestation of the crisis of youthful socialization." “Professors, as well as a significant part of the so-called educated society [in fact, the intelligentsia], bring up in the young generation, in short, a revolutionary spirit,” says Professor N.P. Bogolepov. “The growth of the student movement has given rise to a powerful impetus to self-knowledge among students at higher educational institutions,” writes Yu.D. Margolis, “as far as society is concerned, in this era the blue band of a student was a patent for trust,” S. Svatikov emphasizes.

From this variety of striking characteristics, it becomes clear mainly only that the main features of the student body were its diversity and heterogeneity. What are the inherent qualities of a Russian student at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century?

We have formulated the following ten characteristics: community and solidarity; striving to develop ideals and norms of behavior; transitivity and heterogeneity; democracy; search for yourself; corporation; own ideas about the future; the state of political views; commitment to certain ideas and, finally, interaction with society.

The highlighted features of the student body are understood in different ways by historiography and the authors of the sources: some are noted only by the authors of a certain era, others are accepted by the majority, and many are controversial. Let's consider them sequentially.

Let us first turn to the traits of the student body, understood in a similar way. All authors note, firstly, the desire of students for community and solidarity (information from the "Report of the Commission of Moscow University in 1901 on the causes of student unrest", works by S. Melgunov, S. Svatikov, S. Kassov, P.V. Grishunin, A. M. Feofanova and E. Vishlenkova, R. Galiullina, K. Ilyina). Secondly, their desire to develop ideals and norms of behavior is noted, proclaiming freedom, morality, ideological life as ideals (information provided by S. Melgunov, "Report of the Judicial Commission for 1893/1894", S. Svatikov, A.E. Ivanov, G.I.Schetinina, S. Kassov and A.M. Annenkov). Thirdly, the transition and heterogeneity of the student body, which came from different social strata and at the university transformed into something, on the one hand, completely new, and on the other hand, retaining traces of the original estate and class affiliation (data from G.B. Sliozberg, V. R. Leikina-Svirskaya, A.E. Ivanov, N.G. Georgieva, S. Kassov, V.N.Simonov and A.M. Feofanova). Fourth, it is the democratic character of the student body in various spheres of life (the ideas of S. Svatikov, V.R. Leikina-Svirskaya, A.E. Ivanov and N.G. Georgieva). And, fifthly, students' search for themselves (the convictions of S. Melgunov, B. Frommet, S. Kassov, Yu.D. Margolis and N.G. Zavadsky).

The other five features are controversial in the interpretation of researchers. This is, firstly, the corporatism of students, which most call one of the main features of the student body (R. Vydrin, A.E. Ivanov, S. Kassov, O.A. Vakhterova, P.V. Grishunin, I.V. Zimin and E. Vishlenkova, R. Galiullina, K. Ilyina), while others, on the contrary, write about the destruction of corporatism by the charter of 1884 (information from the "Report of the Commission of Moscow University in 1901 on the causes of student unrest" and SI Mitskevich). Secondly, their ideas about the future: uncertain (in the interpretation of G.B.Sliozberg and S. Kassov) and confidence in changes (A.E. Ivanov). Third, the state of political views is assessed by researchers in different ways. They are almost equally divided in their opinions: some speak of the uncertainty and heterogeneity of student ideas (R. Vydrin, A. Saltykov, V.B. Elyashevich, M.V.Sabashnikov, S. Kassov, V.N.Simonov and A.M. Annenkov), others write about political differentiation and activity (GB Sliozberg, V. Lind, GA Veselaya, AE Ivanov, SI Radtsig, NG Zavadsky, V.E. Baghdasaryan). Fourthly, the adherence of the Russian students to certain ideas: we learn either about the inclination of students to liberal ideas (A. Saltykov and Yu.K. Rachkovskaya), or about their revolutionary worldview (N.I. Khudyakov, G.I.Schetinina, S. D. Speshkov and N.G. Zavadsky). And, finally, fifthly, the interaction of students and society is also regarded ambiguously: if the majority is inclined to their mutual trust (Commission of Moscow University in 1901 on the causes of student unrest, S.D.Speshkov, B. Frommet, V. Kurbsky, S. Svatikov, G.B.Sliozberg and A.S. Izgoev), then the rest write about the student body outside the society (S. Melgunov) or about the distrust of society towards students (in the views of the Judicial Commission [student]).

This is how the image of Russian students at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries appears in the sources and works of researchers.

3. Correlation of the concepts of students, intelligentsia and commoners

Above, we spoke about the intelligentsia, its definitions and characteristics, as well as the definition of Russian students and their inherent features. Now let's look at how these concepts are combined from the point of view of researchers from different eras.

Regardless of the time of the creation of their works, various authors are unanimous in their assessments. S. Svatikov, G.B. Sliozberg, A. Saltykov, N.G. Georgieva, G.I. Shchetinina, N.G. Zavadsky and B.I. Kolonitsky.

Some researchers separately emphasize that the student body was "the quintessence of the Russian intelligentsia." We find such statements, in particular, in the works of R. Vydrin, A.E. Ivanova and K.B. Sokolov.

Thus, we have shown how historiography evaluates the commoners, the intelligentsia and the student body, what characteristic features stand out in each case, and how these concepts are combined with each other. To understand the relationship between these three concepts and to understand the essence of the student body, we expressed this relationship in a diagram.

Scheme 1

Let us briefly explain the structure of the circuit. First, let us explain the inclusion of the intelligentsia in the educated population only as a part. This is due to our agreement with the ideas of S.G. Stafeev, who defines the intelligentsia in Russian realities. He is convinced that “unlike Western intellectuals, for whom the main criterion for classifying them in this stratum was professional mental work, in Russia the intelligentsia began to call people distinguished, first of all, by two characteristic features: the desire to selflessly serve the people, express and to protect his interests and irreconcilable opposition in relation to political power". Thus, in Russian realities, along with the level of education, one of the main criteria of the intelligentsia is its opposition. Further, according to E.K. Wirtschafter, the commoners are fully included in the intelligentsia, because were its most radical part. As for the student body, it seemed important to us to emphasize its heterogeneity, not only socially, but also in terms of beliefs. After all, even the pre-revolutionary researcher S. Svatikov emphasized that "the hegemony of an intelligent raznochin was so strong in the student body that his appearance overshadowed other types of youth." Therefore, on the diagram, the student body is represented, on the one hand, as a part of the intelligentsia and, accordingly, a part of the commoners, and on the other hand, and as a part of the educated population, i.e. loyal to the government, holders of higher education.

4. The origins of the student body (Xviii- StartXIXcentury)

The selected chronological framework for this work is the middle of the 19th - the beginning of the 20th century (1860-1904), therefore, the time preceding this period can be referred to as the origins of the student body. On the basis of historiography, we will show how students were understood in the era of their inception, and look at the evolution within this process, so that later, when analyzing the students of the period we have chosen, it would be possible to trace the causes and evolution of certain ideas of students and their perception by society, the authorities and the students of Moscow. university.

First, let's follow the quantitative changes in the number of students.

Table 5. Changes in the number of students in Russia (1808-1894)

Year Number of students, people
1808 150
1830 1996
1850 3368
1860 5453
1865 5453
1872 7251
1894 8193

Table 6. Changes in the number of students at Moscow and St. Petersburg universities (1850-1894)

Year / University 1850 1880 1885 1890 1894
Moskovsky 821 1881 3179 3492 3761
Petersburg 387 1675 2340 1815 2676

What are the changes in the number of students in Russia? From 1808 to 1894, the number of students increased from 150 to 8193, i.e. 55 times. The number of students at Moscow University also increased: from 1850 to 1894, the number of students increased by 4.5 times (from 821 to 3761 people).

Let's divide the time of the origins into two periods - the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century - and consider them sequentially.

The 18th century is presented in historiography as follows. One of the pre-revolutionary researchers of the student movement emphasizes at this time the fact that “the university education, available only to one nobility, did not open up especially tempting prospects for the students, because the conditions of the serfdom hampered any cultural undertaking ”.

Contemporary authors tell in detail about the time of the birth of Russian universities. In the book “Higher Education in Russia. Essay on history before 1917 "it is reported that" all types and types of higher educational institutions were created at the initiative of the state and at the expense of the state ", and therefore" the state slowed down any manifestation of public goals, if they did not pursue pragmatic objectives. " V.A. Zmeev notes that "universities began to really influence changes in the social-class composition of the population of St. Petersburg and Moscow, to help solve urgent urban problems," and "students of Moscow University belonged to the elite of the capital's youth, were legislators in behavior, spending free time and setting a fashion for clothes ".

With regard to the beginning of the 19th century, the collection "Higher Education in Russia ..." characterizes the changes in government policy in the field of education as follows. “Autonomy and authoritarianism changed; the recognition of higher education as an intrinsic value was given with difficulties both in the sphere of government and in a slowly evolving society. "

A.M. Annenkov dwells in detail on the characteristics of the student body of this period. He writes that “already at the beginning of the 19th century. young people entering the university saw in it the main means for realizing their abilities and desires ", noting that" most of the students studied willingly and seriously, " qualifications of the teaching staff and imperfect forms of education ”. Speaking about the life of the pupils of the Moscow University, he reports that the students read willingly and in large quantities, and “books and magazines prohibited by the official censorship were especially popular,” the theater was also a kind of leisure. “As a distinctive feature in the student environment of the first third of the 19th century. freedom of opinion and speech can be distinguished, ”the researcher concludes. The theme of student life is continued by N.V. Makarov, stressing that "students of Moscow University were distinguished by frequent visits to taverns, which Moscow had enough." In addition to the theater, in her opinion, “ characteristic feature student life first half of the XIX century there were student "gatherings". Young people gathered informally, discussed university life, professors, various issues Russian life... At these "gatherings" there were sometimes drinking parties. " In general, “the students of the first universities were not distinguished by good behavior,” the researcher concludes. Completing the characterization of the student body early XIX century E. Vishlenkov, R. Galiullin and K. Ilyin. They emphasize the fact that “in the 1830s, the Russian student acquired clear identification signs,” became more educated and older.

Notes (edit)

1. Frommet B. Essay on the history of students in Russia. SPb., 1912.S. 27.
2. Svatikov S. Students before and now // The way of students. Sat. articles. Private collection of receipts for the fund of the Moscow student house. M., 1916, pp. 1–19 (hereinafter: Svatikov S. Students before and now ...).
3. Wirtschafter E.K. Social Structures: Commoners in the Russian Empire. Per. from English T.P. Party. Ed. A.B. Kamensky. M .: Logos, 2002 (hereinafter: Wirtschafter E.K. ).
4. Leikina-Svirskaya V.R. Intelligentsia in Russia in the second half of the 19th century. Moscow. 1971, p. 25 (hereinafter: Leikina-Svirskaya V.R. Intelligentsia in Russia in the second half of the 19th century ...).

5. Stafeev S.G. The Russian intelligentsia and its role in the social movement (second half of the 19th century) // Man, culture, society: interuniversity. Sat. scientific. tr. / Editorial board .: N.V. Dulina (editor-in-chief) and others / VolgGTU. Volgograd, 2005. Issue. 2.P. 67–76. (Further: Stafeev S.G. The Russian intelligentsia and its role in the social movement (second half of the 19th century) ...).

6. Bocharov V.V. Intelligentsia and Violence: Socio-Anthropological Aspect // Anthropology of Violence. RAS. Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology named after Miklouho-Maclay. Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography. Peter the Great (Kunstkamera). St. Petersburg State University... Resp. Ed. V.V. Bocharov, V.A. Tishkov. Saint Petersburg: Nauka, 2001, pp. 39–85 (hereinafter: Bocharov V.V. Intellectuals and Violence: Socio-Anthropological Aspect ...).

7. Shcherbakova E.I. Miscellaneous intelligentsia of the 60s of the XIX century as a potential enemy of the bodies of political investigation // Historical readings on the Lubyanka. Russian special services at the turn of eras: the end of the 19th century - 1922. M., Veliky Novgorod, 1999.S. 48–55 (hereinafter: Shcherbakova E.I. The various intelligentsia of the 60s of the XIX century as a potential enemy of the bodies of political investigation ...).

8. Sukhotina L.G. Russian intelligentsia and public thought. Publishing house of Tomsk University, 2008 (hereinafter: Sukhotina L.G. ).
9. Ibid. P. 14.
10. Sokolov K.B. Russian intelligentsia of the 18th - early 20th centuries: a picture of the world and everyday life. SPb., 2007 (hereinafter: Sokolov K.B. ).
11. Bocharov V.V. Intellectuals and Violence: Socio-Anthropological Aspect ...

12. Kolonitsky B.I. Intelligentsia in the late 19th - early 20th centuries: self-awareness of contemporaries and research approaches // From the history of the Russian intelligentsia. Collection of materials and articles dedicated to the 100th anniversary of the birth of V.R. Leikina-Svirskaya. SPb., 2003.S. 181–201 (hereinafter: Kolonitsky B.I. Intelligentsia in the late 19th - early 20th centuries: self-awareness of contemporaries and research approaches ...).

13. Zhivov V. Marginal culture in Russia and the birth of the intelligentsia. // New literary review. 1999.No. 37 (hereinafter: Zhivov V. Marginal culture in Russia and the birth of the intelligentsia ...).
14. Leikina-Svirskaya V.R. The intelligentsia in Russia in the second half of the 19th century ...
15. History of Moscow University. Volume I. Ed. ed. M.N. Tikhomirov. M., 1955.
16. Maslin A.N. Materialism and revolutionary democratic ideology in Russia in the 60s of the XIX century. M., 1960.
17. Struve P.B. The intelligentsia and the revolution (1909) // Russian sources of modern social philosophy. Intelligentsia. Power. People. M., 1993.S. 190–204 (hereinafter: Struve P.B. The intelligentsia and the revolution ...).
18. Ilyin I.A. On the Russian intelligentsia (1927) // Russian sources of modern social philosophy. Intelligentsia. Power. People. M., 1993.S. 275–281 (hereinafter: Ilyin I.A. About the Russian intelligentsia ...).
19. P.I. Novgorodtsev On the ways and tasks of the Russian intelligentsia (1918) // Russian sources of modern social philosophy. Intelligentsia. Power. People. M., 1993. S. 225–241 (hereinafter: P.I. Novgorodtsev About the ways and tasks of the Russian intelligentsia ...).
20. Shcherbakova E.I. Ethics of revolutionary action (60s of the XIX century). Abstract for the degree of candidate of historical sciences. M., 1996 (hereinafter: Shcherbakova E.I. Ethics of revolutionary action (60s of the XIX century) ...).
21. Wirtschafter E.K. Social Structures: Commoners in the Russian Empire ...
22. Usmanov S.M. Desperate dreams. Russian intelligentsia between East and West in the second half of the XIX - early XX century. Ivanovo, 1998 (hereinafter: Usmanov S.M. Desperate dreams. Russian intelligentsia between East and West in the second half of the XIX - early XX century ...).
23. Sukhotina L.G. Russian intelligentsia and public thought ...
24. Sokolov K.B. Russian intelligentsia of the 18th - early 20th centuries: a picture of the world and everyday life ...
25. Zhivov V. Marginal culture in Russia and the birth of the intelligentsia ... P. 39.
26. Struve P.B.
27. Shcherbakova E.I.
28. P.I. Novgorodtsev On the ways and tasks of the Russian intelligentsia ... P. 237.
29. Struve P.B. The intelligentsia and the revolution ... p. 192.
30. Ilyin I.A. About the Russian intelligentsia ... p. 277.
31. Wirtschafter E.K. Social Structures: Commoners in the Russian Empire ...
32. Sukhotina L.G. Russian intelligentsia and social thought ... P. 14.
33. Shcherbakova E.I. Ethics of revolutionary action (60s of the XIX century) ... P. 53.
34. Usmanov S.M. Desperate dreams. Russian intelligentsia between East and West in the second half of the XIX - early XX century ... P. 5.
35. Ilyin I.A. About the Russian intelligentsia ...
36. Sukhotina L.G. Russian intelligentsia and public thought ...
37. Shcherbakova E.I. Ethics of revolutionary action (60s of the XIX century) ... P. 53.
38. Schwartz E.L. An ordinary miracle: plays, fairy tales. M .: Eksmo. 2011.S. 559-560.
39. Sokolov K.B. The Russian intelligentsia of the 18th - early 20th centuries: a picture of the world and everyday life ... P. 38.
40. Ibid. P. 39.
41. Dahl V. Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language. M., 1956.T. IV. Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language by Vladimir Dahl. Second edition, revised and significantly multiplied from the author's manuscript. Volume four. SPb., M., 1882.S. 347.
42. Feofanov A.M. Students of Moscow University in the second half of the 18th - first quarter of the 19th century. Abstract for the degree of candidate of historical sciences. M., 2006 (hereinafter: Feofanov A.M. Students of Moscow University in the second half of the 18th - first quarter of the 19th century ...).
43. Frommet B. Essay on the history of students in Russia ... p. 1.
44. Sliozberg G.B. Pre-revolutionary Russian students // In memory of Russian students. Paris, 1934, pp. 82–95 (hereinafter: Sliozberg G.B. Pre-revolutionary Russian students ...).
45. Ponomareva V.V., Khoroshilova L.B. University Noble boarding house. 1779-1830 Moscow: New Chronograph, 2006.S. 63.
46. ​​Census of Moscow in 1882. Issue II. Population and Occupation. M .: City Printing House, 1885 (hereinafter: Moscow Census 1882. Issue II. Population and Occupations ...).
47. Ibid. P. 77.
48. Ibid. P. 77.

49. Census of Moscow in 1902. Part I. Population. Issue 1. Population by sex, age, field, length of stay in Moscow, marital status, class, literacy and degree of education. Published by the Statistical Department of the Moscow City Council. M., 1904 (hereinafter: Moscow Census 1902. Part I. Population. Issue 1. Population by sex, age, field, length of stay in Moscow, marital status, class, literacy and degree of education ...).

50. Ibid. P. 38.
51. Ibid. P. 106.
52. Sliozberg G.B. Pre-revolutionary Russian students ... p. 82.
53. KassowS.D. Students, Professors and State in the Tsarist Russia. L .: University of California Press, 1989. P. 54 (hereinafter: Kassow S.D. Students, Professors and State in the Tsarist Russia ...).
54. Ibid. S. 48–49.
55. Annenkov A.M. Russian students of the first third of the 19th century in the memoirs of contemporaries // Culture of historical memory. Materials of the scientific conference (September 19-22, 2011). Petrozavodsk, 2002, pp. 106–113. P. 112 (hereinafter: Annenkov A.M. Russian students of the first third of the 19th century in the memoirs of contemporaries ...).
56. Sliozberg G.B.
57. Leikina-Svirskaya V.R.
58. Ivanov A.E. Student corporation of Russia at the end of the XIX - beginning of the XX century: the experience of cultural and political self-organization. M., 2004.S. 288 (hereinafter: Ivanov A.E. Student corporation of Russia at the end of the XIX - beginning of the XX century: the experience of cultural and political self-organization ...).

59. Baghdasaryan V.E. Motives of student deviant behavior in the late XIX - early XX century. // Russian students: living conditions and everyday life (XVIII – XXI centuries). All-Russian Scientific Conference. Collections of scientific articles. M., 2004.S. 83 (hereinafter: Baghdasaryan V.E. Motives of student deviant behavior in the late XIX - early XX century. // Russian students: living conditions and everyday life (XVIII – XXI centuries) ...).

60. From the notes of Professor N.P. Bogolepova. A page from the life of Moscow University. M., 1911. S. 55 (hereinafter: From the notes of Professor NP Bogolepov. A page from the life of Moscow University ...).
61. Y.D. Margolis Student censuses in Russia 1872-1912. // Medieval and new Russia... Collection of scientific articles. To the 60th anniversary of prof. AND I. Froyanov. SPb., 1996.S. 658 (hereinafter: Margolis Y.D... Student censuses in Russia 1872–1912 ...).
62. Svatikov S.
63. Materials on the university issue. Issue 2. Report of the Commission of Moscow University in 1901 on the causes of student unrest. Stuttgart, 1904. S. 59 (hereinafter: Materials on the university question. Issue 2. Report of the commission of Moscow University in 1901 on the causes of student unrest ...).
64. Melgunov S. Student organizations 80-90 at Moscow University (according to archival data). M., 1908.S. 3 (hereinafter: Melgunov S. Student organizations 80-90 at Moscow University (according to archival data) ...).
65. Svatikov S.
66. KassowS.D. Students, Professors and State in the Tsarist Russia ... P. 22.
67. Grishunin P.V. Students of the Metropolitan Universities: Structures of Everyday Life. 1820-1880s Abstract for the degree of candidate of historical sciences. SPb., 2005.S. 18 (hereinafter: Grishunin P.V. Students of the Metropolitan Universities: Structures of Everyday Life. 1820-1880s ...).
68. Feofanov A.M. Students of Moscow University in the second half of the 18th - first quarter of the 19th century ... pp. 25–26.
69. Russian professors. University corporation or professional solidarity. M .: NLO, 2012.S. 59 (hereinafter: Vishlenkova E., Galiullina R., Ilyina K. Russian professors. University corporation or professional solidarity ...).
70. Melgunov S. From the history of student societies in Russian universities. M., 1904.S. 1 (hereinafter: Melgunov S. From the history of student societies in Russian universities ...).
71. Report of the judicial commission for 1893/1894 // From the notes of professor N.P. Bogolepova. A page from the life of Moscow University. M., 1911.S. 109.
72. Svatikov S. Students before and now ... p. 10.

73. Ivanov A.E. Russian university students on the eve of the first Russian revolution. Socio-political image // Revolutionary movement of the democratic intelligentsia of Russia in the period of imperialism. Collection of scientific papers. M., 1984.S. 123 (hereinafter: Ivanov A.E. Russian university students on the eve of the first Russian revolution. Socio-political image ...).

74. G.I. Shchetinina Students and the revolutionary movement in Russia. Last quarter of the 19th century Abstract for the degree of Doctor of Historical Sciences. M., 1988.S. 42 (hereinafter: G.I. Shchetinina Students and the revolutionary movement in Russia. The last quarter of the 19th century ...).
75. KassowS.D. Students, Professors and State in the Tsarist Russia ... P. 52.
76. Annenkov A.M.
77. Sliozberg G.B. Pre-revolutionary Russian students ... p. 94.
78. Leikina-Svirskaya V.R. The intelligentsia in Russia in the second half of the 19th century ... P. 27.
79. Ivanov A.E. University policy of autocracy on the eve of the first Russian revolution of 1899-1904. Abstract for the degree of candidate of historical sciences. M., 1975.S. 14 (hereinafter: Ivanov A.E. University policy of autocracy on the eve of the first Russian revolution of 1899–1904 ...).
80. Georgieva N.G. IN AND. Lenin on the place of students in the bourgeois-democratic revolution // Intelligentsia and revolution. XX century. Resp. ed. Doctor of History K.V. Gusev. M., 1985.S. 90 (hereinafter: Georgieva N.G. IN AND. Lenin on the place of students in the bourgeois-democratic revolution ...).
81. KassowS.D. Students, Professors and State in the Tsarist Russia. P. 401.
82. Simonov V.N. Pupils of Moscow University - active participants in the political movement in the late XIX - early. XX century. Abstract for the degree of candidate of historical sciences. M., 1995.S. 13 (hereinafter: Simonov V.N. Pupils of Moscow University - active participants in the political movement in the late XIX - early. XX century ...).
83. Feofanov A.M. Students of Moscow University in the second half of the 18th - first quarter of the 19th century ... P. 25.
84. Svatikov S. Students before and now ... p. 15.
85. Leikina-Svirskaya V.R. The intelligentsia in Russia in the second half of the 19th century ... P. 27.
86. Ivanov A.E. University policy of autocracy on the eve of the first Russian revolution of 1899–1904 ... P. 13; Ivanov A.E. Russian university students on the eve of the first Russian revolution. Socio-political image ... p. 113.
87. Georgieva N.G. IN AND. Lenin on the place of students in the bourgeois-democratic revolution ... p. 91.
88. Melgunov S. Student organizations 80-90 at Moscow University (according to archival data) ... p. 103.
89. Frommet B. Essay on the history of students in Russia ... p. 58.
90. KassowS.D. Students, Professors and State in the Tsarist Russia ... P. 399.
91. Y.D. Margolis Student censuses in Russia in 1872–1912 ... p. 658.
92. Zavadsky N.G. Students and political parties in 1901-1914 SPb., 1998.S. 31 (hereinafter: Zavadsky N.G. Students and political parties in 1901–1914 ...).
93. Vydrin R. Highlights of the student movement in Russia. M., 1908.S. 28 (hereinafter: Vydrin R. Highlights of the student movement in Russia ...).
94. Ivanov A.E. Russian university students on the eve of the first Russian revolution. Socio-political image ... p. 123; Ivanov A.E. Student corporation of Russia at the end of the XIX - beginning of the XX century: the experience of cultural and political self-organization ... P. 389.
95. KassowS.D. Students, Professors and State in the Tsarist Russia ... P. 54.
96. Vakhterova O.A. Students and government in Russia in the second half of the XIX - early XX century // Power and Society. Interuniversity collection of scientific papers. SPb., 2000.S. 60.
97. Grishunin P.V. Students of the Metropolitan Universities: Structures of Everyday Life. 1820-1880s ... p. 17.
98. Zimin I.V. Student uniform and badges in Russia XIX- the beginning of the twentieth century // Facts and versions. Historical and Cultural Almanac. Book. IV. Methodology. Symbolism. Semantics. SPb., 2005.S. 112 (hereinafter: Zimin I.V. Student uniforms and badges in Russia in the 19th - early 20th centuries ...).
99. Materials on the university issue. Issue 2. Report of the Commission of Moscow University in 1901 on the causes of student unrest ... p. 13.
100. Mitskevich S.I. Notes of a public physician. 1888-1918 M.-L., 1941.S. 7.
101. Sliozberg G.B. Pre-revolutionary Russian students ... p. 83.
102. KassowS.D. Students, Professors and State in the Tsarist Russia ... P. 403.
103. Ivanov A.E. Student corporation of Russia at the end of the XIX - beginning of the XX century: the experience of cultural and political self-organization ... P. 288.
104. Vydrin R. The main points of the student movement in Russia ... P. 14.
105. Saltykov A. Moscow University in 1890-1895 // In memory of Russian students. Paris, 1934, p. 96 (hereinafter: Saltykov A. Moscow University in 1890-1895 ...).
106. Elyashevich V.B. From the memoirs of an old Moscow student (1892–1896) // In memory of Russian students. Paris, 1934, p. 107 (hereinafter: Elyashevich V.B. From the memoirs of an old Moscow student (1892–1896) ...).
107. Sabashnikov M.V. Memories // Moscow University in the memoirs of contemporaries (1755-1917). M., 1989.S. 580 (hereinafter: Sabashnikov M.V. Memories…).
108. KassowS.D. Students, Professors and State in the Tsarist Russia ... P. 196.
109. Simonov V.N. Pupils of Moscow University - active participants in the political movement in the late XIX - early. XX century ... p. 22.
110. Annenkov A.M. Russian students of the first third of the 19th century in the memoirs of contemporaries ... P. 112.
111. Sliozberg G.B. Pre-revolutionary Russian students ... p. 84.
112. Lind W. Memories of my life. Moscow University ... P. 250.
113. Veselaya G.A. Mass public demonstrations of Moscow students in the late 19th - early 20th centuries. (1896-1904). Abstract for the degree of candidate of historical sciences. M., 1974.S. 11.
114. Ivanov A.E. Russian university students on the eve of the first Russian revolution. Socio-political image ... p. 121.
115. Radtsig S.I. Pages from memoirs ... p. 597.
116. Zavadsky N.G. Students and political parties in 1901-1914 ... p. 37.
117. Baghdasaryan V.E. Motives for deviant behavior of students in the late XIX - early XX century ... P. 83.
118. Saltykov A.
119. Rachkovskaya Yu.K. Students of St. Petersburg and Moscow in the light of the authors of the liberal trend (late XIX - early XX centuries). Abstract for the degree of candidate of historical sciences. SPb., 1999.S. 17.
120. Khudyakov N.I. Karakozovts' notes. Moscow University (1859-1860) ... p. 438.
121. G.I. Shchetinina Students and the revolutionary movement in Russia. The last quarter of the 19th century ... p. 35.
122. Speshkov S.D. A note drawn up on behalf of the Minister of Public Education by a member of the Council by secret adviser Speshkov about various organizations among students and students in various educational institutions ... p. 19.
123. Zavadsky N.G. Students and political parties in 1901-1914 ... p. 37
124. Materials on the university issue. Issue 2. Report of the Commission of Moscow University in 1901 on the causes of student unrest ... p. 23
125. Speshkov S.D. A note drawn up on behalf of the Minister of Public Education by a member of the Council by secret adviser Speshkov about various organizations among students and students in various educational institutions ... p. 17.
126. Frommet B. Essay on the history of students in Russia ... p. 29.
127. Kurbsky V. Essays on student life (from the diary of a former student) ... p. 53.
128. Svatikov S. Students before and now ... p. 15.
129. Sliozberg G.B. Pre-revolutionary Russian students ... p. 94.
130. S. 205 [By: Izgoev A.S. About intelligent youth (Notes on her life and moods) // Vekhi. From the depth. M., 1991, S. 112].
131. Melgunov S. Student organizations 80-90 at Moscow University (according to archival data) ... P. 88.
132. Report of the judicial commission for 1893/1894 ... S. 131.
133. Zavadsky N.G. Students and political parties in 1901–1914 ... p. 161.
134. Svatikov S. Students before and now ... p. 15.
135. Sliozberg G.B. Pre-revolutionary Russian students ... p. 94.
136. Saltykov A. Moscow University in 1890-1895 ... P. 96.
137. Georgieva N.G. IN AND. Lenin on the place of students in the bourgeois-democratic revolution ... p. 90.
138. G.I. Shchetinina Students and the revolutionary movement in Russia. The last quarter of the 19th century ... p. 41.
139. Zavadsky N.G. Students and political parties in 1901-1914 ... p. 9.
140. Kolonitsky B.I. The intelligentsia at the end of the XIX - beginning of the XX century: the self-awareness of contemporaries and research approaches ... P. 188.
141. Sokolov K.B. Russian intelligentsia of the 18th - early 20th centuries: a picture of the world and everyday life ... [According to: Izgoev A.S. About intelligent youth (Notes on her life and moods) // Vekhi. From the depth. M., 1991.].
142. Vydrin R. The main points of the student movement in Russia ... P. 42.
143. Ivanov A.E. Student corporation of Russia at the end of the XIX - beginning of the XX century: the experience of cultural and political self-organization ... P. 286.
144. Sokolov K.B. Russian intelligentsia of the 18th - early 20th centuries: a picture of the world and everyday life ...
145. Stafeev S.G. The Russian intelligentsia and its role in the social movement (second half of the 19th century) ... P. 67 [Po: History of Russia in questions and answers. Rostov-on-Don, 1999. S. 303].
146. Svatikov S. Students before and now ... p. 15.

147. Chinenny A., Stoyan T. Students of Russian universities (XIX century) // Higher education in Russia. Scientific and pedagogical journal of the Ministry of General and Professional Education of the Russian Federation. 1999. No. 5. P. 141 [According to: Brockhaus F.A., Efron I.A. Encyclopedic Dictionary T. XXXIV. SPb., 1899. S. 754] (hereinafter: Chinenny A., Stoyan T. Students of Russian Universities (XIX century) ...).

148. Ibid. P. 142 [S. 142 - Po: Higher education in Russia. Essay on history up to 1917 NII VO. M., 1995. S. 117].
149. Vydrin R. The main points of the student movement in Russia ... P. 11.
150. Higher education in Russia. An outline of the history before 1917. Ed. prof. V.G. Kineleva. M., 1995. S. 260 (hereinafter: Higher education in Russia. Essay on history until 1917. Edited by prof. VG Kinelev ...).
151. Ibid. P. 260.
152. Zmeev V.A. Russian students of the 18th century // Russian students at the turn of the century. Materials of the All-Russian Student Forum. Ed. Yu.V. Kovrizhinykh, G.V. Kupriyanova. Scientific editor T.E. Petrov. M., 2001.S. 5.
153. Ibid. P. 16.
154. Higher education in Russia. An outline of the history before 1917. Ed. prof. V.G. Kineleva ... p. 261.
155. Annenkov A.M. Russian students of the first third of the 19th century in the memoirs of contemporaries ... P. 107.
156. Ibid. P. 108.
157. Ibid. P. 109.
158. Ibid. P. 111.
159. Ibid. P. 112.
160. Makarova N.V. Students in the XIX century: everyday life and customs // Russian students: living conditions and everyday life (XVIII – XXI centuries). All-Russian Scientific Conference. Collections of scientific articles. M., 2004.S. 61 (hereinafter: Makarova N.V. Students in the 19th century: everyday life and customs ...).

A hundred years ago, Moscow State University students did not have mobile phones, the Internet, computers, and even typewriters were a rarity. But they studied, spending their last money on education, rented tiny rooms in attics and did not want to part with their books. Walking through the corridors and auditoriums of the modern journalism faculty (one of the old buildings of Moscow State University), it is interesting to mentally travel a little more than a hundred years ago, to the end of the 19th century, and imagine the students of that time ...

... One could get to the university on foot or, if funds allowed, hire a cab. It was necessary to get up in different ways: for some, classes began with the first pair at 9 in the morning. Someone later. Classes went on for an hour. The last lecture ended at 4 o'clock in the afternoon, but rarely did anyone have to sit at the university for all seven pairs.

They strove to give deep education to students. True, the teachers themselves admitted that often the course of lectures turned out to be "ragged" (in official documents this was called "fragmentation of teaching"). For example, classes in comparative linguistics could stretch over two or four years, when the course was taught at intervals of several months, although everything related to it could be taught in just a year. In the 90s, it was decided that if the course of lectures had to be "broken", at least one large section of the course had to fit into one semester in order to form the students' correct understanding of the subject.

The faculties were not clearly separated from each other. Therefore, both philologists and historians listened to general lectures at the historical-philological course, and then they were divided into two large streams - "A" and "B" - and studied special disciplines. The stream was divided into groups of 25 people - so the teachers had time to control the students' classes. Studied almost the same as today. Philologists were obliged to know the history of Russian and foreign literature, wrote works on it (an analogue of current essays), studied ancient and new languages, interpreted the works of ancient authors at seminars. The most popular new languages ​​were English, French, German and Italian. You could learn Lithuanian or Serbian. From the ancients (in addition to Greek and Latin) - Gothic and Sanskrit. Interestingly, everyone passed the geography exam.

Education cost money (they were deducted for non-payment of fees), but theology was a compulsory and at the same time free subject for everyone (note that now in many universities a similar subject is introduced, sometimes it is called “ New Testament"). In addition, they studied the logic of science, philosophy, the doctrine of character (now - psychology) and rather narrow subjects, such as "Persecution of Christianity."

There was a period when only lectures were included in the grid of hours for literature, however, over time, a "special consultation hour was appointed for conversation" - this is almost a modern seminar, but intended not so much to ask students for homework, but to asked questions to the teacher and got a better understanding of the subject.

In addition to the compulsory disciplines, it was possible to attend additional classes - something like the current special courses - and write works on them. Such a special course, for example, was offered by Alexei Nikolaevich Veselovsky, who read the history of French literature.

With such a busy schedule, they studied six days a week, from Monday to Saturday. There was only one day off, and even that had to be spent on homework preparation or part-time work: there was always not enough money. Tuition was paid, books were expensive. Housing had to be paid. The offspring of wealthy and influential families could easily gnaw the granite of science. Those who are poorer - those who come from families of ruined nobles and even poor students - had to worry not only about grades, but also about means of subsistence.

Private lessons were a common form of income. It is not very easy to deal with other people's children or complete assignments for lazy but wealthy classmates, when you yourself have to write term papers and make translations, and besides, this in an amicable way required special permission and a certificate that the young tutor has enough for classes in pedagogy education. Those who, for various (often monetary) reasons, could not graduate from the university, had the opportunity to pass the exam and officially receive a license and become teachers.

For those who had very poor funds, university scholarships were a great support. There were a huge number of them in every faculty. There were scholarships for everyone - any student could apply for them. To become a fellow, you had to submit an application with an explanation. For example, such: "... I am a person in need, as evidence of which I have a certificate of poverty." There were also special ones, for example, a scholarship named after the poet V.A.Zhukovsky, intended exclusively for the nobles of the Tula province. Students received payments of about 25 rubles a month, and this was a sufficient amount. The amount of money allocated for the scholarships was limited. The number of scholarship holders was closely watched not only by accounting specialists, but also by students. Having learned that someone had stopped receiving a scholarship (for example, a person had finished his studies), they tried to be the first to write a petition: "Such and such a scholarship no longer receives, so I ask you to assign a scholarship to me." The students were well aware that for many scholarships were the only means of living, so those whose financial situation improved, wrote applications to refuse the scholarship, explaining such a decision simply and briefly: “I do not consider myself entitled to use the aforementioned scholarship now.” In general, they tried to help students in need. Someone was rescued by books, someone - by housing. An orchestra and a choir were organized, and the money from the concerts was donated to the poor students.

Housing was a significant problem. Nonresidents were provided with a hostel, but it could be refused. Then, as compensation, the student was assigned a scholarship with the expectation that the money would be spent on renting a room. In 1899, this scholarship was 400 rubles.

The students were treated very attentively. There is a known case when one capable student, a certain Azbukov, began to suffer from persecution mania. He was sent to the hospital for treatment, then he returned to the university, but soon the disease resumed. The student was poor, due to illness, he could not study further, the Student Residence Committee took care of the young man, knowing that his family was too poor to support the former student.

There were also many scholarships that were awarded "for academic purposes." With this money, the student could live while he led scientific work or preparing for an academic degree. The Lomonosov scholarship was 298 rubles a year, Potemkin - 366, state - 300 rubles.

Large rewards could be obtained by writing a good scientific work and becoming a prize winner of some competition. A prize of 1,500 rubles, for example, could be received by a student who wrote better job on the history of the formation of the literary languages ​​of Italy, Greece and the Slavic countries at a competition organized by the St. Petersburg Slavic Charitable Society in the 90s of the XIX century.

Scientific work required not only knowledge and strength, but also special literature. Books (as, indeed, today) were given out to students at home, some were allowed to read only in the reading room. To work with educational literature during vacations ("during vacations"), it was required to write a special petition. Failure to return library books was severely punished. Lists of debtors were submitted to the rector. Those who brought the book at the wrong time paid a fine. Those who refused to return the literature came home from the police and took the books by force. Literature was so highly valued that the governor-general himself "took care" of the debtors. By accident or not, most often students did not return foreign books (perhaps they contained especially valuable material or they could have been sold at a higher price).

The students were engaged, of course, not only in their studies. They took part in revolutionary actions (for which many were expelled without the right of restoration), had fun and fell in love. A special permit was required for marriage. But in general it was believed that "the right family environment can serve as a more reliable guarantee of physical and moral health" and, consequently, stable study. It was possible to marry from the age of 21 with the consent of the parents, and "with the police certificate of the reliability of the bride." A guarantee of the material security of the marriage was obligatory. Either it was help from parents, or a contribution to the University Treasury of the amount to support the family for the duration of the husband's course at the rate of payments in the amount of 25 rubles a month.

It is curious that the students were named not by course, but by semester: a student of the third semester, Semyon Ivanov. The autumn half-year lasted from August 20 to December 20, the spring - from January 15 to May 30. After passing the exams, the student moved on to the next course or received a diploma of higher education. Then he could go to work or, as many aspired to, stay at the university, get a scientific degree and after a few years start teaching young students himself.

Introduction
1. Review of the largest universities in Russia in the second half of the 19th century
2 Reforms in the field of university education
2.1 University Charters
2.2 Legal status of students
3 Students of Russia in the second half of the 19th century
3.1 Social composition and worldview
3.2 Life and entertainment
3.3 Association of students
Conclusion
Bibliography

Introduction

The education reform, which has been going on permanently in Russia from 1996 to the present, raises a huge number of questions, an order of magnitude more than can be solved with its help. One way or another, the reform is aimed at modernizing our domestic education, which was previously considered the best in the world, following the model of Western European education. From a historical point of view, this is a return to the origins, since higher education in Russia appeared much later than in most European countries and was created according to the West European model and mainly by the "hands" of West European (German) scientists. However, those reforms that were carried out later left European scholasticism far behind, and now the reformers from education have decided to "catch up" with Europe again. Whether the reforms being carried out in today's Russia will really return Russian higher education to a worthy place in the world is still a question. And the fact that many traditions, and far from the worst ones, were thrown overboard during modernization is a fact.
In this regard, the relevance of research into the history of the formation of modern Russian higher education, the historical experience of its reforming in the era of the “Great Reforms” of Alexander II, when Russia was once again “overturned,” and with it the system of higher education, is increasing.
At the same time in early XXI in. tendencies towards a change in value priorities that determine social development... Humanity is moving from an industrial society with a pronounced technocratism of thinking to a post-industrial, informational one, which implies a reassessment of the role of intelligence and human qualifications. The uniqueness of these processes in modern Russia due to the formation on its territory of a new system of social relations associated with a change in socio-political and economic paradigms. The scale and pace of these transformations force society to rely more and more on knowledge, therefore, at the present stage of Russia's development, education, in its inextricable connection with science, is becoming an increasingly powerful driving force of economic growth, increasing the efficiency and competitiveness of the national economy, which makes it one of the most important factors of national security.
The object of the research is the higher schools (universities) of post-reform Russia, considered in organic relationship with the situation of Russian students in the second half of the 19th century.
The subject of this research is the historical process of reforming Russian higher education (universities) in the period from 60s to 90s. XIX century through the university charters, as well as the very Russian students of that era.
The research is based on the analysis of normative sources, journalism and memoirs from the second half of the 19th century.

List of sources used

  1. General Charter of the Imperial Universities. June 18, 1863 // Political history of Russia: Reader / Comp. IN AND. Kovalenko, A.N. Medushevsky, E.N. Moschelkov. Moscow: Aspect Press, 1996.624 p.
  2. History of university education in pre-revolutionary Russia / Under total. ed. AND I. Saveliev. M .: Publishing house of NII VSh, 1993.55 p.
  3. Eimontova R.G. Russian universities on the verge of two centuries. From serf Russia to capitalist Russia. Moscow: Nauka, 1985.350 p.
  4. Moscow University in the memoirs of contemporaries. 1755-1917 .: collection / Comp. Yu.N. Emelyanov. Moscow: Sovremennik, 1989.735 p.
  5. Pushkarev S.G. Russia 1801-1917: Power and Society. M .: Posev, 2001.672 p.
  6. Russia. Encyclopedic Dictionary. L .: Lenizdat, 1991.922 p.
  7. Badaev M.I. Science and culture of Russia in the XIX century. - M .: Mysl, 1978, 327 p.
  8. Herzen A.I. Compositions. T.5. - M .: Fiction, 1982, 604 p.
  9. Complete collection laws of the Russian Empire. Collection 2. T. 1-55. from 12 Dec. 1825 to March 1, 1881 St. Petersburg, 1830-1884.
  10. Complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire. Collection 3rd. T. 1-33. SPb., 1884-Pg. 1916.
  11. General Charter and Temporary Staff of Imperial Russian Universities. SPb., 1884., 38 p.
  12. Russian universities in their charters and memoirs of contemporaries / Comp. THEM. Soloviev. SPb., 1914. Issue. 1.572 p.
  13. Universities and secondary educational institutions for men and women in 50 provinces of European Russia. SPb., 1888.
  14. Georgievsky A.I. A brief historical outline of government measures against student riots. SPb., 1890.

Overall volume: 43 pages

Year: 2011

Introduction

Chapter I

University education and students in Russia in the 1850s - early 1860s

Chapter II

The legal status of Russian students

Chapter III

Material and everyday aspect of the situation of students in the second half of the XIX century

Conclusion

Introduction (excerpt)

Russian universities have always been islands of secular culture, education and creativity, which is impossible without some "freedom from"…. Freedom to some extent from power, ideology, freedom from isolation and class. The student body has always constituted a special group of people, which had its own customs, traditions, its own culture and identity. It is the relationship between students and universities, which acted as guides of state orders and politics, that are and were the subject of research by domestic scientists both before the revolution of 1917 and after.

The relevance of studying these relations has not disappeared to this day, because the authorities have always sought to control universities in order to be able to educate a loyal generation of young people. However, the paradox of this attitude of power is that it almost never succeeded. The students at all times, even the most severe reaction, were aware of their unity, their interests and defended them in every possible way.

The purpose of this work is to try to solve a difficult dilemma: was the tsarist power the factor that determined not only the development of Russian students, but also predetermined its historical fate? Did the political weakness of the authorities, expressed in its dictatorship and authoritarianism, create such conditions for development that predetermined the role of the Russian intelligentsia in the future? That is, the purpose of this work is to try to answer the question about the role of autocracy in the formation of a special type of intelligentsia, active in student years and passive in years of power crisis, unable to do anything and somehow unfold the situation.

Conclusion (excerpt)

The role of the post-reform universities in social and political life was determined by deep objective prerequisites. It was not only the university problems proper that underlay the university crisis, which was especially acute by the beginning of the 20th century. The lack of resolution of the contradictions of a society in which the development of capitalism was restrained by survivals of serfdom, the absence of political freedoms at that time, created a tense political climate in Russia in the last quarter of the 19th century. Even during the reforms of the 60s, the government cut off any legal path to freedom, for it responded with repression even to simple petitions, because it never allowed even to speak freely about freedom.

Literature

SOURCES

1. Kovalevsky M.M. Moscow University in the late 70s and early 80s of the last century. Personal memoirs / Moscow University in the memoirs of contemporaries. 1755-1917. M., 1989

2. Lebedev V.A. Educational memoirs. / Russian antiquity 1908. № 7 - 10

3. General Charter of the Imperial Russian Universities in 1863 / w * w.lib.r * - Maxim Mashkov's Library.

4. Pisarev D.I. Works in 4 volumes. M., 1955 - 1956. T2

5. Complete Code of Laws Russian Empire/under. ed. A.A. Dobrovolsky. SPb 1911., book 2

6. Sechenov I.M. At Moscow University (1850 - 1856) / Moscow University in the memoirs of contemporaries. 1755-1917. M., 1989

7. Sorokin V. Memoirs of an old student / Russian antiquity 1888 №12

LITERATURE

1. Andreev A.Yu. Lectures on the history of Moscow University. 1755-1855. M., 2001

2. Borodzin I.N. Universities in the era of the 60s - In the book History of Russia in the 19th century. SPb. 1908 - 1909. T4

3. Great reforms in Russia 1856 - 1874 / ed. L.G. Zakharova et al. M., 1992

4. Georgievsky A.I. A brief outline of government measures and designs against student riots. SPb. 1890

5. Dzhanilyaev G.A. University autonomy / From the era of great reforms. 1893.10th ed. SPb., 1907

6. Yelenev F.P. Student riots. SPb. 1888.

7. Ikonnikov V.S. Russian universities in connection with the progress of public education / Bulletin of Europe, 1876. № 9 - 10

8. Klyuchevsky V.O. Russian history course / Electronic book... IDDK .2005

9. Leikina-Svirskaya VR Intelligentsia in Russia in 1901-1917. M., 1981

10. Leikina-Svirskaya VR Intelligentsia in Russia in the second half of the XIX century. M., 1971

11. Litvak B.G. The coup of 1861 in Russia: why the reform alternative was not realized. M., 1991

12. Moscow University in the memoirs of contemporaries. 1755-1917. M., 1989

13. Pokrovsky M.N. Russian history since ancient times. M., 1934

14. The revolutionary situation in Russia in the middle. XIX century / Ed. M.V. Nechkina M., 1978

15. Rozhdestvensky SV Historical review of the activities of the Ministry of Public Education. 1802-1902. SPb. 1902

16. Firsov N.A. Student stories at Kazan University 1855 - 1863 / Russian antiquity 1889. № 3,4, 6 - 8

17. Shchetinina GI Students and the revolutionary movement in Russia. M., 1987

18. Shchetinina G. I. Universities in Russia and the Charter of 1884 Moscow, 1976

19. Eimontova R.G. Russian Universities on the Path of Reform: The Sixties of the 19th Century. M., 1993

20. Eimontova R.G. Russian universities on the verge of two eras. From serf Russia to capitalist Russia. M., 1985

When starting to study the topic, students should remember that important changes are taking place in Russian culture in the second half of the 19th century. This was largely due to those large historical events that took place in Russia. The most important factor that had a huge impact on the development of all aspects of society's life was the abolition of serfdom and the bourgeois reforms that followed. Thanks to these transformations, capitalism developed at a rapid pace in Russia, which changed the entire old economic system of the country, led to a change in the social and spiritual appearance of the population, its way of life, morals, and to an increase in cultural needs.

The development of education should be considered on the example of the transformative policy of the Minister of Public Education A.V. Golovnina. The rise of science and technology has also been associated with educational reforms. Need to consider scientific activity Of the Russian Academy of Sciences, university professors, numerous scientific and scientific-technical societies that arose in Russia in the second half of the 19th century.

The result of education reforms was also a noticeable growth of libraries and museums, periodicals and book publishing bodies.

The development of Russian literature in the second half of the 19th century. was caused by a crisis in relations between the authorities and society after Crimean War, therefore, the central place in it was put forward the ideas of public service, citizenship, exposure of existing reality. Considering in general terms the work of N.A.Nekrasov, I.S.Turgenev, F.M.Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, and others, students should try to formulate the main line of development of Russian literature at the time and the degree of its influence on the spiritual development of society.

The issue of the development of Russian art must be considered, drawing attention to the new social processes that were taking place in the country. In particular, the emergence of a rascal intelligentsia, thanks to which the attitude of cultural figures to the place and role in society has changed.

In the second half of the 19th century, a national art school was finally formed in Russia, the achievements of which did not cover individual types of art, but precisely the artistic culture as a whole, embracing and different kinds art, and the entire system of their interaction, and the relationship of art with society.

Considering the issue of the development of architecture, it should be noted that as a result of the rapid development of capitalist relations after the abolition of serfdom, the number of cities, primarily large centers, grew.

New construction methods were born, new building materials were used.

The main artistic direction in the architecture of this time was eclecticism. Among the Russian architects of the post-reform era, there were many outstanding masters. Students should get acquainted with the work of A.E. RezanovA, A.M. Gornostaev, V.O. Sherwood, etc.

The development of Russian painting requires knowledge that the Academy of Arts of Russia remained the leading center for training professional architects, sculptors, and artists. It should not be denied that the Academy trained specialists of the European level. However, the restriction of freedom of creativity by academic dogmas caused discontent among those part of her students who shared democratic convictions. Dissatisfaction with the academic system of teaching among some of the students of the Academy of Arts in the 60s. XIX century. led to the first organized action against the academic order. In the history of Russian culture, this event is known as the "Riot of the Fourteen". Students need to understand the reasons for the protest of young artists, study materials about the activities they created in 1863. "The First St. Petersburg Artel of Free Artists".

It is especially important to analyze the reasons for the creation, the composition of the participants, the ideological principles of the Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions.

Considering the work of masters of fine arts, it is necessary to highlight the main directions in the development of painting: everyday life, historical painting, portrait and landscape painting

Students should study the biographies of such famous painters of the second half of the 19th century as V.G. Perov, I.E. Repin and V.I. Surikov, A.K. Savrasov, I.I. Shishkin and others.

The development of sculpture during the period under study was associated with the work of academic sculptors - M.O. Mikeshina and A.M. Opekushina. The realistic direction in sculpture was expressed in the work of M.M. Antokolsky.

The democratization of the country's artistic life, which took place in the early 1860s, led to qualitative, radical shifts in the entire way of musical life. This is confirmed by the development of musical criticism and theoretical thought about music; organization in 1860 of the Russian Musical Society (RMO). His goal was "to develop musical education and taste for music in Russia and to encourage domestic talents." In 1862 - in St. Petersburg, and in 1866 - in Moscow on the initiative of the famous pianists and conductors brothers A.G. and N.G. Rubinshten, conservatories were opened. For the first time, the profession of a musician acquired a legal status; the title of "free artist", awarded at the end of the course, meant a certain civil status.

The successor of the creative tradition of M. I. Glinka was P. I. Tchaikovsky, whose name is associated with the development of Russian musical culture of the era under study. The realistic traditions of M. I. Glinka were further developed in the work of the members of the circle of composers of the realistic direction - "The Mighty Handful", which included M. A. Balakirev, M. P. Mussorgsky, N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov, A. P Borodin and Ts. A. Cui. Students should study their biographies, know the main musical works. Theatrical life in the 1860s-1890s was represented by opera houses - the Bolshoi and Mariinsky, as well as drama theaters. The leading role was played by the Maly and Alexandrinsky theaters. Students should study drama, directing, the theater education system; to get acquainted with the history of the creation of the capital's theaters, as well as the work of the leading artists who worked in them (M.S.Schepkin, P.M.Sadovsky, P.A.Strepetov, G.N. Fedotov, M.N. Ermolov - at the Maly Theater; V. V. Samoilov, P. V. Vasiliev, K. A. Varlamov, M. G. Savina - at the Alexandrinsky Theater.

It is important to note that after the abolition of the monopoly of the Imperial Theaters in 1882, the creation of theaters began in the Russian province. Students should prepare performances about Don theaters.

Abstract topics:

1. New trends in Russian culture in the post-reform era.

2. "Wanderers" and their social significance.

3. Provincial theater in the second half of the XIX century (on the example of the development of theaters in Rostov-on-Don, Taganrog, Novocherkassk).

Sources and Literature:

1. Botkina A. P. M. Tretyakov in life and art. M., 1960.

2. Minchenkov Ya.D. Memories of the Itinerants. L., 1961.

3. Tenisheva MK Impressions of my life. L., 1991.

1. Allenov M.M. and others. Russian art X - early XX: Architecture. Sculpture. Painting. Graphics. M., 1989.

2. Aronov A.A. World art culture: Russia: late XIX - XX centuries. Study guide. M., 1999.

3. Gordeeva E. M. Composers of The Mighty Handful. M., 1986.

4. Zezina M.R. L.V. Koshman, V.S. Shulgin Culture of Russia in the IX-XX centuries. - M., 1996.

5. Kondakov I. V. Culture of Russia. M., 1999.

6. V. I. Kuleshov History of Russian literature of the XIX century. M., 1997.

7. Culture and art of Russia in the XIX century. M., 1985.

8. Leikina-Svirskaya V.R. Intelligentsia in Russia in the second half of the 19th century. M., 1971.

9. Lisovsky V.G. Academy of Arts. L., 1988.

10. Likhachev D.S.Russian art from antiquity to the avant-garde. M., 1993.

11. Nikitin V.S. Tchaikovsky: old and new. - M., 1990.

12. Organization of science in post-reform Russia. L., 1987.

13. Essays on Russian culture in the second half of the 19th century. \ edited by N.M. Volynkin. M., 1982.

14. Petrovskaya I.F. Theater and spectator of Russian capitals. 1875-1917. - L. 1990.

15. Petrovskaya I.F. Theater and spectator in provincial Russia. Second half of the 19th century. - M., 1979.

16. Plotnikov V.I. Folklore and Russian art second half of the 19th century. L., 1987.

17.

18. Poznansky V.V. Essays on the history of Russian culture in the second half of the 19th century. M., 1976.

19. Russian artistic culture of the second half of the 19th century. M., 1991.

20. Ryabtsev Yu.S. History of Russian culture: Artistic life and everyday life of the 18th-19th centuries. M., 1997.

21. Sarabyanov D.V. History of Russian art of the second half of the XIX century: a course of lectures. M., 1989.

22. Soboleva E.V. Struggle for the reorganization of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences in the middle of the 19th century. L., 1971.

23. Soboleva E.V. Organization of science in post-reform Russia. L., 1983.

24. Sternin G.Yu. Russian artistic culture of the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. M., 1995. Shchetinina G.I. Ideological life of the Russian intelligentsia. Late 19th - early 20th century M., 1995.

25. Shchetinina, G. I. Ideological life of the Russian intelligentsia. Late 19th - early 20th century M., 1995.

26. Eimontova, RG Russian universities on the verge of two eras: From serf Russia to capitalist Russia. M., 1985.

27. Yakovkina N.I. History of Russian culture: XIX century. SPb., 2000.

Tests

to the topic: "Russian culture in the second half of the nineteenth century".



 
Articles by topic:
What can and cannot be done for the Annunciation
What can and cannot be done for the Annunciation
What date is the Annunciation celebrated in 2019? What is the history and background of this holiday? Read about it in the article Pravda-TV. Annunciation in 2019 - April 7 The beginning of our salvation Annunciation in Orthodoxy is included in the list of twelve feasts
Basal exchange. Basic metabolism. Calorie needs determination methods
Basal exchange. Basic metabolism. Calorie needs determination methods
0 4078 2 years ago When considering drawing up their own meal plan for losing weight or for gaining muscle mass, people begin to count the calorie intake. Earlier we have already considered that for weight gain, you need about 10% overabundance,
International Day of Human Space Flight Purchase of the Sea Launch floating cosmodrome
International Day of Human Space Flight Purchase of a floating cosmodrome
MOSCOW, December 15 - RIA Novosti. The outgoing year 2016 in the Russian space industry was remembered for a number of victories and a series of failures. The Soyuz carrier rocket was launched for the first time from the new Russian Vostochny cosmodrome, and the first ever collaboration was launched to Mars.
Is protein harmful for men's health: reviews Protein is good or bad
Is protein harmful for men's health: reviews Protein is good or bad
Often, protein is understood as a sports supplement in the form of a powder from which cocktails are made and drunk in training, mainly by athletes to build muscle or lose weight. There is still debate about the benefits and dangers of this supplement, many are often confused