The largest poet of English revival is. The overall characteristic of the English Renaissance. Distinctive features of the worldview of the Renaissance
The literature of the countries of Europe of the period of approval and dominance of the ideology of the Renaissance, which reflected the typological features of this culture. In different countries covers the period from 16 to the first quarter of the 17th century. (In Italy - from the 14th century). Intensive flowering of literature is largely due to this period with a special attitude towards ancient heritage. Hence the name of the era that places the task of recreation, "revive" allegedly lost in the Middle Ages cultural ideals and values. In fact, the rise of Western European culture occurs at all against the background of the previous decline. But in the life of the culture of late Middle Ages, such a lot is changing that it feels belonging to another time and feels dissatisfaction with the previous state of the arts and literature. The past seems to be a person to revive the oblivion of wonderful achievements of antiquity, and he takes for their recovery. This is also expressed in the work of the writers of this era, and in their very lifestyle: some people of that time have not become famous for creating any pictorial, literary masterpieces, and what was able to "live on an antique manner", imitating ancient Greeks or Romans in everyday life. The ancient heritage is not simply studied at this time, but is "restored", and therefore the Renaissance figures attach great importance to the discovery, collecting, saving and publishing ancient manuscripts.
Literature is one of the most important achievements of the Renaissance culture, it was in it, as in the visual arts, a new ideas about the person and the world were manifested with the greatest force inherent in this culture. The object of literature was becoming earthly life in all its diversity, dynamics and authenticity, which fundamentally distinguishes the literature of revival from medieval literature. A feature of the literature of Renaissance, like the whole culture, was a deepest interest in personality and her experiences, the problem of personality and society, the glorification of the beauty of a person, the acute perception of poetry of the earthly world. Like the humanism of the ideology of the Renaissance, the Renaissance literature was inherent in the desire to respond to all current issues of human existence, as well as appeal to the national historical and legendary past. Hence the flourishing of lyric poetry and the creation of new poetic forms from the time of antiquity, and subsequently the rise of drama.
It was the culture of Renaissance that put literature, or rather poetry and classes with the language and literature, above other types of human activity. The very fact of the proclamation at the dawn of the revival of poetry as one of the ways of knowledge and understanding of the world determined the reference site in the Renaissance culture. With the development of revival literature, the process of the formation of national languages \u200b\u200bin European countries, humanists in Italy, France, England act as defenders of the national language, and in many cases and as its creators. The feature of the Renaissance literature was that it was created both in national languages \u200b\u200band in Latin, but almost all of its top achievements were associated with the first.
Revival literature has changed the genre system. A new system of literary genres was created, some of them, known since the times of antiquity, were revived and rethought with humanistic positions, others were re-created. The greatest changes affected the areas of drama. Instead of the medieval genres, Renaissance revived the tragedy and comedy, the genres, literally came out of the scene during the time of the Roman Empire. Compared to medieval literature, the plots of works are changed - mythological, then historical or modern are approved. Scenography changes, it is based on the principle of believing. First comedy returns, then the tragedy is returned in the literature quite widespread in the literature receives Pastoral (the shepherd drama (from lat. Pastoralis - the shepherd). The genre of the court theater, which emerged in Italy in the 16th century. And received distribution in Western Europe. In fact, it starts from "Shephealth" poetry (in particular, from Bucolic Vergil). Pastoral was a small play, often introduced into the program of the court festivals. It depicted rural life of gallantic shepherds and shepherds endowed with manners, feelings and lexication of aristocracy. Pastoral painted a special, embezzlement, idealized world, having nothing to do with real reality. It was Pastoral to the greatest extent that corresponded to a solid and harmonious Renaissance worldview, "and actually destroyed theatrical art, turning the performance in" live paintings ".)
Epos in the literature of Renaissance is presented in different forms. It should be noted, first of all, the wide dissemination of an epic poem, a medieval knightly romance acquires a new life, and a new content is poured into it. At sunset, the Renaissance is approved by the Plutov Roman. The genre of Novels becomes the true creation of Renaissance, the typological foundations of which were laid down Bokcchcho.
The dialogue was specifically renaissance genre. He initially was a favorite form of the compositions of humanists who had the goal of making the reader, while holding the arguments "for" and "against" in disputes, to conclude.
The rebirth era poetry was also associated with the emergence and rebirth of a number of genres. It is characterized by dominating lyrical poetry. From the ancient genres of epic poetry, Oda and anthem are reborn, lyrical poetry is closely related to the emergence, development and improvement of the sonnet, which has become the leading form of lyrics, as well as Madrigala (one of the main genres of multi-voiced choral music). The development also receive epigram, elegy (work of a sad nature with the motives of loneliness, suffering, unrequited love), less often the ballad (romantic narrative, often sentimental song of a popular type).
Renaissance literature, like the whole culture of revival, relied on antique achievements and pushed out of them. From here, for example, the appearance of a "scientist of drama" as imitation of antique drama. At the same time, she creatively developed the folk traditions of medieval literature. These features were to some extent inherent in every national literature.
Literature Italy
The history of the Revival literature, like the whole culture of the Renaissance, begins in Italy. At the beginning of the 16th century. The Great Poet of Dante Aligiery (1265-1321) became the provisional of it. In his philosophical essays ( Feast and Monarchy) and the greatest poem The Divine Comedy He reflected all the difficulties of the mini-top of a man of a transition period, which already clearly sees the future of the new culture.
The Genuine Renaissance prosecutor is Francesco Petrack (1304-1374), in whose work, a turn to a new culture and other spiritual values \u200b\u200bwas determined. It was from his activity that the recreation of ancient culture began, the study of literary monuments, the search for antique manuscripts. Petrarch was not only a scientist, but also a prominent philosopher, a politician, in fact, the first in the history of Europe by intellectual. He set knowledge for such a height that in 1349 was solemnly crowned with a laurel wreath on the Capitol in Rome, like antique heroes.
For contemporaries, Petrarch became simultaneously a symbol and an ideal personality of a new culture. He proclaimed the principle of the need to master the cultural heritage of antiquity, but this task assumed the formation of morally perfect, spiritually enriched and intellectually developed person. The man was supposed to rely on the experience of the past.
Petracka created a new system of thinking, determined all the ideas about the man of Renaissance, was a prominent philologist, Latin improved. In his Latin works, he relied on an ancient tradition, in the spirit of Vergili wrote an ecotog (type of idylli, a poem, in which the scene from the shepherd life (usually love)), in the spirit of Horace - Poetic messages. He considered his best creation Africa (1339-1341), the poem in Latin sample AneidaVergilia, where he on behalf of ancient heroes prophesies about the great coming glory of Italy and reviving even greater Italian culture. In the history of literature, he remained, primarily as the creator of a collection of poems Book of songswritten by him in Italian and devoted to charming the beauty of human feelings, love, refining and improving man. The name of his beloved Laura since the times of Petrorsk became nominal, and the book itself is a model for most Renaissance poets, so that in France even appeared the verb "Petrarkis".
Petraka for the first time in the literature not only justified love experiences, but also revealed their extraordinary polyhedral, the complexity of the senses of a person in love. An even more unusual for contemporaries was, with what gland he described the spiritual world of his beloved.
Junior contemporary and friend Petrarki, Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375), was his successor. His literary heritage is quite diverse: the writer also applied to the traditional genre of the novel novel ( Philokolo. and Philostrato) and classic epic ( Tezeida). Bokcchcho created a number of works in new genres: it belongs to the novel in prose and verses Comedy Florentine Nymph, putting the beginning of the genre of pastoral. Peru Bokcchchko belongs to the unusually lyrical Pastoral poem Fiezolaan nymphs. He created the first psychological novel in Europe Elegy Madonna Fiametti. In the history of literature, he remained, above all, the creator of the genre of Renaissance Novella (a small story, story), the famous compilation Decameron. IN Decameron A new society (NOWELL NARL) was derived - an educated, finely sensitive, poetic world, beautiful. This world is based on the community of culture and is opposed to the terrible paintings of the death and decomposition of the Company during the plague epidemic.
In themelles, the author gives the widest panorama of life situations and phenomena. Heroes represent all layers of European society, and they all highly appreciate the earthly life. The new hero is a person actively acting, able to engage in fighting fate and enjoy life in all its manifestations. The man Bokcchcho is fearless, he seeks to conquer and change the world, insists on his freedom of feelings and actions and the right of choice.
Bokcchchcho at the same time proclaims the equality of all people by birth, denying the estate partitions of a medieval society. The value of a person is determined only by his personal qualities, not the origin, the will and mind of a person triumphs over the random circumstances of his fate. Its writings contributed to the development of the Italian literary language.
Literature 15 in. It was connected with the development of lyrics in the work of Angelo Polyciano (1454-1494) and Lorenzo Medici (1449-1492), for whose creativity, carnival songs, chanting the joy of life. Polyciano belongs to the first humanistic poem written for theater, Tale of ORFEE. At 15 in. The first pastoral novel was created Arcadia Jacopo Sannadzaro, influenced the further development of the genre.
The novel genre received at 15 V. further development. Podzhio Braccholini (1380-1459) left a Facki collection (jokes, by genre close to the novels). At the end of the century, the genre of the novel (already at the Neapolitan dialect) was associated with the work of Tommaso (Mazucchio) Guardato (approx. 1420-1476), who left the book Novelino.
A significant place in the literature of the Italian Renaissance is occupied by epic poetry, fed by plots, hoped from knightly novels, and, above all, Caroling cycle. The best samples of this poetry were Big Morgante Luigi Pulchi (1432-1484) and In love Orlando (1483-1494) Matteo Boyardo (1441-1494).
The high revival in the literature of Italy was characterized by the predominance of a classic renaissance style, the monumental-sublime, embodying the humanistic ideals of beauty and harmony, from where the idealization of reality followed. It is connected primarily with the name Ludochiko Ariosto (1474-1533), who left a grand poem Furious Roland.who became one of the greatest vertices of the Italian Renaissance. Like its predecessor, Matteo Boyardo ( Roland in love) Ariosto turned to the plots of knightly novels dedicated to the Paladines of Karl the Great and Knights of the Round Table. Medieval images and situations gain a new appearance and receive a new interpretation: Heroes are endowed with features of a renaissance personality, strong feelings, solid will and the ability to enjoy life. The author is affecting the author's ingenuity and freedom in the compositional construction of the novel with the general harmonic equilibrium of the whole text. Heroic episodes could be combined with purely comic episodes. The poem was written by a special stanza, often called the "gold octawa". The lyric jet in the era of high revival is associated with Pietro Btembo poetry, which has become a phonod of Petrarkism poetry, cultivating Petrard's poetic heritage.
For the literature of the late revival, the preservation of the established system of genres is characteristic, but it changes in it (plots, images, etc.), including the ideological orientation. The largest masters of the novels of this period were M. Bandello (1485-1565) and J. Chintio (1504-1573). AND Novellas Bandello I. StoriesChintio has limit drama of situations, high dynamism, an unwritten image of the inside of life and fatal passions. Novella acquires pessimistic and tragic. The third of the new Renaissance novelists, Giovanni Francesco Farpole (1500-1557), also inherent in the harmony and clarity of the Renaissance, his language is intertwined with common, and the author relies on folklore. A special place during this period is the autobiographical essayment of the famous sculptor and a bequer Benvenuto Chellin.
The lyrical poetry of the late Revival in Italy is largely related to the work of women. V.Colonna verses (1490-1547) and G.Stampa (approx. 1520-1554) reflected dramatic experiences and passion. A completely special place in the literature of the late revival is occupied by the poetic works of the Great Artist Michelangelo, whose poetry is permeated with extremely tragic motifs. Latest Renaissance literature is crowned with Tasquato Tasso Art Heritage (1544-1595). His early work Amita (1573), was created in the genre of dramatic high-eethical pastoral. The highest glory received his epic poem Liberated by Jerusalem (1580). The plot was asked from the era of crusades, but the glorification of his heroes is organically combined with new trends, the influence of the ideas of counterperformation. The poem involved the ideas of the Renaissance, Late Renaissance and Fabulous Elements of the Knight Romanes (the Stolved Forest, Magic Gardens and Castles). The heroic poem was permeated with religious motifs, it is inherent in the extraordinary wealth of the language.
The development of dramaturgy in Italy has received in Italy. In the 16th century Mostly wrote comedy and pastoral. Comedy was written by such great authors as Machiavelli (1469-1527) ( Mandrake) and Ariosto (1474-1533), but completes the development of the comedy of the Italian revival of the play of the Great Scientific and Thinker Jordan Bruno (1548-1600). Along with the "comedy scientist", a popular comedy of masks develops on the ancient samples, a tragedy is born. By the end of the century, the pastoral (in connection with the development of court theater and music) is becoming increasingly distribution ( Faithful shepherd D.Garini).
Characteristic feature of the literature 16 in. It is the emergence and activities of literary associations, first of all, academies.
Revival literature in France
It is already developing in the advantage of the 16th century, although its preteach is usually considered the great poet Francois Viyon (1431-1469), the first truly tragic poet of France, who applied to the topic of reason and loneliness. The beginning of the actual renaissance poetry comes from school so-called "Great Riters", many who made a literary form for the formation of a literary form. The first Renaissance poet is the last of them, Jean Lever de Belzh (1473-1525), who made the secular beginning and the renaissance joy of life into literature, relying on the ancient poetry and great masters of the Italian Renaissance (Dante and Petrarca). The Lyon School of the Poets, the largest representatives of which were Maurice Sav (approx. 1510 - approx. 1564) and Louise Labe (1525 / 26-1565), whose poetry is associated primarily with the development of a love topic. The grace, naturalness and the power of the feeling of an abandoned woman are connected in her poetic heritage with the sophistication of the style. Lyric Libe Labe was distinguished by deep humanity with the accuracy of the image and the chasingness of the sonnet form.
The first take-off of the rebirth poetry in France is associated with the name of Clemar Maro. The character of his literary heritage Mararo with a complete basis allows him to consider it the founder of Renaissance poetry in France: he completely broke with a medieval poetic tradition and introduced a number of new forms (including sonnet). From the ancient poets, he borrowed a number of poetic forms (eclogu, epigram, satire). As the court poet Maro left the benefit of elegant writings, written not in large genres (motto, epigrams, "gifts"), which are inherent in lightness and even playfulness. The creativity of Mararo as a whole was inherent in a more sublime harmonic character, the Renaissance vision of the world and man. He carried out a gigantic work on the translation into French Bible Psalms.
From the first half of the 16th century. The struggle for the approval of the National French, which was a lot of philologists and poets contributed.
The flourishing of French poetry was associated with the activities of the Literary Group "Pleiad", which created the National Poetic School. The first serious work of this group was its literary manifesto Protection and glorification of French (1549), traditionally attributed to Johenyu Du Belly (1522-1560), where new ideas about national culture and literature were clearly declared. The author associated the rise and flowering of culture with nationwide lifting and prosperity; The level of culture development, thus, was determined by the level of development of the state and the people. At the same time, the culture of antiquity characteristic of the renaissance is traced in the manifesto and declared the imitation slogan to the ancient authors. The Art Program "Pleiada" argued the priority of French and its equality with Latin and Italian, proclaimed the high appointment of the poet-Creator. The language was proclaimed by the nature of art, and poetry is his highest form. The antique heritage they considered the incentive for the development of national literature. The group of group changed, but the leading in it were Pierre Ronsar (1524-1585), Joeshen du Belly and Jean Antoine Baif. The greatest degree of the spirit of the culture of the Renaissance and its ideals were expressed in the work of the leader of the Pleiads of Ronsar. Humanist, he chased the joy of life, man and human love as the top of his life. The cult of nature, the feeling and perception of the beauty of the world characteristic of the poet's worldview was reflected in the approval of the idea of \u200b\u200borganic unity of man and nature. In the heritage of Ronsar, his critical perception of society was also manifested ( Hymn Gold, Poems protesting against civil wars) and philosophical reflections on the fate of humanity. At the same time, he sought to glorify his homeland ( Anthem France). A special place in his work was held the topics of love and nature, he left several books dedicated to love ( Love for Cassandra, Love for Mary and etc.). He has an epic poem Franciada. He was rightly considered the contemporaries of the "Prince of Poets".
The second most in the "Pleiad" was Joishen Du Belly, the poet and theoretics of literature. The provincial nobleman went under the influence of Ronsar to Paris, where he became an active participant of Pleiads. He belongs to several collections of poems (including Olive, Regrets, Various rural fun, Roman antiquities). Regrets and Roman antiquities Pledged Du Belly to the honorable place in French literature. The author was not inherent in the grandeur of the designs and images and the scope of fantasy, he was simplicity, his poetry is rather intimate. It is characterized by an email attitude, reflections on life adversities and suffering, sincerity and melancholicity, softness and light sadness. In the early period of Creativity, Du Belle largely divided the general attitudes of Pleiades and its leader Ronsar, especially in the interpretation of the problem of love, although during this period of its poetry is inherent personal, individual sound, expression of a special mental attitude. In this collection, the influence of the manherist samples of Italian petrorskists is clearly traced. In his most mature writings, Du Belly left his first compilation. Roman antiquities (included 33 sonnets) - a collection of philosophical lyrics in which a historical topic was combined with the understanding of past eras and his personal experience. The tragic beginning, understanding of the strugnure of human acts and the omnipotence of time found its expression in Roman antiquities. At the same time, high spiritual thoughts and wonderful creations are preserved, according to the poet's thought, in the memory of people. Thus, he emphasized the faith in the increditing nature of cultural heritage and literature in particular. The top of Creativity Du Belle is considered to be RegretsIn essence, the lyrical diary of the poet during his stay in Rome. The renaissance idea of \u200b\u200bthe celebration and the heal of the person disappears in the sonnets, instead of her there is a tragic awareness of the inevitability of the celebration of obsecution of terrible circumstances from the will. IN Regrets It was expressed by the conviction of wars, adhesion and sales of the courtyard, politicians of the sovereign, an understanding of national values. IN Regrets The crisis has already reflected both the poet itself and the entire French humanism itself, the beginning of the spiritual tragedy and the collapse of the renaissance ideals during the civil wars of the second half of the century. In the collection, the central problem of the late revival was found - the contradiction of the Renaissance humanistic ideal of the personality and society and reality, really surrounding humanists.
Among other members of Pleiads should be mentioned Etienne Zhodel (1532-1573), which created the first classic French tragedy Clear Cleopatra (1553). He tried his strength also in a comedy in verse ( Evgeny, 1552). The play was inherent in patriotic pathos and the acute criticism of the church. The bee was the first French playwright, fully broken with a medieval theater tradition, his plays were focused on antiquity and wrote in accordance with the rules. The drama of the train in many ways anticipates the tragedy of French classicism of the 17th century. In his late work, the influence of mannerism and even baroque is felt.
Religious wars contributed to the decline of "Pleiads" and determined the specificity of the work of the last of the major poets of the French Renaissance. Theodore Agryptova D "Abnavant (1552-1630), a convinced Calvinist, nobleman, even in childhood he gave an oath to devote himself to the case of the Christian faith and kept her. Hardness and persistence of its character were combined with the exceptional faithfulness of faith, honor and king. At the end of life was forced to leave his homeland and retire to Geneva. His first literary experiments ( Spring) They were associated with the poetic tradition, who were sown from Ronsar and even from Petrarch. Glory brought a unique poetic epic Tragic poems (1577-1589). The idea, structure and artistic images of the poem have no analogues not only in the French, but also the European literature of Renaissance. According to the tragic globility of the author, and in the pictorial power, and by emotional heat Tragic poems There are an exceptional monument of the late Renaissance, already anticipating Baroque, "Century, Morals Changing, Other Style asks." And yet in the poem clearly shows the Spirit of Renaissance, Tragic poems - The cry of the filtered humanity. Its language is abounding with extraordinary expressive images, the sublime pathos is combined with caustic sarcasm and extreme drama, the presentation becomes the grandiose, almost cosmic scale. Creativity (he left Memoirs And the major historical composition) completes the development of French rebirth era poetry.
The development of French Renaissance prose is largely connected with the novel, the development history of which opens One hundred new novel (1486). Among numerous collections allocated New fun and fun talk famous free-refumen and author satire Kimvli MiraBonaventure Depex (1510-1544), where a wide panorama of everyday life is given to the modern author of France and colorful individualized images are derived. The peak of French novelists is considered to be the legacy of the crowned writer-humanist Margarita Angolevskaya (1592-1549). The sister of the French king Francis I was in the center of a brilliant yard, the entire intellectual and refined court society. Becoming Queen Navarre, she broke away from the usual cultural environment of the French court, but managed to create a new major culture center in a deaf province, attracting all new and new figures of French Renaissance. In the history of literature, she entered the writer and poetess. Platonic start, characteristic of her mug, found its maximum expression in the poetry of the Queen of Navarre. She belongs to allegorical poems and poems. Genuine glory of Margarita as a writer made up a collection of Novel Heptameron. The collection remained unfinished, it was assumed 100 novels, but the writer managed to write only 72. The second edition (1559), where the novels with sharp anti-carcale attacks were replaced by more neutral texts, the name was called Heptameron. The fellow of the collection was the author's refusal from the use of stray traditional stories, the stories are connected with the personal experience of narrator or other real events. People from the direct environment of the writer were participants in the events, and even her relatives. Hence the special autobiographical flavor of the books and the depth of the characters of the characteristics of the narrator, nomination on the forefront is not so many stories themselves, but discussions. Compared to other collections of Renaissance Novel Heptameron Presents a narrower social circle, in the book it is more likely about feelings, moral situations and wealth of the inner world of people. It is characteristic that in the collection there is no smaller optimism - many stories are sad, and the interpretation of them shows the inconsistency of the high ideal of a person and the reality of the world. Creativity Margarita Anguleve and in particular a collection Heptameron Reflected the beginning of the crisis of the ideals of the French Renaissance.
The highest achievement of the literature of French Renaissance in prose is the work of Francois Rabla (1483-1553). The search for Humanist (famous doctor) led him to literature, from 1532 he begins to publish certain books of his famous novel "from the life of the giants", each of whom alternately condemned the sorbon, and the fourth (1552) was sentenced to burn parliament. In the novel Rabl Gargantua and Pantagruel The inextricable relationship between the French Renaissance culture with the medieval folk laughter traditional is expressed. The novel is undoubtedly there is a parody with hyperbolization on medieval genres, traditions and values. At the same time, humanistic ideals and values \u200b\u200bare approved. Rabol, doctor and scientist, promoted the cult of knowledge and study of science as the means of raising a harmonic man, he insisted on the right of a person to think and feel freely, opposed religious fanaticism. In the novel, a kind of social utopia is drawn - the television monastery, where a person can realize his right to freedom, the joy of life and the desire for knowledge. At the same time, the book is inherent in optimism and faith in the limitless possibilities of a person: "A person is created for the world, and not for war, born for joy, to enjoy all the fruits and plants."
Humanistic ideals are preserved in the French literature and at the end of the 16th century; They generalized and expressed them in a new created literary genre - Essay - Michel de Monten (1533-1592). For the first time in the history of literature, the author outlined his own experiences and experience, "My book content is myself." The identity of Monteneya has become the subject of analysis of its essay Experiments. He proclaims a humanistic understanding of the purpose of man - the goal of human life is the desire for happiness and pleasure. It was he who connected this idea with the idea of \u200b\u200bnatural life and natural human freedom. The presence of freedom determines the nature of the social device, and all people are equal in nature. Montaga summed up the development of humanism, and rather skeptically assessed the results of the development of sciences and even art, insisting on simplicity and clarity, anticipating the principles of the coming classicism.
In Germany
the fate of the Revival literature It turned out to be closely related to the reformation. In many respects, the creativity of the Great Erashma Rotterdam (1466 / 9-1536) is adjacent to the cultural area of \u200b\u200bGermany (1466 / 9-1536). Erasmus - the leading thinker of Europe, he left a big heritage, but two satires received the greatest popularity - Praise stupidity and Conversations are easily. This tradition includes the famous Ship Durakov Sebastian Brand (Satira, having a huge success), and famous Satire Erasmus Rotterdam Praise stupidity (1511) and Conversations are easilywhere the sharp criticism of modern society is given. German literature takes a particularly polemic character on the eve of the Reformation. In the tense atmosphere of the ideological struggle appeared famous Letters of dark people, Humanists's hoax, satire written in Latin by Humanists K. Rubian, G. Bush and U.Fon Gutten in the form of letters on behalf of fictional clerics. Satira dominates the German era literature and it is most clearly manifested in the writings of Humanist Ulrich von Gutten, who in his dialogues ridiculed the Catholic Church.
The formation of a German literary language was connected with Renaissance and Reformation. The translation of the outstanding record of the Martin Luther's Bible Reformation figure to German meant the approval of the norms of the Communion. The poetry, the work of Hans Saks (1494-1576) was acquired less importance in Germany (1494-1576) from the German tradition and reproduces Germany's urban life. Of particular importance in German literature acquire the so-called. Folk books, anonymous writings designed for mass reading. According to its content, they are extremely motifs, both fabulous motives, and the plots of knightly novels, and jokes and even historical narratives are connected. They were different in nature: if Beautiful Magellone was inherent poetry, then in Tale of the Tile of Unelenzpigel and Shildburgerach There is an acute satirical jet. Finally, the Renaissance ideal of the thirst for knowledge and glory, the cult of limitless people is present in Stories about Dr. Johanne Faust, famous Clavier and Warlock (1587), the first processing of this plot in world literature.
English Revival literature
The emergence of new trends in the literature is observed since the emergence of mugs of humanists in universities experiencing the influence of Italian humanism. The largest figure of humanism in England with Tal Thomas More (1478-1535), who left one of the programs of revival Utopia.where the perfect society is drawn, built on equality and justice, where the principle of collective property and the generality of labor is dominated, there is no poverty, and the goal is to achieve a common good. As an authentic human humanist insists on the harmonious development of the person in this society, most of the time of each person is given to intellectual classes. It is characteristic that in the era, when Europe ruined religious distribution, Mi draws a triumph of violence in his ideal state, and mercilessly with the mock describes the gold of gold in Utopia.
The English poetry of Renaissance originates at the beginning of the reign of Heinrich VIII, when the courts became widely popular with literary leisure. The first humanist-poet was John Schelton, the educator of the future Henry VIII, famous for his scholarship. Skalton left a number of satirical poems ( Why you are not a yard). In the first half of the century, the assimilation of new literary forms and genres was accumulated, as well as an ancient heritage. The popularity in England Petrarca poetry led to the approval of the sonnet as a leading poetic form, although slightly changed compared to the classic Italian. The first English poet Petrarckist Thomas White (1503-1542) introduced a sonnet of three katrenins and final two-bending times, the love lyrics were further developed by Henry Howard, Count Sarry (Surrey) (1517-1547), who left the cycle dedicated to Geraldine and also Improved sonnet form. The flourishing of English literature, and above all, poetry was associated with the "golden age" of the reign of Elizabeth Tudor. During this period, patronage in relation to art and literature is particularly developed. The underlined interest in the language led to the creation of a special court-language, exquisite and overloaded with comparisons. Literature developed by the advantage of poetry and dramaturgia. The domination of lyrical poetry was due to the middle of the century with the advent of lyrics T.uieta and Sarry, but the genuine flourishing of lyrical poetry was associated with the name of Philip Sidney (1554-1586), a genuine innovator in poetry and theory of literature. Turning to the form of a sonnet already approved in England, he created a cycle of 108 sonnets Astrophil and Stellawhere poetic miniatures were combined by a common idea of \u200b\u200ba single whole and created a "love story" with a complex gamut of experiences. The final of the seal, the hero (Astrophil) had no response to his feelings and devotion. Sydney's sonnets were included in the dialogues, for the first time in this genre, an ironic topic appears. Sonnet becomes a dominant form in the English poetry of Renaissance, but other poets of this time (so-called "Elizaventintsents") in addition to him also worked in the genres of ODD, Elegy, ballads, epigrams, satires, etc. Sydney also acted as theoretics of literature, defending the high purpose of poetry, its educational impact on the identity leading to the moral improvement of people (treatise Protection of poetry). He also became the first one who appealed to England to the genre of pastoral in his unfinished novel Arcadia (published in 1590).
Edmund Spencer became the largest English poet of the Renaissance (approx. 1552-1599). Unlike the Aristocrat Sydney, Spencer lived a hard life; He left a significant heritage in lyrical poetry, worked in the traditional Renaissance genres of sonnet and hymns. He developed the English pastoral in his "shepherd calendar", where the usual shepherdish idyll for the pastor was combined with the proclamation of civil ideals. Spencer's greatest fame brought his poem Queen Fey., the most important work of the poet. Spencer appealed to the plot hit from the medieval knightly novel, to the cycle legends about King Arthur. The adventures of the knights, each of which is the embodiment of one of the 12 virtues, was Podabul, but the disclosure of characters, interest in the heroic beginning. Thirst for glory, the desire for moral perfection in the spirit of humanistic ideals all this was filled with the Artovsky plot with renaissance content. In addition, the appeal to Arturov legends was determined by a common interest in national history. In the future, a free image of human passions was brought to English poetry. At the same time, the glorification of the joy of life and love was preserved. A feature of her was to search for new forms of verse. Sydney introduced the "Male Riffum", Spencer became the inventor of a special "Spencerian" stanza. The prose developed by the advantage of the novel genre, and they often attended the element of satire and the glorification of bourgeois virtue (labor, leaning, moral modesty). There are a number of various novels (utopian, pastoral, even close to Pluto).
The greatest breakthrough of the English literature of the Renaissance took place in drama, where, of course, the British were ahead of all of Europe. Higher Development The English Theater reaches in 1580-1590. Initially, English dramaturgy was associated with the imitation of ancient, and the plays was written to the stories from ancient history. By 1580, English dramaturgy has already been characterized by a special variety of genres and gave a number of brilliant playwrights. John Lili's plays, performed by the magnificent rhetoric, were addressed to the court viewer, but also in them, like Robert Green, you can see a clearly pronounced patriotic orientation and proximity to the folk legends ( Comedy about George Green, Vekfield wildlife). Since Spanish tragedy Thomas Kida in the source entered the "bloody drama". In general, dramaturgy was characterized by a variety of genres (tragedy, comedy, historical play, even pastoral) and playwrights were extremely prolific (which was explained by the needs of the scene and the contingent of the viewer). The specifics of English dramaturgy also constituted the continuing mixing of high and low genres in one piece, which ensured the effect of contrast and deeply outraged later the theoreticals of classicism.
The peculiarity of this theater was that, relying on the national past, the ancient legacy and the achievements of the Renaissance culture, he managed on the most widely masses of the language, using the grandiose images, put the eternal questions of the human being, the meaning of his life, destinations, time and eternity, relationships Personality and society.
The playwrights that had an actor's duals (they usually worked with the troupe and wrote on its capabilities), not only taken on the stage of titanic characters, but also put the question of the moral responsibility of the individual to society, which brings with them unlimited freedom of uncomplicated A person for others, let not so great, people, what is the fate of the people in the "Minutes of Fathers". At the turn of 16-17 centuries. The theater was able to summarize the entire experience gained by revival, and express it, deepening the ideas put forward earlier.
In the work of the first great tragedy playwright Christopher Marlo (1564-1593), these doubts and contradictions were expressed. Marlo created the image of Faust, who has undertaken to reroach the world. The mouth of another character, the cruel conqueror, the illiterate shepherd of Tamerlane, the playwright sets his understanding of the purpose of man, the "alarming and indomible spirit" entails him to action and knowledge. Heroes Garlo first showed the current side of the ideal of the Renaissance - they are uncomplicated and opposed to society, violating not only his laws, but also the generally accepted norms of humanity. They caused by their amoralism and horror, and admiration. From Creativity, Garlo begins a new stage in the development of the English Renaissance drama, which turned out to be associated with the analysis of the internal mental contradictions, depicting a grand personality, inevitably entering the death.
The top of the development of the Renaissance (and European Theater) is the work of William Shakespeare (1564-1616). The exact amount of his plays and the time of their creation is unknown, on the basis of the analysis of the first posthumous edition, the researchers allocated 37 plays (so-called. Canon) and offered dates. Recently, some researchers are inclined to add individual essays, traditionally attributed to Shakespeare, and again resumed a dispute about the authorship of the entire heritage. Creativity is divided into three periods. By the first period (1590-1600) belong to the advantage of the comedy; Most of them are lyrical, some are domestic, others include elements of a romantic fairy tale or pastoral. All of them expressed the ideals of the Renaissance, permeated with the joy of life, glorify human feelings and active human activity, deeply humanistic ( A dream in a summer night. Much ado about nothing, twelfth Night, Windsor mocking). To the same period include its first tragedies on the stories from the ancient history ( Julius Caesar), as well as a cycle of historical plays devoted to national history (chronicles), in which the historical and political concept of playwright was expressed ( Richard II., Heinrich IV., Heinrich V., Richard III and etc.). It was in them that he first reviewed the problem of authority, ruler, tyranny, the role of the people in the political life of the country and the legitimacy of power. At the turn of the first and second period, the most poetic from the tragedies of Shakespeare was created - the genuine anthem of love digesting due to the Society of Society ( Romeo and Juliet). The second period (1601-1602) was characterized by the crisis of humanistic minoscertication and the reference of the playwright to the genre of the tragedy. The tragedies had the deepest philosophical content. In them, the Renaissance hero opposes not only hostile world, but also a new time, the renaissance harmony of personality and society is destroyed. It is in tragedies ( Hamlet, King Lear, Macbet, Roman tragedy Anthony and Cleopatra and Corioloman) Shakespeare showed the most complicated psychological struggle and the dialect of passions in the souls of his characters, revealed the depth of the conflict. The third period (1608-1612) was characterized by the appearance of romantic, almost fabulous plays ( Cymbelin, Winter fairy tale, especially Storm), Shakespeare remained on the ideals of Renaissance, Shakespeare remained and is faithful to them, the ideals of the Renaissance - a harmoniously developed person is the "crown of all things", but it is given to the fate of the world only outside the usual world, in a fairy tale (utopias, pastoral).
Shakespeare in his work so deeply revealed contradictions of human nature and comprehended the fate of the person and society, which not only deepened the ideas of the Humanism of Renaissance, but his understanding of a person, reflections and experiences were perceived by later epochs, and the plays entered the Golden Fund of Eternal Works, and without them To this day, the activities of the dramatic theater are unthinkable.
The concept of "Tragic Humanism" is connected with the name of Shakespeare: awareness of the tragedy of the person, forced to join the fight against society. Almost always this struggle is doomed, but necessary and inevitable. Shakespeare fully shared the ideals of rebirth, but the central conflict of his plays was determined by the inconsistency of the renaissance ideal of a person of real reality. Society is hostile to this ideal.
The critical attitude towards a imperfect society is associated with its attitude to time, powerful strength, which, however, does not comply with the principles of world order, according to the articulation of the playwright: "Time dislocated the joint." It encourages the inevitable death most Shakespeare Heroes, and even in comedies with a happy ending heroes pass through harsh tests. Most of his heroes seek to comprehend not only themselves, but also their time, and the person's place in the world and eternity, and the confrontation of good and evil. Reflecting, understanding their destination, fate, mistakes leads them to enlightenment.
The greatness of Shakespeare is that he was able to put questions who worry people at all times, make the ideals of the revival of close to descendants and create extraordinarily complex, versatile, psychologically deep images. The ideal of man Shakespeare was inherited from the Renaissance, but the notch of bitterness is already anticipating another time. The successors of Shakespeare ("Junior Elizabetinians") have already expressed not only the crisis of Renaissance ideals, but also the tragic perception of the world, characteristic of mannerism and baroque.
Renaissance literature in Spain
The advantage was connected with the 16th century, by the end of it, crisis phenomena is noticeable in it, in many respects anticipating the appearance of Baroque. From the beginning of the 16th century. The literature form leading Renaissance genres. The specificity of the situation in the country has determined the extraordinarily early awareness of the inconsistency of the Renaissance ideals of the surrounding reality, which imposed a fingerprint on the nature of the literature.
Spanish literature at the same time developed on a national basis. It is characteristic that it receives a new development of the genre of the Knight Roman, which reflected new ideas about the world and man: the joy of mastering the world, a secular character, a new ideal of a person and the norms of his behavior in society. The best of this "mass literature" became famous Amadis Gallsky Garcia Montalvo (1508), which was added to different authors and eventually grown up to 12 books (instead of 4), resist over 300 publications and acquired pan-European popularity. Roman-drama also applies to Spanish prose Celestina F.Dehas, where the bright love of the main characters is opposed to the surrounding vicious and lowland world of the city. Already in the knight's novel, the elements of the Plutovsky novel were formed, the first finished sample of this genre appears in the middle of 16 V. Anonymous novel Life Lasarillo from the brand Represented a novel in themelles in which plot threads are permitted, on the contrary, compared to morality. Realism, even naturalism of the image, sharp satinity determined the success of the novel.
The peak of the Spanish Review Literature is customary to consider the creative heritage of Miguel de Servantes Saoveaven (1547-1616). The complex fate of the author, his vast experience (up to a debt prison and Algerian captivity) was reflected in his work. Cervantes kept loyalty to the ideals of the Renaissance, which was clearly manifested in his early works. The first of them was a pastoral novel Galateiin which heroes were endowed with nobility and moral resistance. His characters Edifying novel endowed with the same properties for any tests. The heroic and patriotic pathos of his tragedy Numania. The most complete incarnation of the humanistic worldview of the writer found in his famous novel Don Quixote Laman. The story about the poor knights, who spent the knightly novels and went into the wanders, was conceived as a mockery over the perfect ideals. The first readers have perceived the novel. But high humanity, genuine humanism is also present in the novel: the knight of the sad image, it remained faithful to humanistic ideals and became a symbol of humanity in the world of cruelty and deception.
The noble knightness, which he worshiped the great hero of Cervantes, implied in its essence the main idea of \u200b\u200bhumanism - a genuine and selfless service with the common good of mankind and justice, a person is obliged to "defend the disadvantaged and oppressed by the strengths of this world." The hero is literally torn into battle in defense of high ideals and believes in the celebration of virtue. In fact, Cervantes draws the appearance of an ideal man of rebirth, but gives him madness. Madness Don Quixote only emphasizes the absurdity of the cynical and pragmatic society. Feature Don Quixote As the novel consisted in ambiguity, the possibility of various perception and interpretation of characters and situations, he was filled with contradictions. And each subsequent era perceived it in another perspective.
The Poetry of the Spanish Revival reflected the desire for sophistication and underlined exaltation, while she could contain the finest analysis of human experiences, a description of the beauty of nature, the glorification of love for God.
The Spanish Renaissance Museum was connected with the process of secularization of the theater. The beginning of the heyday of the Spanish Theater coincides with the Epoch of the Renaissance, and in many ways this flourishing was obliged to the work of Lope de Vega Carpio (1562-1635). The leaving from the urban environment, Lope de Vega lived full adventures life and, in fact, created a new Spanish theater. Baste, probably put a record for the size of his artistic heritage: he was attributed to more than 2000 plays, of which 468 came to us, including 426 comedies. It was he who determined the character of the Spanish drama, connecting elements of comic and tragic in the plays. Lope refused the principle of unity of the place and time, retaining the unity of action. Lope de Vega, like Cervantes, retains faith in the celebration of the humanistic ideal of perfect and free personality. Value has only high personal qualities and talents of a person. The rest for the Humanist is unnecessarily, including the estate belonging. This line is carried out in its best comedies of the genre "Cloaming and sword" ( Dog in the manger, Dance teacher, Girl with jug). In other comedies, the playwright reveals the power of human feelings overcoming all obstacles.
In a number of plays, the playwright puts serious moral, and even political problems ( Star of Seville, Stupid for others smart for yourself, Punishment without meal), they often enhance the tragic principle, the development of the Baroque Epoch theater is largely anticipate.
A special place in his work occupies a play Ovechy sourcewhere the Lope de Vega brought the peasant to the stage, depicted the peasant uprising against the feudal and showed the peasants morally resistant, courageous, heroic, in his power of the Spirit, not only his Lord, but also the king with the queen. Thanks to its brilliant headquarters and linguistic advantages, the depth of the interpretation of the characters of his play was included in the Golden Fund of European Literature.
Revival literature fully expressed all the features of this culture, its secular character, aspiration to man and his feelings, interest in the earthly world.
Revival (Franz - Renaissance), the paradigm of the late feudalism and the beginning of the new time, for three centuries, determined all parties to Western European life. The cradle of Renaissance was Italy, the birthplace of ancient culture. The deep interest of Italian society towards antiquity and attempts to its revival was based on the rebirth. Italian revival is divided into three periods: early revival (XIV-FVVV.), High revival (end of the XV-XV1 centuries) and later revival (XVI century).
In almost all aspects of its manifestation, the Renament phenomenon raises numerous disputes and disagreements among researchers. First of all, there is no consensus about the nature of this culture - whether it was the generation of late feudalism or early burglais relations.
The reasons for the revival were deep changes in the field of economics. In the XIV century In Italy, the city is beginning to grow rapidly, industry blooms, capitalist manufactories arise. The country with the countries of Western Europe increases sharply and especially with the East. Italian banks lead international currency transactions. In Italy, an early-capitalist relationship is originated.
Renaissance, Humanists, were mostly philologists, historians, writers, lawyers, artists. Humanists were looking for works of antique sculptors, manuscripts of ancient writers. Compounds of many ancient authors, in particular, Cicero and Tita Libya were found. Humanists revived the "Golden Latin" of the past centuries, cleaning it from the serious transformation of the Middle Ages. The compositions of Aristotle, Plato, Plutarchs were translated into the Latin. From Byzantium to Florence (where the revival was originated) Greek manuscripts were imported. The original and unique Italian culture of revival was formed.
The worldview as the ideology of the revival was marked by the term humanism (OTlat. humanus.- human). Unlike Middle Ages, the Center for Hisanists put a person, and not God. Humanists considered a man as a creator of all values \u200b\u200band their fate, as a creature, seeking success with intelligence, vital activity and optimism. For them, man is the crown of all living things.
The creators of the new culture were alien to the idea of \u200b\u200bthe sinfulness of man and, in particular, the medieval idea of \u200b\u200bthe sinfulness of the body. The ideal becomes the harmony of the body and soul, or even only a beautiful body, the example of which was an ancient Greek sculpting of Fididia and Prakkitel. The departure from the church-religious worldview led to the destruction of the foundations of medieval religious morality and ethics. Humanistic culture has increasingly acquired a secular character. Humanist Lorenzo Balla(1407-1457) In the treatise "On the substrate of Konstantinova Dara" wrote that "Konstantinov Dar" is a legend, the fiction that this document was out of the papal office in the VIII century. The essay of Lorenzo Balls undermined the theocratic policy of the papacy.
Having made a man of the central figure of the Renaissance culture, Humanists issued one of the most important features of the new ideology - individualism: not a birdlikeness, not noble origin, but only personal, purely individual qualities of a person provide his success in life.
From the very beginning, many outstanding scientists, writers, artists took part in the formation of a new culture. The largest figure standing on the verge of medieval and humanism was Dante Aligiere(1265-1321), the author of the famous "Divine Comedy", which reflected the worldview of the transition period from the Middle Ages to a new time, to revival. The Poem Dante was one of the first works written not to Latin, but in Italian. The artistic perfection and emotional tensions of the Divine Comedy leave an indelible impression. Many concepts of the "divine comedy" (such as "nine circles of hell", "the last circle of hell" and others) firmly entered into a cultural use of mankind. Not less than the "Divine Comedy", Dante is famous for his love lyricist facing the beautiful lady Beatrice.
Peru Dante owns the treatise "On the monarchy", which has widely used humanists engaged in problems of the state and political device fragmented Italy. In his treatise, Dante wrote about the need to associate Italy, which he dreamed of seeing the center of the revival of the ancient Roman Empire.
If Dante is called the last person of the Middle Ages and the first person of the new time, then the first humanist Italy was Francesco Petraska(1304-
1374). Along with Giovanni Boccaccio Petraka was the creator of the Italian literary language. In Italian, he wrote beautiful sonnets facing the beloved laure. Petraka was not only an outstanding poet, but also a public figure. He negatively belonged to the Roman Kuria, which was called "the focus of ignorance". "The stream of sorrows, the abode of the malice of wild, the temple of the heresie and the school is lost," he applied to the Vatican. Concerned about the fate of Italy, in the chancement "ITALY" Petrack writes about her future unity. Almost all Italian humanists will contact the problem of one Italy.
Petraque became famous as a philosopher, opposing medieval scholasticism science about a person. He did not associate the dignity of a person with his origin. According to him, all people have blood red. At the same time, Petrarch often experienced a spiritual disharmony; His humanism is characterized by ideological contradictions characteristic of the human worldview of the transition era from the Middle Ages to a new time.
Petrarch was famous for his life. Contemporaries crowned him with a laurel wreath and officially recognized the greatest poet.
Humanistic ideals Giovanni Bokcchcho(1313-1375) are reflected in its writings "Decameron". Unlike Petrarch or Dante, Glory Boccaccio was somewhat scandalous. Decameron was banned. Nevertheless, this essay has enjoyed vastly popular not only in Italy, but also in other countries. As well as the creations of Petrarks, Decameron (a collection of a hundred novel) was written in Italian. Many compilation plots were borrowed Bokcachcho from the life of his native Florence. The author of the Decameron defended the right of a person for happiness, on sensual joy and love. Boccaccio also holds the idea of \u200b\u200bpersonal advantages, knowledge, creative start of man with humanists. In the Decameron, a Catholic clearing is ruthlessly rising. It is not surprising that for its part the church was brutally pursued by Bokcchcho. Immediately after leaving the press, Decameron was included in the "Prohibited Book Index."
The interests of the humanists were wide. Of great interest they called the story, primarily the history of Italy, Italian people. They also dealt with periodization of history. The famous Italian Humanist XV century. Flavio Bjondoit belongs to the composition "History from the decline of the Roman Empire". He introduced a new periodization of history: antiquity, the Middle Ages, a new time.
Humanists gave stories of great importance not only in political and cultural plan, but also in terms of educational. "... Through the study of the story, the fact that in itself mortal becomes immortal, what is missing, becoming clear," wrote an Italian humanist Martilio Fichino..
Italian humanists worked a lot in the development of ethical teachings. The new era produced new value guidelines. Ethics of Humanists grew from a new understanding of science not only as a complex of knowledge, but also as a means of education of a person, educational education. First of all, this belonged to humanitarian sciences - rhetoric, philosophy, ethics, history and literature. Famous humanist Kolyukho Salyutati(1331-1406) Ratched for an effective struggle with evil, to then create the kingdom of good. In his works, Salyutati emphasized the presence and significance of the human freedom of will.
Leonardo Bruni.(1369-1444) Developed the theory of "Civil Humanism". He argued that democracy and freedom are the only and natural form of human community. Speaking about democracy as a form of state, Bruni first of all meant the Popold Democracy, i.e. People's democracy. He believed that higher happiness was human activity for the benefit of society and the Motherland. Leonardo Bruni was the creator of the theory of humanistic pedagogy and the first champion of female education. Bruni appreciated antique philosophy.
The art of early rebirth. Painting. Sculpture. Architecture.
The first Italian painters of early revival retained in their works a lot of Canons of Middle Ages. This primarily refers to famous Florentine artists. Jotto(1266-1337) and Mazacho(1401-1428). They painted the temples with frescoes, wrote to religious plots. With his work, Jotto liberated painting from the canons and the influence of Byzantine icon painting. By analogy with Dante, Jotto is considered the last painter of the Middle Ages and the first painter of the Renaissance. In the XV century The prospects were opened. Mazacho first applied these laws in painting. This allowed him to create volumetric figures and put them as it were in three-dimensional space.
In the field of sculpture of early revival became famous Donatello(1386-1466), scrupulously examined the ancient samples, the work of the fidia and Praxitel, as well as the Roman sculpture. The most famous his works were the equestrian statue of the famous kingdomyer Gattamelita and the statue of David.
At this time, the canons of Italian humanistic architecture are folded and its first theoretics appear, the authors of the concept of reviving architecture. One of them was Leon Battist Alberti(1404-1472), who wrote the "ten books about architecture", which set forth a new architectural theory, based on the work of ancient architecture. Alberti was also a theorist of reviving painting. He owns the treatise "On Painting", where he formulated the theory of painting art, relying on the ancient heritage and achieving his contemporaries.
One of the largest architects Bruneland(1377-1445) developed its original style from an antique and roman architecture alloy. Bruntelleski elevated a dome at the famous Santa Cathedral of Santa Mary Del Fiore in Florence, built church and civil buildings. He owns the famous Palazzo Pitty.
In the second half of the XV century. In Italian Humanism, the philosophical direction of Renaissance was formed - Florentine Neo-Platonism. The largest representatives were Martilio Fichino.(1433-1499) and Giovanni Pico della Mirandol(1463-1494).
In the XV century Humanistic movement spreads from Florence throughout Italy. New renaissance culture centers appear, such as Rome, Naples, Venice, Milan. The rulers decorated the cities of the beautiful Palazzo (palaces), temples, chapels built on reviving architectural concepts. They collected rich libraries, rare manuscripts, antiques. Especially the famous Medici, the rulers of Florence succeeded. During the Board Lorenzo Medici,lorenzo's nicknamed gorgeous, the flowering of the Renaissance culture in Florence reaches its apogee. Lorenzo was magnificent invited to his court of famous writers, poets, artists, sculptors and architects from all over Italy. Some time he had a famous Michelland Buonotti..
An irreconcilable opponent of the Florentine Humanists performed the abbot of the Dominicans Monastery in Florence Dzhirolamo Savonarola.(1452-1498). He opposed the rule of the Medica, the papacy was cried, called the church to asceticism. Humanistic culture, Savonarola, organized publicly burning works of Italian art. Some paintings of an outstanding Italian artist burned down in its fires Sandro Botticelli(1445-1510), who wrote world-famous pictures "Birth of Venus", "Spring" and others and created a series of drawings to the Divine Comedy Dante.
After the expulsion of the media from Florence Savonarola contributed to the establishment of the republic, the service of which was politician and historian Nikcolo Makiavelli(1469-1527). Two main writings "History of Florence" and "Sovereign"
dedicated to the patient for Italy the question: its fragmentation and ways to overcome it.
In 1498, Savonarola was excommunicated from the church and in the sentence of the priora burned on the fire.
Everywhere the Humanists caused admiration for their extensive knowledge and unique creativity. They were invited to the court many Italian rulers,
roman dads. Under the influence of the new culture, the Pope began to be gradually humanized, to live according to the laws of reviving culture penetrating all spheres.
Italian humanists were invited by spiritual and secular rulers not only than Italy, but also other countries in Europe.
High and later revival in Italy
High revival in Italy (the end of XV is the first half of the XVI century.) - the time of the greatest flourishing of its painting, architecture, sculptures. The subsequent period from the 30s. until the end of the XVI century. Away at the later revival.
At the end of the XV century. It is brewing the need for the synthesis of achievements of early revival. In the culture of high rebirth, the ideas of the greatness of man, his dignity and high purpose were especially manifested.
High revival flourishes in a difficult period of the country's life, during the period of Franco-Italian wars.
The largest and most striking representative of the high revival culture was Leonardo da Vinci(1452-1519) - artist, sculptor, architect, art theorist, mathematician, physicist, an anatom, physiologist, biologist, astronomer. He was the creator of the first aircraft, hydraulic structures, a variety of machines. Almost all areas of modern sciences Leonardo enriched in brilliant guesses, which developed scientists of subsequent generations. Science and art were inseparable for Leonardo. In sciences, he was an artist, in art - a scientist. The alloy of science and art was for him the method of knowing the knowledge of the world.
The most famous picturesque work is the fresco "Last Supper" for the Milan Monastery's Forestry. His famous "Joconda" is considered to be a peak of portrait art and the biggest mystery in the field of portrait painting. The history of the creation of this portrait and the undelivered mystery of his model still causes a lot of disputes.
An equally famous high revival artist was Rafael Santia(1483-1520). His "Sicstinskaya Madonna" received worldwide fame. On behalf of Pope Rafael painted the Vatican Palace Machines. The most significant of his frescoes is the famous "Athens School", where Aristotle and Plato are depicted in the center of the composition.
The largest phenomenon of Italian revival became Michelland Buonotti.(1475-1564) - sculptor, painter, architect, poet. The most famous of his monumental works is a statue of David, standing on the central square of Florence.
The last years of the late revival was the name of tragic humanism, or tragic revival. The tragic motive was already in the work of Michellane, who worked on the verge of two periods of revival. His sculptural works: images of slaves, the Allegorical figures of the morning, evening, day and nights, adorning the tomb in the Cellile of the Medici, with a special force they make it possible to feel the tragic hopelessness of the artist's worldview.
The political weakness of Italy, disappointment in the ideals of humanism, the growing of the Catholic reaction - all this caused a sense of spiritual loneliness in the creators
new culture. This mood is expressed in the late fresco of Michellandzhloo "Scary Court" on the altar wall of the Sistine Chapel of the Vatican Palace.
The large architect of the late revival was Andrea Palladio(1508-1580). He belongs to the essay of "four books about architecture".
Italian humanists of the early, high and late periods of revival wrote a lot about the forms of the state system of the future uniform italy. They developed the concept of mixed rule (monarchy, democracy, republic). Humanists believed that only the mixed form of the board would be able to ensure the well-being of subjects.
A special place in the culture of high rebirth occupies a Venice picturesque school, the largest master of which was Titian Veverielio(1489 / 90-1576). Wide fame received these works such as "Dana" and "Venus in front of the mirror". Titian in the late period of his work is also characteristic of the tragic mood ("crossing the cross", "St. Sebastian", etc.).
The most famous poet of high rebirth becomes Lodovico Ariosto,the author of the poem "Furass Roland", which was an expression of the Renaissance worldview. Established at the junction of periods of high and late revival, this poem as a whole wears joyful and bright character, but also the tragic notes are already breaking through when Ariosto speaks of Italy suffering from wars, poverty and fragmentation, about the unrealted rebirth ideals.
North revival
In the Northern countries, humanism took shape later than in Italy. At the head of the Humanists of the Northern Renaissance stood the largest humanist Erasmus Rotterdamsky(1469-1536), outstanding philologist and writer. He belongs to the writings of "praise stupidity", "Adagiya". Erasmus played a big role in the preparation of the Reformation, but did not accept it.
German revival
In Germany, humanistic culture begins to develop in the XV century. Representatives of various creative regions belong to this culture - philosophers, naturalists, linguists, writers, poets, preachers of humanistic sense. German humanists, as well as Italian, discussed the creation of a single Germany. The nature of the revival culture, and German in particular, demanded that the words and compositions of the Humanists reached the general public and formed her consciousness in the humanistic plan. The writing of the compositions of humanists was slow and ineffective in the humanistic education of European society. And in 1440 Johann Gutenberg(1397-1468) inventing a book.
The largest artist of German revival was Albrecht Dürer(1471-1528). Of particular fame received his "Apocalypse" engravings.
A major representative of German humanism was Johann Reichlin(1455-1522), philologist and philosopher. In Philosophy, Reichlin tried a peculiar experiment: to reconcile Christian Moralism with Humanism. The experiment ended in complete failure.
Among the German humanists and reformers of the first quarter of the XVI century. stand out Ulrich von Guteten(1488-1523), one of the compilers of a unique monument to German humanistic literature, famous "letters of dark people." In the German humanistic literature, an accusatory genre was developed, a brilliant pattern of which is the Satira "ship of fools".
English revival
Humanistic culture in England has developed in the XVI century. The center of her was the Oxford Circle of Humanists, where Grosin, Linakr, John Coles - Enthusiastic Fans of Antiquity and Italian Humanists.
The head of Oxford Mug became John Cole(1467-1519). In France and Italy, he studied theology and tried to combine the sacred writing with the teachings of Plato and Neo-Platonics. He knew the ancient literature, the writings of Italian humanists. Engaged in the problems of upbringing. He opened up a school with a humanistic education program, where ancient languages \u200b\u200b(Latin and Greek) were studied, the compositions of ancient and Christian authors. Kolts contributed to the emergence of grammatical schools in England.
Brilliant English humanist is considered Thomas Mor.(1478-1535), Chancellor of England at King Henry VIII. Thomas Moru belongs to the famous essay of "Utopia", in which he developed the model of the ideal state. Make spoke against the Reformation and, in particular, against the English Reformation. By order of King Mor was executed. In 1935, he was canonized.
Humanistic theater art blooms in England in England. The greatest representative of the English Revival was the playwright and poet William Shakespeare(1564-1616). His comedies "Many noise from nothing", "Venetian merchant", "Sleeping in the summer night" and others. Pierced by the humanistic worldview. Tragedy "Hamlet", "King Lear", "Othello", "Coriolian" and others reflected the collapse of humanistic ideals in colliding them with the moral and ethical values \u200b\u200bof the coming capitalist society. From the glorification of man, his cult, Shakespeare during the period of tragic humanism, the crash of his ideals, will depart from the understanding of a man as a crown of all the living and see only the quintessence of the Prach. In the historical plays "Richard III", "Heinrich V" and others. Shakespeare turned to the past of England. The state and political positions of Humanist are clearly expressed in them. Shakespeare was a convinced supporter of absolutism.
In the XVI century In the cities of England, numerous theaters arise. The Globus Theater was very popular in London, in which Shakespeare was playwright, actor and shareholder. Dramaticria of England XVI century. It was represented by Christopher Marlo, Ben Johnson and others.
The end of the English revival is marked by the activities of an outstanding scientist and philosopher Francis Becona(1561-1626). He owns the fundamental work "New Organon" and the written "New Atlantis".
French revival
Revival is drawn up in France at the end of the XV - beginning. XVI centuries. The patron of the emerging French humanism was the king Francis I.(1515-1547). He invited scientists, writers, artists to the royal court. Under his patronage, the famous French Humanist Guide budget,friend of Thomas Mora, founded the secular scientific center - College de France. The budget was an outstanding philologist.
The Patriarch of French Humanism and Reformation was Etienne d "Etheyla, a major philologist. Etienne d" The stage has translated the Bible into French.
At the court of King Francis I sister Margarita Navararskayacreated a humanistic circle that combined French humanists. One of the most prominent members of this mug was a major poet Cleman Maro. In addition to their own poems, he also published the translation of Metamorphosis Ovid.
Bonaventur Deferre in the composition "Kimviv Mira" Did Catholicism and the Catholic clergy. His collection of stories "New fun and fun adventures" is distinguished by pronounced freight. Sorbonna began to pursue the writer, the king could not protect him. Deferty committed suicide life. A large publisher of the essays of ancient authors, Italian and French humanists Etienne, from Lyon under pressure, Sorbonne was executed for freedomity
and anticatolic activity. In the Margarita Circle, Navarre entered the Humanist Jean Calvin, then turned on the way of the Reformation.
The work of Margarita itself became a noticeable phenomenon in the culture of French Renaissance. She belongs to the collection of the novel "Heptameron", immediately received widespread fame. Heptameron was written under the influence of the Decameron Boccaccio. The beginning of the tragic period in the humanist of France caused a deep spiritual tragedy of Margarita Navarre. It closes in itself, refers to the Catholic faith. Her Peru of this period belongs to the composition "Sin sinus grazing".
The most outstanding French humanist is Francois Rabla(1494-1553). By profession, the doctor, Rabel becomes a famous writer. His most famous work is the novel "Gargantua and Pantagryul". Written in a fabulous, folk manner Roman Rabel permeates satire against the entire feudal society: against the policies of the kings, the Catholic church, the papal authorities, monastics, scholasticism, the feudal court. Roman "Gargantua and Pantagruel" is included in the "prohibited book index".
French revival philosophy in the 2nd floor. XVI in. Acquires a rationalistic character. Prominent her representative became Michelle Monten(1533-1592). In its main essay, "Experiments" Monten conducts the idea of \u200b\u200bthe rule of mind.
Fine art of France XVI century. Reaches great success in portrait painting. As a portraitist - the artist is widely known and popular Francois Clue. The architecture of the France of this time rushes with the Gothic traditions. French architects imitate Italian samples. Architect Pierre Leskowas rebuilt the Louvre in the spirit of new architectural concepts.
The famous sculptor of humanistic France was Jean Stuzon(1510-1568).
Page generated for 0.07 seconds!
Bishops and no case,
That the neighbor lives the neighbor,
That Gill sheds sweat,
What Jack over a lot of back is burning ...
(Per. O.B. Rumer)
As the poet Skelton is still closely connected with the traditions of the late Middle Ages. He relies on Chosera and folk songs. In the future, the development of British Renaissance poetry went on a different way. In an effort to the more perfect, "high" style, the English poets of humanists depart from the "vulgar" traditions of the late Middle Ages and turn to Petrarke and antique authors. It is time for the English book lyrics. The French poetry of the XVI century also developed as much as developed.
John Skelton Thomas White Henry Howard
The first poets of the new direction were young Aristocrats Thomas White (1503-1543) and Henry Howard (Count Sarry, in the former Russian transcription of Serri 1517-1547). Both of them shone at the courtyard of Henry VIII, and both experienced the severity of royal despotism. Whita spent some time in the conclusion, and Sarry did not only hit the dungeon three times, but also graduated, like Thomas Moru, his life on the plate. For the first time, their works are printed in the collection, published in 1557. Contemporaries highly appreciated their desire to reform English poetry, raise it to the height of new aesthetic requirements.
White first introduced to the use of English poetry sonnets, and Sarry gave a sonnet that the form that subsequently we find at Shakespeare (three quatrains and final two-befed with the rhyme system: avav EDCD EFEF GG). The leading theme of both poets was love. She fills the Beat's sonnets, as well as his lyrical songs ("Lutage of Lover", etc.). Closely following the Petrarch (for example, in the sonnet "No peace, I, at least a war,"), he sang about love that turned the sorrow (song "Will you leave me?" And others). Much experiencing a lot of things in many ways, Wyat began to write religious psalms, epigrams and satires, directed against the judacy of the court life ("Life at the courtyard"), chase for the knowledge and wealth ("On poverty and wealth"). In prison opinion, they are written epigram in which we find the following sorrowful lines:
I eat sighs, tears Lew,
Muzzle is the molding challenge ...
(Per. V.V. Rogova)
Whita and Sarry laid the foundations of the British humanistic lyrics, testifying to the increased interest in man and his inner world. By the end of the XVI and the beginning of the XVII century. There is a flourishing of English Renaissance poetry - and not only lyrical, but also epic. Following the example of the Pleiada poets, the English jeques of poetry created a circle, the solemnly named "aropag".
One of the most talented participants of the "Areopag" was Philip Sidney (1554-1586), a person of versatile interests and tissues, raised English humanistic poetry on a high degree of perfection.
High artistic perfection reaches it in the development of a sionage form. His love sonnets (Astrophil and Stella cycle, 1580-1584, printed in 1591) had a well-deserved success (Astrophil means in love with the stars, Stella - Star). It is thanks to Sydney Sonnet became a favorite form in the English Renaissance lyrics. In the poems, Sydney resurrect antique myths ("Philomel", Amura, Zeus, Mars Feb judged). Sightly Sydney echoes with Petrarch and Pleiad Poets.
The genuine manifesto of the new school was the treatise of Sydney "Protection of Poetry" (approx. 1584, printed in 1595), in many respects echoing with the treatise du Belly "Protection and the glorification of French". Only if the enemy du Belle had scientists of Pedants, who preferred to the French Latin, then Sydney considered their duty to defend poetry (literature) who was attacked by Pious Puritians. Peru Sydney also owns the unfinished pastoral novel "Arkady", printed in 1590 as other works of this kind, it is written in a very conditional manner. The storm at the sea, love stories, dressing and other adventures and, finally, a safe union make up the content of the novel, the action of which occurs in the legendary arcada. The prosecical text includes many poems, sometimes very sophisticated, written in a wide variety of sizes and forms of antique and Italian origin (sappistic stains, hexameters, tercins, sextines, octaves, etc.).
Philip Sidney Edmund Spencer
Another outstanding poet of the XVI century. He was Edmund Spencer (1552-1599), who took an active part in the creation of the "Areopag". He perfectly wrote musical sonnets ("Amorretti", 1591-1595), marriage hymns, including "Epitulam", dedicated to his own marriage, as well as Platonic "hymns in honor of love and beauty" (1596). Great success fell to his "shepherd calendar" (1579), dedicated to Philip Sydney. The pretty to the tradition of European pastoral poetry, the poem consists of 12 poetic eclogs in the number of months a year. In Eklogs, we are talking about love, faith, morality and other issues that attracted the attention of Humanists. Very good, May Eclog, in which an elderly shepherd Palinody, happily welcoming the arrival of spring, alive describes a national holiday dedicated to Merry Maya. The conditioned literary element retreats here before the expressive sketch of English folk customs and morals.
But the most significant creation of Spencer is the monumental knight's poem "Queen Fay", which has created over the years (1589-1596) and the author of the author's loud glory of "Prince poets". The efforts of Spencer England finally gained Renaissance Epos. In the "Poets" of the Renaissance, including the "Protection of Poetry" Sydi, heroic poetry always assigned an honorable place. Particularly highly set Sydney "Aneida" Virgin, which was for him the standard of the epic genre.
In the poem, elements of the court romance arturova cycle with their fabulous fiction and decorative exotic are widely used. After all, the legends of the King Arthur arose in British soil, and the King of Arthur itself for the English reader continued to remain a "local hero", the personification of British glory. In addition, it is in England in the XVI century. Sir Thomas Malory in an extensive epic "Death of Arthur" failed the magnificent result of the legends Arturova Cycle. But Spencer relied not only for the tradition of T. Malory. He combined her with the tradition of W. Lengland and created a knightly allegorical poem, which was supposed to glorify the greatness of England, illuminated by the radiance of virtues.
In the poem, King Arthur (the symbol of greatness), fell in love in a dream in the "Queen Fay" Glorian (the symbol of fame, the contemporaries saw in her Queen Elizabeth I), looking for it in a fabulous country. In the image of 12 knights - the associates of King Arthur Spencer was going to withdraw 12 virtues. The poem was supposed to consist of 12 books, but the poet managed to write only 6. They make feats of knights, personifying piety, moderation, chastity, justice, politeness and friendship.
In the XVI century There was also the formation of the English Renaissance Roman, who, however, was not destined to achieve the heights of which reached the French (Rabol) and Spanish (Servanis) novels at the time. Only in the XVIII century. The victorious procession of the English novel in Europe began. Nevertheless, it was in England that a utopian novel arose in the Renaissance era, with all the characteristic features inherent in this genre. Contemporaries warmly accepted Pastoral Roman F. Cindy "Arkady". Noisy, although not durable success fell to the "educational novel John Lily" Evfues, or anatomy of wit "(1578-1580), written by an exquisite syllable, received the name" Evfisma ". The content of the novel is the history of the young noble Athenian Evfues, traveling in Italy and England. Human weaknesses and vices are opposed in the novel, examples of high virtue and mental nobility. In "Evfuese" a little action, but much attention is paid to the experiences of heroes, their heart expectations, speeches, correspondence, stories of various characters,
The most striking success reached English literature XVI century. in the area of \u200b\u200bdrama. Remembering English revival, we undoubtedly first remember Shakespeare. And Shakespeare was not alone at all. He was surrounded by the Pleiad of talented playwrights, who enriched the English theater near the wonderful plays. And although the flourishing of the English Renaissance Drama continued not for a very long time, it was unusually stormy and multicolored. A Renaissance drama was established in the English stage. But the country theater continued to play the active role in the middle of the century. Appeals to the mass audience, he often in traditional forms was alive on the questions nominated by the epoch. It supported his popularity, made it an important element of public life. But not all traditional forms have endured testing time. Comparatively quickly fucked by the Mystery, rejected by the Reformation. But continued to loudly declare interlude themselves - the most worldly and cheerful genre of the medieval theater and morality - an allegorical play, which set certain issues of human existence.
Higher circles looked disapprovingly on the plays, which contained the crazy thoughts, and Queen Elizabeth in 1559 simply forbidden to put such morality.
With all the obvious conventions of the allegoric genre in the English morality of the XVI century. Bright household scenes appeared, and even allegorical characters lost their distraction. This was, for example, a judovo figure of vice (VICE). Among his ancestors, we find a unclear of the Allegoric Poem W. Lengland, and among the descendants - a fat sining of Falstafa, vividly depicted Shakespeare.
But, of course, colorful genre scenes should first look for in the interludes (intermondes), which are English variety of French farce. These are the interludes of John Haywood (approx. 1495-1580) - funny, immediate, sometimes rude, with characters, straightly snatched from everyday life. Do not stand on the side of the Reformation, Haywood at the same time clearly seen the shortcomings of the Catholic clearing. In the intermediate "seller of indulgences and a monk", he forces the greedy servants of the Church to start a scooling in the temple, since each of them wants to pull out of the believers from the pocket as much as possible coins.
Illustration of John Haywood Spider and Fly, 1556
From the end of the XVI century. The public life of England was becoming more dynamic - because there was a time when the bourgeois revolution broke out in the country, - the atmosphere of tense will understand, and sometimes contradictory creative quests that are so characteristic of the "Elizavtian Drama" that form the highest peak in history English Renaissance Literature.
Robert Green writes at the desktop
In the history of English literature, Robert Green (1558-1592) entered as a gifted playwright, was awarded in the University of Cambridge, a high degree of master's master's degree. His play "Monk Bacon and Monk Bongegei" (1589) enjoyed great success. When working on it, Green relied on the English folk book about the Bacon Warlock, seen the light at the end of the XVI century. Like the German Facest, Monk Bacon is a historical face. The prototype of the hero of the people's legend was Roger Bacon, an outstanding English philosopher and the naturalist of the XIII century, who was persecuted by the church, who saw in him a dangerous free-rope. The legend has turned the monk of Bacon in the Warlock and tied it with unclean power. In the play Green Bacon, a significant role is assigned. In the period when an interest in the magic and all kinds of "secret" sciences grew up in Europe, Green brought to the scene a colorful figure of the English Warlock, who owns a magical book and a magic mirror. In the end, Bacon repents in his sinful aspirations and becomes a hermit. But the leading theme of the play is still not magic, but love. The genuine heroine of the play is a beautiful and virtuous girl, the daughter of Forester Margarita. In love with the prince of Wall, but she gives her heart to court prince Count Lincoln. No trials and misadventures are capable of breaking its durability and loyalty. Amazed by the resistance of Margarita, Prince Wellesky ceases its harassment. The bonds of marriage are connected by lovers. Besky intriculture is not needed where a large human love reigns.
About George Green, Vekfield Wheel Wilderness ", who saw the light after the death of Green (1593) and, probably, he belonging to him. The hero of the play is no longer an arrogant Warlock, who is repeated from his sinful craft, but the valiant commoner, like Robin Hudo . By the way, Robin Hood himself appears on the pages of the comedy. Having heard about the valor of George Green, he is looking for meetings with him. The situation in which the inner and external danger threatens the English state at the same time, because the English feudal group led by Count Kendall and In the Union with the Scottish king raises an uprising against the English king Eduard III.
It is not by chance that the contemporaries saw in the Green of the People's Dramatourg. Joining this opinion, prominent Russian scientist, an expert on the English theater of Shakespearean era N.N. Storozhenko wrote: "Indeed, the name of the folk playwright does not go to anyone as to the Green, because we will not find so many modern playwrights to him, so to speak to the lively snatched from English life and every impurity eufisma and classical ornament
Other R. Green is one time was a talented poet and playwright Christopher Marlo (1564-1593), the authentic creator of the English Renaissance tragedy.
Christopher Marlo
It should also be mentioned about the play of Marlo "Eduard II" (1591 or 1592), close to the genre of the historical chronicle, which attracted the close attention of Shakespeare in the 90s.
When compiling this material used:
1. The history of the culture of Western European countries in the Renaissance. Bragin Volodarsky Variash. 1999.
2. World art culture. From the origin until the XVII century. (Essays history). Lvova E.P., Fomin N.N., Nekrasova L.M., Kabkova E.P. - SPb.: Peter, 2008. - 416C.: IL.
3. Center for remote education MGUP, 2001
The English literature of the Renaissance developed in close connection with the literature of other European countries, primarily humanistic Italy.
Throughout the XVI century, Italian literature enjoyed much popular in England, being a favorite source of those, plots and forms for English writers. In the originals and translations in England, the works of Petrarca, Bokcchchcho, Ariosto, Tasso, various Italian novelists were widely distributed. "Ithalania" was so common in various circles of English society, that Roger Eshche in his "school teacher" compared Italy with the circces, whose singing was flooded with all the hearts and threatened, in his opinion, the final spoofing of the morals. Lovers of Italian literature, according to him, "Petrarchs treated" triumphs "with great revelation than to the Book of Genesis, and Bokcchcho's novels appreciated more than biblical history."
Under the influence of Italian samples (and in part and French, in turn, many literary genres were reformed in England and new poetic forms were reformed in England. First of all, the reform touched poetry. In the last years of the reign of Henry VIII, the Circle of Court poets has transformed the English lyrics in Italian style. The most important figures of this reform were Wyat and Serri.
Thomas White (Thomas Wyatt, 1503 - 1542) belonged to a prominent aristocratic family, studied in Cambridge and among the approximate king was highlighted with its deep and comprehensive education. In 1527, he visited Italy, and this journey had an equally important thing for him as for Chosera. In Italy, he met the Renaissance culture, became interested in Italian poetry and tried to imitate her in his own poetic creativity.
The main theme of the early lyrics of the White is the alarms and the aspirations of love, chanting them with full seriousness, then heavily. In the second half of his life, Wyeth performed a number of diplomatic instructions, living in Spain, then in France. Although now love topics did not quite disappear from the creativity of White, but in his poems he sounded more serious tones, they often heard a deep disappointment of the court life, and instead of sonnets and love songs of intimate content, he more often turned to epigram and satire. In 1540, Wyeth returned to his homeland, was arrested and accused of state treason. After liberation, he retired from the courtyard in his estates, wrote three satires for the samples of Horace, Persia and modern Italians to him, where he criticized the court situation and morals with a large bitterness, opposing them a quiet life among nature, away from the courtyard and the capital.
Hayet's poetry has a book, artificial character. Most of his poems represents imitation of alien samples, primarily Italian. The most of all Wyat was passionate about Petrarch's poetry and under his influence introduced into English literature the form of a sonnet, until then in England, unknown. Of the 32 sonnets written by White, 12 are translating sonnets Petrarca.
The effect of Petrarks is also felt in other works of White. However, Petrairka attracted White not so much the freshness and character of his lyrical experiences, as inherent in some of his sonnets is extremely intricate and even by the form of a shape of a verbal expression. Behind the sonnets of White, characterized by some artificiality and heavyweight, remains, however, that the merit that they introduced this form to English poetry, causing a lot of imitations. In addition to sonnets, Whita wrote also, part of the French samples (Cleman Maro), Rondo and OD (in his understanding - poems of love content, songs for musical accompaniment); In his poems there are also imitation of Spanish and old English poets (Choseer).
An even greater value than Lyrics Wayet had a poetry of his successor and a friend, gray. Henry Howard, Grare Count Henry Howard Earl Of Surrey, 1517 - 1547), belonged to one of the most born families of England and, like White, tested all the events of life at the courtyard of the "bloody" king Henry VIII. Being for a number of years of approximate king, he was accused of state treason and executed in January 1547, a few days before the death of Heinrich VIII, which was one of his last victims.
Poetic activity Cherrya began with the imitation of Wyetu (which he dedicated one of his best poems) and its samples. In Italy, Serri has never been, but deeply penetrating the spirit of Italian poetry. If Wyat still submorely followed Italian samples, then Serri has already treated them more freely, deviating from the strict form of Italian sonnet, but following the lyrical essence of this genre, continuing and improving him in English poetry. A significant part of the poems was devoted to love topics.
From other works of CERRIA, it should be noted his translation of two songs from the "Aneida" Vergil, interesting not only by the fact that it is one of the first English quite successful and relatives to the original translations of the Latin classic, but in particular the fact that in this translation for the first time in English Poets (under the Italian influence) are used by white verse (five-colored Yamb without rhymes), which soon began to play a big role in England, mainly in dramatic poetry (Marlo and Shakespeare).
The works of White and the grayry have become available to a wider range of English readers, only when they were published by the R. R. R. R. R. R. R. Totel together with poems of many other authors (the so-called "Tottelev Collection" ). Following this book began to appear other similar poetic collections.
In particular, the larger distribution on the sample of Italian poetry began to use in England sonyet's form . At the end of the XVI century. There were already dozens of "sonotists" in England. Among the best authors of Sotenetov were considered Philippe Sydney, Edmund Spencer and, finally, Shakespeare.
Philip Sydney (Philip Sidney, 1554 - 1586) Born in the genital castle in the County County of the prominent aristocratic family, studied at Oxford University, at the end of which was appointed a member of the embassy poisoning to France. In Paris, he continued to learn, but was also rotated at the court and led the acquaintance with a number of French Writers-Guenotov.
Bartholomeevian night (August 24, 572) made him hastily leave France; So the time began his wanders in Europe. Sydney went to Frankfurt am Main, then to Vienna, visited Hungary, Italian lands, Prague, a number of German cities and returned to his homeland through Holland.
It can be said that he broke the whole of Europe and at the same time, at the same time, all the main centers of the then humanistic education and the reform movement, the hot supporter of which he was.
In England, Sydney was invited to the court and here first saw Penelope Demore, the daughter of the Essex Count, which he subsequently felt under the name Stella in the sonnet collection ( "Astrofel and Stella" , ed. In 1591). Court intrigues made Sydney to retire in the rural castle of his sister, and here he wrote the most important of his works - pastoral novel "Arcadia" in which many of his lyrical poems is also woven, and the treatise "Protection of poetry" (1579-1580).
Subsequently, Sydney returned to the court, but then in 1585 he joined the British troops sent to the Netherlands to fight against Catholic Spain, and was killed here in one of the battles.
The largest English rebirth poet is Edmund Spencer (Edmund SPENSER, 1552 - 1599). If its predecessors were focused mainly on foreign literature, he, on the basis of the same effects of Italian (and partly French), poetry tried to create purely English, national poetry.
Wednesday in which Spencer received education, little reminded the situation in which Wyeth, Serri or Sydney lived.
He was not a birth from aristocratic or from a wealthy family, but in Cambridge University received a solid classical education. In 1578, we find it in London, where his university comrades introduced it to the Sydney and Leaster house, through which he probably got access to the yard. By this time, the creation of Spencer "Calendar Shepherd" And probably the beginning of work on the poem "Queen Fay" . Since Spencer was not materially secured to live without service, friends exhaust his place of personal secretary of Lord Gray in Ireland.
In 1589, Spencer returned to London and lived in the very capital or not far from her about a decade, completely distinguished by literary creativity. In 1590, the first three books of the poem were published in London "Queen Fay" dedicated to the Queen Elizabeth, who brought him literary glory; Despite the small annual pension appointed by him Elizabeth, the material affairs of Spencer walked far from brilliantly, and he began to repent of some kind of service post. In 1598, he was a sheriff in a small Irish place, but this year there was a major uprising in Ireland. Spencer's house was crushed and burned; He himself fled to London and here soon died in extremely cramped circumstances.
Shortly before death, they were written prosaic treatise "On the current state of Ireland" . Contemporaries argued that it was this essay that concluded a lot of truth about the cruel exploitation and ruin of the Irish of the English authorities was the cause of anger on the Queen of Elizabeth's spencer, who had deprived him of all material support.
The first printed poems of Spencer were its translations of six sonnets Petrorski (1569); Later they were reworked and published with his translations from the poets of the French "Pleiads".
Much attention was paid to himself another work of Spencer, whose plan was inspired by F. Sydney, - "Calendar Shepherd" (1579). It consists of twelve poetic eclogs, consistently relating to 12 months of the year. In one of the bottoms, it is described on how the shepherd (under the species of which Spencer dismisses himself) suffers from love for an impregnable Rosalyde, in the other, Elizabeth is praised, "the queen of all shepherds", in the third - under the guise of shepherds, representatives of Protestantism and Catholicism, leading Among the disputes on religious and public topics, etc.
Following fashionable at that time the pastoral genre, the poem of the "calendar of the shepherd" is distinguished by the sophistication of the style and scientists with mythological content, but at the same time they enter into a number of very living descriptions of rural nature.
The lyrical poems of Spencer in its poetic advantages above his early poem; They were published in 1591 after much success of the first songs of his "Queen Fay".
Among these poems other than even early learned is a refined manner ( "Tears of Muz", "Ruins of Time" ), others are characterized by the sincerity of their tone and the grace of expression ( "Death of Butterfly" ), third, finally, with their satirical features (for example, "Fairy Tale Mother Governor" which tells the parable about the fox and monkey).
Satirichic features also have a poem "Return Colin Claut" (1595).
The plot of the poem is based on the story of the invitation of Spencer again to visit London and the courtyard of Qingthia (i.e. Queen Elizabeth), made by the poet Walter Rieli, a famous navigator, scientist, and a poet, (in the poem he appears under the coupling name "the shepherd of the sea"). Rieli visited Spencer in Ireland in 1589 in the poem it is told about the admission of the poet at the courtyard and under the fictional names are given the motley, the living characteristics of public people and poets close to the queen.
However, his poem was the most popular and most famous work of Spencer. "Queen Fay" .
Samples for this poem partially served as the poems of Ariosto ("frantic Roland") and T. Tasso ("liberated by Jerusalem"), but Spencer is also required to many medieval English allegorical poetry and cycle of knightly novels about King Arthur. The task of him was to rush these heterogeneous poetic elements to one whole and deepen the moral content of the court poetry, fertilizing it with new, humanistic ideas. "Under Queen Fei, I want to intelligible glory at all," Spencer wrote about his poem, "in particular, I understand the excellent and glorious individual of our Great Queen under it, and under the country Fay is its kingdom." He wanted to give his work the significance of the national epic and therefore created it on the basis of British knightly legends and insisted on her teacher, educational character.
The plot of poems is of great difficulty. Queen Fay Gloriana sends the twelve of his knights to destroy twelve angry and vices from which humanity suffers. Each knight personifies any virtue, just like the monsters with whom they struggle, personify the vices and delusion.
At the twelve first, the songs are told about the twelve adventures of the Knights Gloriana, but the poem remained unfinished; Each knight was supposed to take part in twelve battles and only after that he could return to Queen's courtyard and give her a report on his exploits.
One of the knights, Artegall, personifying justice, struggles with a giant injustice (granto); Another knight, Guyon, who is an personification of moderation, fights with drunkenness, and expels him from the temple of the Wholestep.
Knight Sir Kaldore, the incarnation of courtesies, fell on slander: it is characteristic that he finds this monster in the ranks of the clergy and makes him shift after a fierce struggle. "But," Spencer notes, - at present, apparently, it again got the opportunity to continue its intentional activities. "
The moral allegory is connected to the political: against Gloriana (Queen Elizabeth) are the powerful sorcerer of Duess (Maria Stewart) and Gerion (King Spanish Philip II). In some dangerous adventures, King Arthur helps King (Favorite Elizabeth Graf Leicester), who, seeing Glorian in a dream, fell in love with her and together with Merlin's wizard went to search for her kingdom.
The poem probably would end with the marriage of King Arthur and Gloriana.
In the stories about the adventures of the knights, despite the fact that Spencer always gives them allegorical meaning, a lot of fiction, enraged and beautiful descriptions. "Queen Fay" is written by a special stuff (consisting of nine poetic lines instead of the usual in the Italian poems Octave, i.e. eight-grade), called name "Spencerskaya Strafs" . This stanza was mastered by the English poets of XVIII in . during the revival of interest in the "romantic" poetry of Spencer and they switched to English romance (Byron, Kite and others).
Widespread development in the English literature XVIV. Lyrical and epic genres caused interest in the theoretical problems of poetry at this time. In the last quarter of the XVI. A number appeared english poetic Discussing the issues of English stying, poetic forms and style. The main ones are "The art of English poetry" (1589) George Puttenhem and "Protection of poetry" (ed. 1595) Philip Sydney . In the first author, based on the samples of antique and Renaissance poetry, but with a complete understanding of the originality of the English language, it speaks in detail about the tasks of the poet, about the content and form of poetic works.
"Protection of poetry" Sydney in turn proceeds from the ancient and European renaissance theoretical prerequisites on poetic creativity and from this side, by the way, condemns the English People's Drama of the Shakespeare Age, but at the same time sympathically responds about folk ballads and proclaims the realistic principle as the basis of poetry. "There is not a single type of art that makes up the property of mankind - says Sydney, - which would not have their object of nature phenomena." Puttenham and Sydney poettes were probably also known to Shakespeare.
Creativity Shakespeare - the top of the English Renaissance and the highest synthesis of the traditions of the pan-European culture
INTRODUCTION
a) classic sonnet;
b) Shakespeare's sonnet.
Conclusion
"The soul of our century, a miracle of our scene, he belongs not to one century, but all times," his younger contemporary, English playwright Ben Johnson wrote about Shakespeare. Shakespeare is called the largest humanist humanist of the Late Revival, one of the greatest writers of the world, the pride of all mankind.
Representatives of many literary schools and flows at different times appealed to his work in search of current moral and aesthetic solutions. The infinite variety of forms that are born under such a powerful influence is somehow a progressive character, whether it is quotes in satirical "opera beggars" John Gaya or passionate lines in the political tragedies of Vit Torio Alfiery, the image of "healthy art" in the Hyogan tragedy Goethe "Faust" or democratic ideas, expressed in the article-Manifesto Francois Gizo, an exacerbated interest in the inner state of the personality of English romantics or "free and wide range of characters" in Boris Godunov, Alexander Pushkin ...
It is probably possible to explain the phenomenon of the "immortality" of the creative heritage of Shakespeare - the undoubtedly the great poetic gift, refracting the most acute moral conflicts, hidden in the very nature of human relations, is perceived and rethought by each subsequent era in a new, characteristic of only this moment aspect, remaining The product (if you can say so) of your era, which absorbed the entire experience of previous generations and implemented the creative potential accumulated by them.
Prove that Shakespeare's creativity is the top of the English Renaissance and the highest synthesis of the traditions of the pan-European Renaissance Culture (not pretending to the Lavra Georg Brandez, quite extensively and significantly submitted this topic in his work "William Shakespeare" (1896)) I, perhaps , I will take it on the example of his Usionstovf, as a genre born on the eve of the era under consideration and precisely during the Renaissance period, and in the subsequent XVII Century, who experienced the highest heyday.
Brief description of the Renaissance
Revival (Renaissance), a period in the cultural and ideological development of the countries of Western and Central Europe (in Italy XIV - XVI centuries, in other countries The end of the XV is the beginning of the XVII centuries), transition from medieval culture to the culture of the new time.
Distinctive features of the culture of Renaissance: anti-refortionism at its base, secular, anticarcan character, humanistic worldview, appeal to the cultural heritage of antiquity, as if the "revival" of him (hence the name).
The revival arose and brighter was manifested in Italy, where at the turn of the XIII - XIV centuries. His precursors were the poet Dante, the artist Jotto and others. The work of rebirth figures is imbued with faith in the limitless possibilities of man, his will and mind, the denying of Catholic scholasticism and asceticism (humanistic ethics). Paphos approval of the ideal of a harmonious, liberated creative personality, beauty and harmony of reality, appeal to a person how to the highest start of being, the sense of the integrity and the slender pattern of the universe give the art of revival of greater ideological significance, a majestic heroic scale.
In the architecture, secular structures began to play the leading role - public buildings, palaces, city houses. Using arched galleries, colonnades, vaults, bathing, architects (Alberti, Palladio in Italy; Lesko, Delorm in France, etc.) gave their buildings with majestic clarity, harmony and proportionality to man.
Artists (Donatello, Leonardo da Vinci, Rafael, Michelangelo, Titian, etc. in Italy; Yang Wang Ayke, Bruegel in the Netherlands; Dürer, Nithardt - in Germany; Fuku, Stuzon, Clue in France) consistently mastered the reflection of the entire richness of reality - transmission Volume, space, light, the image of the human figure (including nude) and the real environment - the interior, landscape.
Reviews of the Renaissance created such monuments of incredit value as "Gargantua and Pantagruel" (1533 - 1552) Rabel, Drama Shakespeare, Roman "Don Quixote" (1605 - 1615) of Servantes, etc., organically combined interest in Antiquity with an appeal to folk culture, the pathos comic with the tragedy of being. Sonnet Petrarca, Novels Bokachco, Heroic Poem Aristo, Philosophical Grotesque (Treatise Erasma Rotterdam's "Foolish Praise", 1511), Essay Monteney - In different genres, individual forms and national versions embodied the ideas of revival.
In music, penetrating humanistic maidos, the vocal and instrumental polyphony develops, new genres of secular music appear - a solo song, Cantata, Oratoria and Opera contributing to the statement of homophone.
In the era of the revival, outstanding scientific discoveries in the field of geography, astronomy, anatomy were made. The ideas of revival contributed to the destruction of feudal-religious ideas and largely objectively answered the needs of the emerging bourgeois society.
Revival in England
In England, the Renaissance era began somewhat later than, for example, in Italy, and she had their important differences here.
The time it was in England difficult and bloody. Inside the country there was a hard struggle with those who did not want it to be freed from the influence of the Vatican. The ideas of revival were approved in the fight. England fought with Spain, who protected the power of Catholicism throughout Europe.
Naturally, the first to be expressed in the books of thought and feelings of the new time, there were humanists. They could not speak only about how beautiful to be a man - they saw the suffering of ordinary English. At the beginning of the XVI century. The book of the First Great Humanist of England Thomas Mora "Utopia" appeared. It described the fictional island of Utopia - Society of the Future, where justice reigns, equality, abundance. Thomas Mora's book had a huge impact not only on his contemporaries, but also to the development of communist ideas in the future.
The strongest idea of \u200b\u200brebirth in England was embodied on the scenes of theaters. In the English theater, a large group of talented playwrights was worked - Green, Marlo, Kid, and others. They are usually called the predecessors of Shakespeare, whose creativity has absorbed and developed all the best that was in their works.
Distinctive features of the worldview of the Renaissance
Starting from the XV century. There is a number of changes in the socio-economic and spiritual life of Western Europe, meaning the beginning of the period under consideration. Socio-economic changes (the emergence of conditions for the formation of modern European nations and a modern bourgeois society, the origin of the foundations for the later world trade and the transition of crafts in manufactory, etc.) was accompanied by significant changes in the mindset. The secularization process determines the independence in relation to the Church of all areas of cultural and public life, including science, philosophy and art.
A new "reviving" interpretation of being, the foundations of new European dialectics are laid in philosophy.
Realizing itself as the revival of an ancient culture, an ancient way of thinking and feeling and opposing itself, thereby, the medieval Christianity, the Renaissance era, arose as a result of the development of medieval culture. The most important distinctive feature of the worldview of the Renaissance is its orientation on art. If the focus of antiquity was a natural-space life, in the Middle Ages - God and, associated with him the idea of \u200b\u200bsalvation, then a man is in the era of revival in the center.
Such strength and power over all existing people did not feel in antiquity or in the Middle Ages. He does not need the grace of God, without which he, as they believed in the Middle Ages, could not cope with the lack of "sinful entity". He himself is now - the Creator. Creative activity, therefore, acquires the revival of a kind of sacral in the era - with its help he creates a new world, creates beauty, creates himself. It was this era who gave the world a number of outstanding individualities who have bright temperament, comprehensive education, strong will, purposefulness, and huge energy.
Sophisticated artistic taste Everywhere recognized and emphasized the originality and uniqueness of each individual, without considering that the intrinsicness of individuality means the absolutment of the aesthetic approach to man, while the person is rather moral and ethical. Such are the heroes of Shakespeare - the distinctive features of the person (the ability to recognize good and evil, to act in accordance with this discoveration and be responsible for their actions), it seems to me, are replaced by purely aesthetic criteria (as the hero differs from all the others, how original his actions are ). Examples of this we can easily find in each of the Shakespeare works.
e randomly, in my opinion, the sonaret flourishing fell on the era of the revival of C anthropocentric thinking of this period, the renaissance interpretation of dialectics contributed to the emergence of outstanding creative individuals, gave a powerful progressive impetus to both science and art.
Brief description of the Creativity of Shakespeare
Biographical information about Shakespeare is scarce and, often, unreliable. The researchers believe that as the playwright he began to perform from the late 80s of the XVI century. In print, the surname Shakespeare first appeared in 1593 in dedication to Count Southampton Poem "Venus and Adonis". Meanwhile, by that time on the stage, at least six plates of playwright was already delivered.
Early plays are imbued with the life-affirming start: the comedy "Taming of the Shrew" (1593), "Sleeping in the Summer Night" (1596), "Much noise from nothing" (1598), the tragedy of "Romeo and Juliet" (1595 g .). In the historical chronicles of Richard III (1593), Heinrich IV (1597-98) captured the crisis of the feudal system. The deepening of public contradictions led to the transition of Shakespeare to the genre of the tragedy - "Hamlet" (1601), "Othello" (1604), "King Lear" (1605), "Macbeth" (1606). Socio-political issues are characteristic of the so-called, "Roman" tragedies: "Julius Caesar" (1599), "Anthony and Cleopatra" (1607), "Coriolian" (1607). The search for an optimistic solution of social tragedies led to the creation of a romantic drama "Cymbelin" (1610), "Winter Fairy Tale" (1611), "Storm" (1612), wearing a shade of a peculiar instructive parable. Shakespeare Canon (undoubtedly owned by the plays) includes 37 drams written mainly by white verse. Thin penetration into the psychology of heroes, bright imagery, public interpretation of personal experiences, deep lyricism distinguish these truly great works that have survived the centuries who have become an invaluable heritage and an integral part of world culture.
Figy-thematic analysis of the "Sonnet" cycle
Shakespeare belongs to a cycle of 154 sonnets, published (without the audience and the consent of the author) in 1609, but written, apparently, in the 1590s (in any case, already in 1598, the message about it flashed Sweet sonnets, famous to close friends ") and was one of the most brilliant samples of the Western European Lyrics of the Renaissance. The form under the penis of Shakespeare has managed to become popular among English poets, encroaching the vast gamut of feelings and thoughts - from intimate experiences to deep philosophical pondays and generalizations. Researchers have long paid attention to the close connection of sonnets and Shakespeare's drama. This connection is manifested not only in the organic alloy of the lyrical element with tragic, but also that the ideas of passion, spiritualizing Shakespeare's tragedies, live in his sonnets. Just like in tragedies, Shakespeare affects the sinks of the problem of being, which has worried humanity, is talking about the happiness and sense of life, about the ratio of time and eternity, about the strugnure of human beauty and its greatness, about art capable of overcome the inexorable time , about the high poet mission.
The eternal inexhaustible theme of love, one of the central in the sonnets, is closely intertwined with the theme of friendship. In love and friendship, the poet acquires a genuine source of creative inspiration, regardless of whether they bring him joy and bliss or the flour of jealousy, sadness, mental torments.
Thematic all cycle is accepted to divide into two groups: it is believed that the first
(1 - 126) addressed to a friend of the poet, the second (127 - 154) - to his beloved - "dark lady". The poem, distinguishing these two groups (perhaps, precisely by virtue of its special role in the general series), strictly speaking, sonnet is not: in it only 12 lines and adjacent location of the rhymes.
Litting of grief about the strugnure of all the earth, passing through the whole cycle, the imperfection of the world is distinguished by the poet, does not violate the harmony of his minority. The illusion of the afterlife of foreign bliss by him - he sees human immortality in glory and offspring, advising his friend to see his youth revived in children.
In the Review Literature, the topic of friendship, especially male, occupies an important place: it is considered as the highest manifestation of humanity. In such a friendship, it is harmoniously combined by the rally of the mind with a mental tendency free from the sensual beginning.
No less significant sonnets dedicated to beloved. Her image is emphasized non-traditionative. If in the sonnets of Petrarki and his English followers (Petrorskists) usually chanting an angel-like beauty, proud and inaccessible, then Shakespeare, on the contrary, devotes the jealous reproaches of the dark brunette - inconsistent, who obeying passion only.
Shakespeare wrote his sonnets in the first period of creativity, when she still kept faith in the celebration of humanistic ideals. Even despair in the famous 66th sonnet finds an optimistic output in the "sons". Love and friendship are still standing as in Romeo and Juliet, by force that claims the harmony of opposites. The gap of Hamlet with Ophelia is still ahead, as well as the torn of consciousness, embodied in Prince Danish. It will take several years - and the victory of the humanistic ideal will move away for Shakespeare in a distant future.
The most remarkable in the sonnets of Shakespeare is a constant feeling of the internal contradictions of the human feeling: what is the source of the highest bliss, inevitably give rise to suffering and pain, and on the contrary, happiness is born in grave flour.
This confrontation of feelings in the most natural way, no matter how difficult was the metaphorical system of Shakespeare, is laid in a sionage form, which dialectically inherent in nature.
Dialectical nature of the sion
Classic sonnet
A relatively small amount of so-called solid forms - strictly canonized and stable stubbic combinations exists among the huge variety of poetic compositions of various genres. In popularity and prevalence, none of the solid forms - the Italian and French (middle ages) of TRIOLOG, Virila, Sextin, Iranian Gazelle, or a tank of Japanese poetry - will not compare with the sonnet.
After approximately at the beginning of the XIII century. In Italy (Sonnet - from Ital. Sonet (song), based on the word Son (sound)), this genre very quickly acquired the canonical rules formulated in 1332 by the Paduan lawyer Antonio Yes Temo, later repeatedly clarified and tightened.
The most stable structural signs of a classic sonnet:
- stable volume - 14 lines;
- clear membership for four stanzas: two quatrains (rods) and two three-hundred (tercet);
- strict repeatability of rhymes - in the mosses are usually two rhymes four times, in tercets, other three rhymes twice or two rhymes three times);
- sustainable rhyme system - more preferred "French" sequence: ABBA ABBA CCD EED (or CCD EDE), "Italian": Abab Abab CDC DCD (or CDE CDE);
- permanent size - usually this is the most common size in national poetry: five- or six-star Yamba in Russian, German, Dutch, Scandinavian poetry; five-stranded - in English; eleven sedent verse - in Italy, Spain and Portugal; The so-called Alexandrian verse is twelve-signed with the cesury in the middle - in the classic French sonnet.
In addition, the Sone Canon also contains some other more or less universal requirements:
- each of the four parts (katrenins and tercets) should have, as a rule, internal syntactic finishes and integrity;
- katrolena and tercets differ in intonational - the dynamism and expression of the second comes to replace the title;
- rhymes must preferably be accurate and ringing, and the regular change of male rhymes is recommended (with an emphasis on the last syllable);
- it is extremely undesirable to repetition in the text of the same words (with the exception of unions, pronouns, etc.), if it is not dictated by the conscious idea of \u200b\u200bthe author.
Topics of sonnets is extremely diverse - a person with his acts, feelings and a spiritual world; Nature that surrounds it; the expression of the inner world of a person through images of nature; society in which there is a person. The Sone form is equally successfully used in loving psychological and philosophical, in a descriptive, landscape, political lyrics. Through it, both delicate feelings and angry pathos are perfectly transmitted through it, and angry pathos. Nevertheless, the specifics of the form are primarily due to universal adaptability to the transmission of the sensation of dialectics of being.
In the work of Johannes R. Becher, "Sonet's philosophy, or small insertions on the sonnet" is the most detailed disclosed and substantiates the definition of the sonot as dialectic genre .
According to Becher, Sonnet reflects the main stages of the dialectical movement of life, feelings or thoughts from the thesis, through the antithesis to the synthesis (position - opposition - the removal of opposites). In the classic form of the sonnet, the first katro contains the thesis, the second - antithesis, tercets (sextet) - synthesis. But "the relationship between the situation and the opposite is solely complex, and perhaps at first glance - invisible, as well as the removal of both opposites in the final part."
All the basic requirements of the Sone Canon are firmly associated with the dialectic nature of this poetic form and arose in search of the most perfect way to embody dialectical content. Nevertheless, ways to transfer the forms of movement of human thoughts that implement its inner dialectics are infinitely diverse in the sonnet. Sone canon is not so immoded, as it may seem at first glance. The non-canonical forms of sonnet include, for example, "tailed sonnets" (sonnets with a code - an additional verse, one or more tercets), "tilted sonnet" - begins with tercets and ends with rods, "Hello Sleight" - there is no first katro, "Chrome Sonnet" - The fourth verses of the katrains are shorter than others, etc.
Shakespeare Sleight
The history of the sononate form is deeply dialectic: the internal stability and the resistance of the canon is combined with its constant movement and improvement.
"Shakespeare" Sonnet So far, many dictionaries refer to the Sonet genre conditionally, calling the English rhyme. Although the first English poets interested in this genre probably did not realize that the Sonontal Canon was daring.
Poets Thomas White and Henry Howard, Graph Serray, created their sonnets in 1530. It is not doubt that the incentive for them was acquainted with the sonnets of Petrarch and his Italian followers. In addition, they were repeatedly visited in France. Thus, their sonnets were built according to the scheme: ABBA ABBA CDD CEE. But in the first editions, the breakdown on the rods and tercets is most often not designated, so this scheme has become perceived as a combination of three katrenins and two-perceivers: ABBA ABBA CDDC EE. Serri makes one more step in violation of the classic canon - in twelve of sixteen sonnets, he breaks the poem for three quatrains with cross rhythm and final two-befed with steam rhypha: abab CDCD EFEF GG, that is, not limited to sextete as French poets and White, but rebuilds The entire structure of the sonnet.
The use of paired rhymes at the end of the sonnet and cross reefs in the katrains researchers explain the influence of English ballads, as well as partly the fact that English is relatively poor on rhymes. In addition, the presence of a "sonon key" (final twist with steam rhyme) responded to the tastes of the English poets, their addiction to the epigramocrine completion of the poem.
Shakespeare's hand made the norm that was only a timid attempt at his predecessors. The type of sonnet, who introduced into the English poetry of Serri, was called "Shakespeare" and after Shakespeare became a national English version of the canon.
Conclusion
So, on the example of the "sonnets" of Shakespeare, which are an integral part and, in my opinion, a rather bright sample of his creativity, you can come to the following conclusions:
one). Changes developed and enshrined with Shakespeare in the national English version of the Sone Canon, called "Shakespeare", not without reason allow to consider his "sonnets" as part of creativity, the top of the English Renaissance.
2). The traditions of the pan-European Renaissance culture, defined as the revival of an ancient way of thinking and feeling and, with the result of the development of medieval culture, created the conditions for the emergence of outstanding creative personalities, which is undoubtedly V. Shakespeare. The formed-thematic system and the form of its "sonnets" reflect the anthropocentric thinking of this period, based on the new European dialectics, revealing the complex inner world of the Great Poet, brilliantly embodying his creative intent. Thus, the creativity of V. Shakespeare can be considered the highest synthesis of the traditions of the pan-European Renaissance culture.
LITERATURE
The section of the section is built using the introductory article Z.I. Plavskin to the book Uzapado-European Sonetf, L.: Publisher of the University of Leningrad, 1998
I would like to note that there is a solid cycle (poem), consisting of 15 architectively bound sonnets (the last line of the first verse is the first subsequent, and from the first strings 14 of the sonnets is compiled by the 15th century, carrying the main semantic load), which is poetic The name "Wreath of Sonetov".
Becher I.R. Sonet Philosophy, or Small Instructions for Sonnet // Questions of Literature. 1965. №10. P.194.
