Chapter I. Brief information on some theoretical questions of the phraseology of the Russian language. Formation of phraseology as a linguistic science. The main problems and directions of phraseological research Development and state of Russian phraseology
By origin, phraseological units are divided into two layers - primordially Russian and borrowed. A significant part of the phraseological system is made up of primordially Russian phrases, which, according to the time of their appearance in the language, are subdivided into common Slavic, East Slavic and Russian proper. So, for example, the following phrases were inherited from the common Slavic language: head like a falcon, burn to ashes, nod off, take for a living, neither fish nor meat, hang up your nose, hang dogs, etc. East Slavic turns are like without a king in your head, deaf black grouse, sharpen balusters, grind water in a mortar. However, most of the phrases originated in the Russian language and constitutes the actual Russian phraseology to keep your mouth shut, with a gulkin's nose, sticking out your tongue, your mouth is full of trouble, etc.
Borrowed phrases are those that came into the language ready-made and are used without translation. For example, volens-nolens - "willy-nilly", alma mater - letters. “Nursing mother” (about the university); tet-a-tet - "eye to eye, one to one", idee fixe "obsession", o tempora, o mores "about times, about people", etc. Many borrowed stable combinations are used both in the original and in translation: Finis coronat opus (lat.) - the end - the crown of the case; Mens sana in corpore sano (lat.) - in healthy body a healthy mind; Repetitio est mater studiorum (lat.) - repetition is the mother of learning. Among the borrowed phraseological units large group represented by Old Slavicisms, in many ways already Russified - pitch darkness, for the sake of God, a mortal sin for a dream.
Some phrases have retained characteristic features, outdated words and grammatical norms, but, nevertheless, they are quite common: you seek and find, the poor in spirit, the holy of holies, the voice of one crying in the desert, the fiend of hell, etc. The Russian language widely uses phraseological units borrowed from different languages... It is necessary to distinguish from borrowed such phraseological units that arose on the basis of borrowing images of biblical stories, legends and myths, and not turns of phrase: a wolf in sheep's clothing, Babylonian pandemonium, building chickens (castles) on the sand, etc.
Despite the seeming originality of individual units, their formation is based on certain patterns, models and patterns. Features of the formation of phraseological units are associated with the type of material on the basis of which they are created. So many phraseological unities arise in the language as a result of a metaphorical rethinking of free phrases (white flies, the kettle does not cook, go with the flow, rummage in dirty linen, etc.) or on the basis of words with phraseologically related meaning (heart-rending cry, red girl, bitter frost , sudden death). The source for phraseology can be the colloquial speech of artisans, representatives of certain professions: to get hooked (fishermen), on one block (shoemakers), a teaspoon per hour (doctors), second wind (athletes), not a bitch or a hitch (carpenter), and in the tail and in the mane (coachmen), etc.
Often, the origin of phraseological units is associated with historical events, religious and superstitious ideas: Mamai passed, a Kazan orphan, wash bones, guess on coffee grounds, Kolomna verst, shout at all Ivanovo, put on the back burner. Sources of Russian phraseology are winged words and expressions - proverbs, sayings. The sources were also the fairy tales of the Russian people, passed down from generation to generation. For example, a shot sparrow, without a king in his head, a lip is not a fool, hunger is not an aunt arose on the basis of the proverbs of a Shooting (old) sparrow on the chaff; Your mind is a king in your head, Lip is not a fool - tongue is not a shovel, Hunger is not a pie aunt will not slip.
A separate group is made up of words and expressions, the source for which was works of art Russian poets and writers: A small chest just opened; In the case of the strong, the powerless is always to blame; And Vaska listens and eats; Trishkin caftan and others (from the fables of V.A.Krylov); I would be glad to serve - it is sickening to serve; The tradition is fresh, but hard to believe (from the comedy by A. Griboyedov); All ages are submissive to love, the star of captivating happiness, The genius of pure beauty (From the works of A.S. Pushkin). The group of phraseological units of primordially Russian origin includes aphorisms of great people: The delay of death is like (Peter the First), They fight not by number, but by skill; It is hard in training - easy in battle (A.V.Suvorov).
The lexical and phraseological system is directly related to human activity in society and the development of the latter. Vocabulary and phraseology (especially the first) of all levels of the language are considered the most permeable. The vocabulary most quickly reflects all the changes that took place and are occurring at different stages of the development of the Soviet, and then the Russian state.
In the development of Russian vocabulary and phraseology, the following main directions can be distinguished:
1) the emergence of new words and phrases;
2) changing the meanings of already existing lexico-phraseological units;
3) falling out of the active use of words and phrases;
4) the return to life of old words.
The emergence of new words- the process is the most productive, it reflects all the historical stages of the development of society. So, during the formation of the new statehood, new names appeared (both full and abbreviations). For example, if since 1917 the supreme body state power was All-Russian Congress of Soviets, then from 1922 to 1936 - Congress of Soviets of the USSR.
After the collapse of the USSR and the introduction of presidential rule, The State Duma ; concepts parliament, parliamentarians ousted the former - the Supreme Soviet and the people's deputies. Social and political transformations in the country have removed from the active vocabulary words that reflect the activities of the Communist Party ( party organization, party organizer, party active, party control, Leninist and others), as well as former youth organizations ( Komsomol, Komsomol construction; pioneer, pioneer and etc.).
A lot of words and phrases were associated with the creation, development and vigorous activity during the war years of the Soviet Army and Navy: from the initial red army, red navy, paint(red commander) until subsequent Private of the Soviet Army(since 1943), sailor of the Soviet fleet(since 1946), as well as modern soldiers and officers Russian army ... The names of other types of troops were also reflected, for example Air Force of the USSR(or the USSR Air Force), etc. During the war, the previously known words were more actively used medical battalion, sanitary instructor, comfrey, fireman, soundman, signalman, armor-piercer and etc.; professional colloquial names of specific subjects: armor piercing, igniter(charge), patrol (ship), lighter, termitka, thirty-four(tank), "Katyusha" (special system jet mortar), etc.
The names associated with the development of agriculture have become widespread: from the initial, quickly outdated kombed, tax in kind, food appropriation, agricultural commune and others until collective farm, collective farmer, collective farmer, state farm, state farm worker, workday, MTS(then PTС), agro-industrial complex, agronomy, agricultural school, agronomist, agricultural center and etc.; autodrinker, beater, nutrient granules, sprinkler, electric drinker, electric watering machine and finally farmer, farm and etc.
The dictionary reflects everyday achievements of scientific and technological progress in science, production, agriculture... Dozens of new professions and their names are emerging, which are increasingly used to designate parallel female professions (mainly in colloquial speech): car driver - car driver, programmer - programmer, tabulator - tabulator and etc.
The dictionary is replenished with complex names with the original means of word formation, for example: active-, fast-, high-, large-, easy-, small-, low-, acute-, super-, wide- etc.
A large number of words appear using foreign language elements like: avia-, acute-, bio-, video-, hyper-, dis-, zoo-, iso-, inter-, cinema-, macro-, meteo-, micro-, motorcycle-, radio-, television-, thermo- , photo-, ultra-, extra-, electro- and many others. dr.
A wide variety of scientific terms are included in the literary language. Only in the last 10-15 years new sciences have appeared, their names are quickly becoming active in their use, for example: atlantology - atlantologist, biogeocenology, bionics, volcanology - volcanologist, hydro reclamation - hydro reclamation, dolphinology - dolphinologist, cardiac surgery - cardiac surgeon, microelectronics, nephrology - nephrologist, speleology - speleologist and many others. etc. A large number of such words are associated with the expansion of knowledge in the field of space, computer technology, the Internet.
An intermediate group between lexicalized (such as weather balloon, radar) and non-Lexicalized formations are words like alpha particles, alpha decay, pi meson, press scissors and etc.
The vocabulary of the common language was replenished with dismembered neoplasms (mainly terminological), for example: photosensitive layer, heavy showers, hollow lamp, pulsed current, tagged atoms, walking excavator etc. When creating such a term, sometimes a metaphorical rethinking of words is used (that is, various kinds of hyphenation), cf.: collective farm field - magnetic field, generation of winners - generation of neutrons, daughter letters - daughter atoms and etc.
The words that were in the deep storehouses of the language return to active life:
1) administrative vocabulary, education vocabulary ( governor, department; gymnasium, lyceum);
2) confessional vocabulary ( grace, faith, angel, sin, commandment, liturgy; repentance, charity, mercy);
3) vocabulary of new economic conditions ( entrepreneur, stock exchange, trading, auction, private property, middle class) and etc.
The actualization of old words is often accompanied by the restoration of the estimated values of positivity in them (compare, for example, the interpretation of the word “entrepreneur” in dictionaries of the Soviet era as a designation alien to Soviet reality).
We entered the dictionary with words reflecting the development of culture, sports, many aspects of our life, for example: book lovers, folk theaters; aerobics, rally, biathlon, carting, surfing; microdistrict, high-rise building etc.
New phraseological units and phraseological phrases are included in the vocabulary; for example: active life position, struggle for peace, great initiative, go into orbit, star run, star brothers (heavenly brothers), peace initiatives; gain altitude; less is better(by the title of the article by V.I. Lenin); it's better to die standing than to live on your knees(D. Ibarruri); People, be careful!(Yu. Fucik); rest only in our dreams(A. Blok); a start in life; instigators of war; born to crawl - cannot fly(M. Gorky); stages of a long journey(M. Svetlov); tracing paper from English. save our souls, cold war; tracing paper with ukr. family feeling united(P. Tychina) and many others. dr.
Equally productive is the path of semantic and stylistic renewal already known to the language words. His words passed asset, combat, militancy, warriors; firsthand, dynasty, squad, noble, chosen one, unfading, fan, remains, hereditary, companion and many others. others. Changed the meaning towards expansion of such words as: perestroika, movement, collapse, model, ecology and etc.
On the other hand, there are many words from active vocabulary passed into passive or stylistically turned out to be among the negative-evaluative ones, for example: master, lady, nobleman, lackey, servant... Some words of the 1920s have also entered the passive layers of the dictionary by now: military expert, kombed, educational program, nep, nepman etc.
Thus, the lexical and phraseological composition of the Russian language is in a state of continuous movement. It reflects all the changes taking place in the social, political, economic, scientific, industrial, technical, cultural and everyday life of the country.
The development of Russian vocabulary and phraseology in the modern era
33.
The emergence of new words and phrases. Changing their values. Loss of obsolete words and phrases
The lexical and phraseological system is directly related to human activity in society and the development of the latter. Vocabulary and phraseology (especially the first) of all levels of the language are considered the most permeable. The vocabulary most quickly reflects all the changes that took place and are occurring at different stages of the development of the Soviet, and then the Russian state.
In the development of Russian vocabulary and phraseology, the following main directions can be distinguished:
1) the emergence of new words and phrases;
2) changing the meanings of already existing lexico-phraseological units;
3) falling out of the active use of words and phrases;
4) the return to life of old words.
The emergence of new words is the most productive process, it reflects all the historical stages of the development of society. So, during the formation of the new statehood, new names appeared (both full and abbreviations). For example, if from 1917 the All-Russian Congress of Soviets was the highest organ of state power, then from 1922 to 1936 it was the Congress of Soviets of the USSR.
After the collapse of the USSR and the introduction of presidential rule, the State Duma appeared; the concept of parliament, parliamentarians ousted the former - the Supreme Soviet and the people's deputies. Social and political transformations in the country have withdrawn from the active vocabulary words that reflect the activities of the Communist Party (party organization, party organizer, party active, party control, Leninist, etc.), as well as former youth organizations (Komsomol, Komsomol construction; pioneer, pioneer, etc.). ).
A lot of words and phrases were associated with the creation, development and vigorous activity during the war years of the Soviet Army and Navy: from the initial Red Army, Red Navy, paint (red commander) to subsequent private of the Soviet Army (from 1943), sailor of the Soviet fleet (from 1946 g.), as well as modern soldiers and officers of the Russian army. The names of other types of troops were also reflected, for example, the Air Force of the USSR (or the Air Force of the USSR), etc. During the war, the previously known words medical battalion, medical instructor, comfrey, fireman, soundman, signalman, armor-piercer, and others were more actively used; professional colloquial names of specific items: armor piercing, igniter (charge), patrol (ship), lighter, termite, "thirty-four" (tank), "Katyusha" (rocket launcher of a special system), etc.
The names associated with the development of agriculture have become widespread: from the initial, quickly outdated kombed, tax in kind, food appropriation, agricultural commune, etc. to the collective farm, collective farmer, collective farm woman, state farm, state farm worker, workday, MTS (then PTС), agro-industrial complex, agronomy , agricultural school, agronomist, agricultural station0 and others; autodrinker, beater, nutrient granules, sprinkler, electric drinker, electric watering machine and finally the farmer, farm, etc.
The dictionary reflects everyday achievements of scientific and technological progress in science, production, agriculture. Dozens of new professions and their names are emerging, which are increasingly used to designate parallel female professions (mainly in colloquial speech): car driver - car driver, programmer - programmer, tabulator - tabulator, etc.
The dictionary is replenished with complex names with the original means of word formation, for example: active, fast, high, large, easy, small, low, acute, super, wide, etc.
A large number of words appear using foreign language elements such as: avia-, acute-, bio-, video-, hyper-, dis-, zoo-, iso-, inter-, cinema-, macro-, meteo-, micro-, moto -, radio, television, thermo, photo, ultra, extra, electric and many others. dr.
A wide variety of scientific terms are included in the literary language. Only in the last 10-15 years new sciences have appeared, their names are rapidly becoming active in their use, for example: atlantology - atlantologist, biogeocenology, bionics, volcanology - volcanologist, hydro reclamation - hydro reclamation, dolphinology - dolphinologist, cardiac surgery - cardiac surgeon, microelectronics, nephrology - nephrologist, speleologist - speleologist and many others. etc. A large number of such words are associated with the expansion of knowledge in the field of space, computer technology, the Internet.
An intermediate group between lexicalized (such as a weather balloon, radar) and non-lexicalized formations are words such as alpha particles, alpha decay, pi-meson, press-scissors, etc.
The vocabulary of the common language was replenished with dismembered neoplasms (mostly terminological), for example: a photosensitive layer, heavy rains, a hollow lamp, a pulsating current, tagged atoms, a walking excavator, etc. transfers), compare: collective farm field - magnetic field, generation of winners - generation of neutrons, daughter letters - daughter atoms, etc.
The words that were in the deep storehouses of the language return to active life:
1) administrative vocabulary, education vocabulary (governor, department; gymnasium, lyceum);
2) confessional vocabulary (grace, faith, angel, sin, commandment, liturgy; repentance, charity, mercy);
3) vocabulary of new economic conditions (entrepreneur, stock exchange, trading, auction, private property, middle class), etc.
The actualization of old words is often accompanied by the restoration of the estimated values of positivity in them (compare, for example, the interpretation of the word “entrepreneur” in dictionaries of the Soviet era as a designation alien to Soviet reality).
Included in the dictionary are words that reflect the development of culture, sports, many aspects of our life, for example: book lovers, folk theaters; aerobics, rally, biathlon, carting, surfing; microdistrict, high-rise building, etc.
New phraseological units and phraseological phrases are included in the vocabulary; for example: active life position, struggle for peace, great initiative, go into orbit, star run, star brothers (heavenly brothers), peace initiatives; gain altitude; less is better, but better (after the title of an article by V.I. Lenin); it is better to die standing than to live on your knees (D. Ibarruri); People, be careful! (Yu. Fucik); we only dream about peace (A. Blok); a start in life; instigators of war; born to crawl - cannot fly (M. Gorky); stages of a long journey (M. Svetlov); tracing paper from English. save our souls, cold war; tracing paper with ukr. the feeling of a single family (P. Tychina) and many others. dr.
No less productive is the path of semantic and stylistic renewal of words already known to the language. The words active, fighting, fighting, warriors passed through him; firsthand, dynasty, squad, noble, chosen one, unfading, fan, remains, hereditary, companion and many others. others. Changed the meaning towards expansion of such words as: perestroika, progress, collapse, model, ecology, etc.
On the other hand, many words from the active vocabulary have passed into passive or stylistically turned out to be among the negative-evaluative ones, for example: master, lady, nobleman, lackey, servant. Some words of the 1920s have also entered the passive layers of the dictionary by now: military specialist, commander, educational program, NEP, Nepman, etc.
Thus, the lexical and phraseological composition of the Russian language is in a state of continuous movement. It reflects all the changes taking place in the social, political, economic, scientific, industrial, technical, cultural and everyday life of the country.
Marina Morenko, 8 "B" class
A minimum amount of time is allocated for the study of Russian and English phraseology in the school courses of the Russian and English languages.
In this regard, I decided to turn to the topic of Russian and English phraseology to identify the features of the appearance, use and translation of phraseological units.
To begin with, I turned to the history of the appearance of the section of linguistics "Phraseology", then I studied different kinds classification of Russian and English phraseological units, further examined the features of the translation of English phraseological units into Russian, at the end I conducted a survey of my classmates to find out how familiar they are with Russian phraseological units.
As a result of studying the topic, I came to the following conclusions:
§English phraseology is poorer than Russian due to the less expressiveness of the English language,
§ the literal meaning of phraseological units does not coincide with their figurative meaning, and in most cases, when translating from English into Russian and vice versa, it is necessary to use not a literal translation, but similar phraseological units,
§ the study of phraseological units helps to understand the figurative system of the language.
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Municipal state educational institution
"Bogucharsk secondary school number 2"
Research project
"Features of Russian and English phraseology"
Leaders: Eremchenko Evgeniya Vladimirovna,
teacher of Russian language and literature,
Fokina Natalia Alexandrovna,
foreign language teacher
Boguchar city
2014
1. The history of the origin of phraseological units. Phraseologisms as a part of national culture.
Phraseologism or phraseological turnover -it is a stable combination of words that plays the role of a single lexical unit and, in most cases, it can be easily replaced with one word.
Phraseologisms have lexical meaning and are characterized by lexical indivisibility. They mean a concept, phenomenon, quality, state, sign, therefore, phraseological units are often synonymous with words: at every step - everywhere, bite your tongue - shut up, right hand - assistant.
The meaning of phraseological units is to give an emotional coloring to an expression, to strengthen its meaning.
Phraseologisms exist throughout the history of the Russian language. Already from the end of the 18th century, they were explained in special collections and explanatory dictionaries under various names ( idioms, aphorisms, idioms, proverbs and sayings). Even MV Lomonosov, drawing up a plan for the dictionary of the Russian literary language, pointed out that it should include "phrases", "ideomatisms", "sayings", that is, phrases, expressions. However, the phraseological composition of the Russian language began to be studied relatively recently. Until the 40s of the 20th century, in the works of Russian linguists A.A. Potebnya, I.I. Sreznevsky, F.F. Fortunatova, A.A. Shakhmatov and others, one could find only isolated thoughts and observations concerning phraseology.
The creation of a basis for the study of stable word combinations in the modern Russian literary language belongs to Academician V.V. Vinogradov. It was they who were the first to classify the phraseological turns of the Russian language from the point of view of their semantic merging and outlined the ways of their further study. With the name of V.V. Vinogradov connected the emergence of phraseology as a linguistic discipline in Russian science. Currently, phraseology continues to develop. Until now, there is no complete unity among phraseologists in the definition of phraseological units in modern linguistics. Some researchers (AI Efremov, SI Ozhegov) consider it expedient to distinguish between the concept of phraseology in the narrow and broad sense of the word. In a narrow sense, they refer to phraseology only idioms (stable combinations, the meanings of which are not determined by the meanings of the words included in them). In a broad sense, phraseology includes all fixed expressions, including proverbs, sayings and "winged words." According to the linguist N.M. Shansky, who understands phraseology in a broad sense, the phraseological turnover is presented as "a linguistic unit reproduced in finished form, consisting of two or more stressed components of a word character, fixed, that is, constant in meaning, composition and structure."
Phraseology is closely related to the history, culture, traditions and literature of the people speaking the given language. This connection is most clearly traced in those phraseological units that include a proper name. Many phraseological phrases of this type are associated with the facts of long forgotten days. The motivation of the proper name and the entire phraseological unit has long been erased and can be restored only through etymological analysis. When the English use the expression Hobson "s choice - "lack of any choice", they often do not know that Hobson - the surname of the real owner of the stable, who did not give his clients the right to choose a horse. As a component of a phraseological unit, a proper name in the composition of a phraseological unit is put as a “potential word”, “empty” lexically.
- Classification of phraseological units
Signs of phraseological units:
1. Phraseologisms usually do not tolerate the replacement of words and their rearrangements, for which they are also called stable phrases.
"No matter what"cannot be pronounced"No matter what I become" or "By all means", a "Protect as the pupil of the eye" instead of "Cherish like the apple of an eye".
There are, of course, exceptions:"Break your head" or "break your head", "Catch by surprise" and "take someone by surprise"but such cases are rare.
2. Many phraseological units can be easily replaced with one word:
headlong - fast ,
close at hand - close .
3. The most important feature of phraseological units is their figurative and figurative meaning.
Often a direct expression turns into a figurative, expanding the shades of its meaning.
Bursting at the seams - acquired a broader meaning from the tailor's speech -fall into decay.
Confound- from the speech of railway workers passed into general use in the meaning -confuse.
Phraseologisms can be ambiguous. Example:put on your feet:
- cure, get rid of the disease.
- to grow, educate, bring to independence.
- to force to act actively, to take an active part in something.
- to strengthen economically and materially.
Phraseologisms are by nature synonymous (at full speed - at full speed - headlong) and antonymic ( in the sweat of his face - slipshod). In a sentence, phraseological units perform a syntactic function, acting as one specific member of the sentence: I live - a stone's throw (location circumstance).
Phraseologisms differ in active (like snow on your head- suddenly, a teaspoon per hour- slowly) and passive ( both old and young - all) use.
Among the phraseological units, there are phraseological units-neologisms (ticket to life, people's control). Phraseologisms can be national, professional (enter the role, with a needle) and dialectal ( not salty, do not wash like this by rolling).
An important feature of phraseological units is metaphoricity, imagery. Phraseologism is born in the language not for naming objects, signs, actions, but for their figurative and emotional characteristics. Phraseological units are formed as a result of metaphorical transfer, rethinking of the meanings of free phrases. For example, phraseological unit"Reel in fishing rods"in the meaning of haste to leave, to depart from somewhere appeared in the language on the basis of the metaphorical transfer of a free phrase"Reel in fishing rods"in the meaning of "collect fishing tackle when leaving fishing."
The importance of the figurativeness of phraseological units lies in the fact that it is this feature that underlies all their other expressive qualities: emotionality, evaluativeness, expressiveness. The emotionality of phraseology is the ability of a phraseological unit not only to name an object, phenomenon, but also to express a certain feeling of the speaker or writer (balalaika stringless- a very talkative person, chatterbox). Evaluation of phraseological units is a quality derived from their emotional meaning. From the point of view of evaluativeness, phraseological units can be divided into two groups: phraseological units with a positive assessment and phraseological units with a negative assessment. The first group includes phraseological units with the emotionality of approval ( blood with milk ); respectful respect ( fold your head); admiration (master of thoughts ). The second group includes phraseological units with the emotionality of irony (carry water with a sieve); negligence (stationery rat).
Expressiveness is the intensity of the manifestation of an action or sign ( the purest water - real, true, authentic).
From the point of view of expressive and stylistic properties, phraseological turns are subdivided into interstyle, colloquial, everyday and book.
Interstyle phraseological units are stable combinations of words, known and used in all styles of language (keep my word, from the bottom of my heart).
Colloquial phraseological units are stable combinations of words mainly or exclusively used in oral speech (bend your back, poke your nose).
Book phraseological units are stable combinations of words, mainly or exclusively used in written speech (wipe off the face of the earth, in the blink of an eye).
According to their structure, phraseological units are divided into two groups: phraseological units-sentences and phraseological units-phrases.
Phraseologisms-sentences are structurally organized according to the model of one or another sentence, usually two-part, can have a communicative meaning, be used independently or as part of another sentence:hands do not reach, the tongue is braided.
Phraseologisms-word combinations have a nominative (name) character. They are structurally no different from free combinations and represent the following structural models:
1.noun with adjective (ordinal pronoun):Indian summer, first steps;
2.a noun in the nominative case with a noun in the genitive case:servant of the people, flowers of life;
3.noun in the nominative case with the prepositional-case form of the noun:knee-deep sea, head on shoulders;
4. Prepositional-case form of a noun with a noun in the genitive case:in the sweat of your brow, in the order of things;
5. combination of prepositional-case forms of nouns:from minute to minute, eye to eye;
6. Prepositional-case form of a noun with an adjective:in tight-knit gloves, from a kind heart;
7.verb with a noun:pull the strap, wash the bones;
8.a verb with adverbial adverb:get screwed up, turn inside out;
9.A verbal participle with a noun:with folded arms, sleeves rolled up;
10. constructions with pronouns:out of the blue, not this or that;
11.constructions with descriptive and subordinate unions:no me, cheap and angry;
12.constructions with negation:not in a tooth with a foot, not in one eye;
From the point of view of the equivalence of one or another part of speech, phraseological units are divided into the following groups:
1.verbal or verbal:fall into childhood, circle around the finger;
2. substantive (the main word is a noun):bear snoring, hare soul;
3.adverbs: to the bone, up and down;
4.adjective (the main word is an adjective):unclean, angry on the tongue;
5.interject:would long ago! here you go!
6.modal: no matter how! if you want to;
7.Allied: despite the fact that, just like.
As reproducible linguistic units, phraseological phrases always represent a single semantic whole, however, the ratio of the meaning of a phraseological unit as a whole and the values of its constituent components may be different. Earlier it was noted that in Russian linguistics, the classification of phraseological units according to the degree of semantic merging (the dependence of the meaning of the entire turnover on the sum of the meanings of the words included in it) was developed by Academician V.V. Vinogradov, who identified three types of stable phrases:
1. phraseological adhesions,
2. phraseological unity,
3. phraseological combinations.
Phraseological fusion (idiom) - (phraseological fusion is also called idioms from the Greek idios - own, peculiar) is a semantically indivisible phraseological turnover, in which the integral meaning is completely inconsistent with the meanings of its components. The well-known expert in English phraseology Logan P. Smith wrote about idioms: “Their inner content reflects the life of people in its simple manifestations: prudent or stupid behavior, success or failure and, above all, relationships between people - life impressions and feelings of people interested in each other, approval and, most often, Disapproval, friendliness and hostility, quarrel and reconciliation, rivalry. Insidiousness, condemnation, punishment and the like. " In English, as in the languages of other European peoples who are the heirs of ancient culture, there are many figurative expressions that arose among the ancient Greeks and Romans. Quite a few of them contain proper names: Pandora's box " Pandora's Box "(The source of all sorts of disasters); Penelope's web " Penelope fabric "(Delaying tactics); Achilles' heel " Achilles' heel ”(weak point).
Phraseological unity is a semantically indivisible and integral phraseological turnover, the meaning of which is motivated by the meanings of its constituent words. The indivisibility of the meaning of phraseological unity arises from the merging of the meanings of its constituent words into a single generalized figurative meaning (the first pancake is lumpy, suck it out of your finger). The main property of phraseological unity is really existing imagery. Phraseological unity allows the insertion of other words (put (your) teeth on the shelf). Phraseological adhesions and unity act as equivalents of words, often combined into one group, called idioms.
A phraseological combination is a phraseological turnover in which there are words, both with a free meaning and with a phraseologically related meaning. So, in the phraseological combination, the bosom friend, the word "friend" has a free meaning, and "bosom" - phraseologically connected.
Further study of Russian phraseology by the linguist N.I. Shansky, in addition to those outlined by V.V. Vinogradov three types phraseological turns (phraseological adhesions, unities and combinations), revealed the presence of another group - phraseological expressions. Unlike a phraseological combination in a phraseological expression, there are no words with a phraseologically related meaning. Unlike a free combination of words, an expression is not formed by the speaker in the process of communication, but is reproduced in a finished form (seriously and for a long time).
From the point of view of historical formation, all Russian phraseological units can be divided into four groups:
1.natively Russian,
2. borrowed,
3. phraseological tracing papers,
4. phraseological semi-cues.
Borrowed phraseological units are stable combinations of words, foreign by origin, used in Russian without translation.
By their nature, borrowed phraseological units are divided: into borrowed from the Old Church Slavonic language (for god's sake, scapegoat) and borrowed from Western European languages without translation (post scriptum (P.S.) - postscript - after written).
Stable combinations formed by word-by-word translation of a foreign language into Russian are called phraseological tracing papers ( blue stocking - blue stocking, English). A separate group includes phraseological units containing toponyms. Many of them store concentrated information about bygone eras, change of peoples, migrations and so on. For example, as a result of the metonymic transfer of the meaning of words (street names), a number of phraseological units arose in Russian and English: Feel Street - "the English press" (the editorial offices of the largest newspapers were located here); Downing Street - "UK government"; Harley Street is a medical profession. "
Phraseological half-calico is when part of the components of the phraseological unit is translated, and part is borrowed without translation (the words battre en were translated by the verb to punch, and the word breach is borrowed to breach). Phraseological units from ancient literature and foreign classics (tantalum flour, Much Ado About Nothing(Shakespeare).
The bulk of the currently used phraseological turns are stable combinations of words of primordial Russian origin (look for the wind in the field, you won't spill water). They originated in Russian or are inherited from an older language. Depending on the time of appearance, primordial Russian phraseological units are divided into three groups: common Slavic, East Slavic and Russian proper.
Common Slavic phraseological units are inherited by the Russian language from the Proto-Slavic language. Its disintegration took place in the 5-7 centuries. In the overwhelming majority, such phraseological units are known in all Slavic languages and now:
Russian - lead by the nose,
Ukrainian - drive for nis,
Bulgarian - leading by the nose.
East Slavic phraseological units arose in the era of the existence of Old Russian (18-19 centuries) as evidence of the linguistic community of the ancestors of Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians. These phraseological units are found in all East Slavic languages:
Russian - under the hot hand,
Ukrainian - pid hot hand,
Belarusian - under the garach's hand.
Actually Russian phraseological units appeared in the Russian language in the era of the separate existence of the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages (mainly in the 15th century). They are a specific feature of our speech and are not found, except for the cases of their borrowing from the Russian language in any of the East Slavic languages. It is these phraseological units that characterize the deeply unique and national character of the phraseological system of our language.
The specificity of Russian phraseological units is clearly visible when compared with the phraseological units of other languages, correlated with them in meaning. For example:
in Russian - to make an elephant out of a fly,
in Polish - to make a pitchfork out of a needle,
in Czech - to make a camel out of a mosquito,
in English - to make a mountain out of a molehill.
This comparison testifies to the originality of the phraseology of each language, including Russian. The language reflects and at the same time forms the values, ideals and attitudes of people, the way they think about the world and about their life in this world, therefore the corresponding linguistic units are “invaluable keys” to understanding these aspects of culture. In Russian phraseology there are whole groups of word-symbols.
The most common are three groups:
names of animals,
color names
and the names of parts of the human body.
The formation of words-symbols occurs with the help of metaphor. Back in the days of paganism, when totemism was widespread, people symbolized the things, objects, phenomena surrounding a person; which means that the word-name took on the symbolism. This happened most clearly in the symbolization of animals. Observing them, people began to see human qualities in them. Cowardice (hare) was attributed to some animals, cunning (fox) to others. The image-symbol, naming the animal, was formed under the influence of various beliefs. Therefore, there could be two or even several opinions about this or that animal. Of these, the one that is closer to the masses usually won.
According to the beliefs of the ancient Slavs, the hare is represented as an image of a devil. Meeting him was considered a bad omen; but in Russian phraseology he is not at all associated with evil spirits, but only represents cowardice: a hare's soul, cowardly like a hare. The horse, which played an important role in the peasant economy in Russia, is a great hard worker. She symbolizes this quality in phraseology:tired as a horse... The symbols-names of animals for many peoples coincide, but at the same time, each nation has its own system of symbols and its own attitude towards various animals. If in Russian phraseology, mental limitation is represented by a ram -looks like a ram at a new gate, then the Germans - like a cow in front of a new gate, and among the Bulgarians - looks like a cat on a calendar.
The difference in symbols is explained by the peculiarities of the life of each nation, its geographical conditions, and so on. In Russian phraseology, folk symbolism of color was also reflected. Most peoples have a similar attitude towards white and black. And this is not difficult to understand, since white is the color of the day, black is the night. Hence the connection white with good, and black with evil. Examples include the following phraseological units:white day, black envy, black list, keep in a black body.Although the French have "white night" means a night without sleep. Since the 17th century, when cartographers began to leave “white spaces” on maps, that is, unexplored, unexplored lands, the phraseological unit “ White spot ". Different colors are associated with such phraseological units as “give a green street"(To provide free travel),see everything in pink(to imagine the environment is better than it really is).
There are many symbolic words for body parts. They make up one third of all the expressions presented in the phraseological dictionary of the Russian language by A.I. Molotkov. Phraseologism"From head to toe"means a person with all his features, wholly and completely. The symbolic meaning of the word "head" in Russian phraseology represents the whole person. In some cases, the characterization of a person is given directly -"empty head","smart person" ; in others, metaphorically -"Oak head"... Another symbolic meaning of the word head is mind, reason. Phraseologisms"To lose your head", "to fly out of your head", "to fool your head", "does not go into your head", "to drive into your head"implement the given value. In phraseological units"Fall on your head", "blame your sore head on a healthy one"the head symbolizes the object to which all misfortunes are directed.
There are many phraseological units with the word "hand". In Russian, the word "hand" is included in two hundred phraseological units. This is due to the fact that since ancient times the hand has been an instrument of human labor, a means of communication between people. Our ancestors understood the concept of "having", first of all, as what is in the hands. Later this manifested itself in expressions associated with the meaning of "to have":take it in your hands, hold it in your hands, take it in your hands, do not let it out of your hands.The act of exchange, purchase, sale is not complete without the participation of hands. So, phraseological unit"From hand to hand" associated with the custom of transferring the sold cattle from hand to hand. Back in the middle of the 19th century, one of the meanings of the word "hand" symbolized power. Hence the phraseological units that have survived to this day arose:"To be in someone's hands", "someone's hand", "to give free rein to hands", "to have long arms."
With the help of the word, the hand characterizes a person in terms of hard work, skill, moral qualities:"Tirelessly", "sits with folded arms", "keep himself in hand"and etc.
A special group of phraseological units characterizes a person in a certain state, at certain moments of life: “everything falls out of hand»,
"Hands down",
"Hand does not rise",
"carry the baby", "Hands itch."
Words that call the sense organs (ear, eye, nose) are quite active in phraseology.
Phraseology of the Russian language has more than 50 phraseological units with the words ear. The phraseological units speak about attentive listening:"Listen with your ears", in phraseological units"Keep your ear sharp", "alert your ears", "keep your ears on top of your head"the image of an alert animal is reflected. They say about the lack of reaction to what they have heard: “and does not move his ear "... Ears are a receiver of information, including false information:"Whisper in your ears."
When a person listens inattentively, they say:"Deafening".They say about the lack of reaction to what they hear:"And does not lead the ear", "and does not move the ear."Some phraseological units that include this word have a limit value:"Head over heels in love."The way children are punished is preserved in expressions"Kick your ears."
There are many expressions in which the word "eye" has received a special, phraseologically related meaning:"For beautiful eyes", "Eyes in a wet place", "Open someone's eyes", "Grow in someone's eyes", "To divert the eyes", "To put an eye on someone."
The word "nose" is also used quite actively in phraseology. Examples are phraseological units:"Leave with a nose", "hack to death", "talk to yourself", "turn up your nose from something", "do not see beyond your own nose", "peck your nose", "poke your nose somewhere", " drive by the nose ”,“ with a gulkin's nose ”.
The culture of each nation contains special systems that differ markedly from the systems of other nations. These include systems of weight, length, monetary systems... These systems can change markedly over the centuries; Moreover, if the name of the old systems is no longer used in free use, then they can be preserved, as it were, petrified as part of phraseological units that serve as true indicators of primacy. Phraseologism from"Two vershok pots"is playful in nature. The top was 4.4 cm, the name is associated with the phalanx of the finger; therefore, a person's height cannot be equal to 8.8 cm.
The measure of weight in Russia was a pood. Hence the phraseological unit"Eat a pound of salt with someone"(learn well). The ruble became the main monetary unit even under Peter I. The word ruble is actively included in a number of primordially Russian phraseological units: to beat with a ruble - to punish, how to give a ruble- to do something pleasant,chasing a long ruble- look for easy money.
The names of the primordially Russian dishes and food products reflect the national culture.
The most important product in Russia was bread. Bread has acquired the symbolic meaning of something extremely necessary, has become a symbol of wealth, earnings:to beat off bread from someone, to eat bread for free, etc.
The main dish of Russian national folk cuisine was porridge. The word "porridge" is part of the phraseological units: porridge in the mouth (speaks incomprehensibly), they ask for porridge (torn), you can't cook porridge with someone(hard to come to terms) ate little porridge (about a person who is not able to do something), make porridge (starting a troublesome, difficult business),to fix the mess(unravel a difficult matter). Understanding of the national culture occurs through linguistic words. An important role is given to the main valuekeywords that include a cultural component. Through the words-symbols and keywords that are part of phraseological units, you can learn the national culture.
The phraseological units (idioms) reflect the history of the people, the originality of their culture and life. English phraseological units are very diverse, they include native and international phrases, the English phraseological fund has a long history.
In English and American linguistics, it is not the term "phraseological unit" that is more commonly used, but the so-called "setexpression", which means essentially the same thing, along with the latter, the concept of "idiom" is also used. In English linguistics, it does not have the narrow meaning of phraseological fusion, but denotes all stable expressions in general.
Unfortunately, in the English and American linguistic literature, there are few works specifically devoted to the theory of phraseology. But even the most significant works available (A. McKay, W. Weinreich, L.P. Smith) do not raise such fundamental questions as scientifically substantiated criteria for identifying phraseological units, the ratio of phraseological units and words, the systemic nature of phraseology, phraseological variability, phraseology, method studying phraseology and others.
Also, English and American scientists do not raise the question of phraseology as a linguistic science. This explains the lack of a name for this discipline in English.
The most common classification of English phraseological units is thematic:
Name of classifications | Examples in English |
1. Nominal (substantive), denoting a person, object, phenomenon | better half - wife; |
2. Verbs denoting action, state as a process | to hit the nail on the head - get to the point; |
3. Attributive, denoting properties, signs of a person, object, phenomenon | all thumbs - clumsy, awkward; |
4. Adverbial, denoting properties, qualities, signs of action | With flying colors - with absolute success; |
5. Modal, denoting a different attitude of the speaker to what is being said | it's another pair of shoes - that's another matter entirely; |
6. Interjection, expressing feelings, emotions | And how - how! |
7. Ligaments serving for communication separate parts sentences or whole sentences, parts of a coherent text. | all in all - in general; |
8. Comparators (Similes - as ... as ... / like ...) | as white as sheet - pale as a sheet; |
9. Binomials | odds and ends - dissimilar things; |
10. Idioms describing people: | To have a heart of gold - to have a heart of gold; |
11. Idioms describing feelings or mood: | to be on cloud nine - to be extremely happy; |
It should be noted that there are fewer phraseological turns in English than in Russian. This is due to the fact that the English language is less emotional and expressively colored. Let's compare:
Phraseologisms with the word "water" | ||
Russian phraseological units | English phraseological units |
|
Storm in a teacup- great excitement for a negligible reason | Water down - smooth, soften |
|
Hide the ends in the water- hide the traces of the crime | Blood is thicker than water - that is, your brother |
|
Crush water in a mortar- engage in useless business | come hell or high water - whatever happens |
|
Quieter than water, below the grass- behave modestly, imperceptibly | a fish out of water - not at ease |
|
It is written with a pitchfork on the water- it is not yet known how it will be, the outcome is not clear, by analogy:grandmother said in two | water under the bridge ("water under the bridge") - you can't return the past |
|
Do not spill water- great friends, about strong friendship | ||
Water in a sieve to carry- wasting time, doing useless work Similarly:crush water in a mortar | ||
I took water in my mouth- is silent and does not want to answer | ||
Carry water (on smb.)- burden with hard work, taking advantage of his docile nature | ||
Bring to clean water- expose dark deeds, convict in a lie | ||
Come out dry from water- to remain unpunished, without bad consequences | ||
Blow on water, burnt in milk- be overly cautious, remembering past mistakes | ||
As I looked into the water- as if he knew in advance, foresaw, accurately predicted events | ||
As it sank into the water - disappeared without a trace, disappeared without a trace | ||
Down in the mouth- sad, sad | ||
Like water through your fingers- one who easily escapes the pursuit | ||
As two drops of water- very similar, indistinguishable | ||
If you don’t know the ford, then don’t go into the water- warning not to take hasty actions | ||
Like a fish in water - to feel confident, to orientate very well, to understand something well | ||
Like water off a duck's back - a person does not care about everything | ||
Much water has flown under the bridge since that time- a lot of time has passed | ||
Carry water in a sieve- wasting time | ||
Seventh water on jelly- very distant relationship |
Learning English is widespread in our country. Good knowledge of the language, including English, is impossible without knowledge of its phraseology. Knowledge of phraseology makes it extremely easy to read both journalistic and fiction... Reasonable use of phraseological units makes speech more expressive.
With the help of phraseological expressions that are not translated literally, but are perceived rethought, the aesthetic aspect of the language is enhanced.
As part of our research, we decided to compare Russian and English phraseological units, and we were interested in English phraseological units both in interlinear translation and in adapted to Russian phraseology.
English phraseological unit | Literal translation | An example of the use of English phraseological unit | Russian analog |
The patience of Job | Job's patience | You need The patience of Job to deal with customers like that. - You need angelic patience to deal with clients. | angelic patience |
An old wives "tale | old wives' tale | It is an old wives "tale that drinking milk prevents cold. - It's grandmother's tales that drinking milk prevents colds. | grandma's tales |
A storm in a teacup | storm in a teacup | This isn "t a serious problem - just a storm in a teacup. - This is not a serious problem - just a storm in a teacup. | storm in a teacup |
In the twinkling of an eye | in the blink of an eye | The new machine can do all the calculations in the twinkling of an eye. - The new machine can do all the calculations in the blink of an eye. | in the blink of an eye |
One and all | Together | I would like to invite you to dinner, one and all. - I would like to invite you to dinner, one and all. | one and all |
Beyond price | Priceless | Her paintings are beyond price. - Her paintings are not worth it. | no price |
From the comparison, it is logical to conclude that when translating from English into Russian (as well as vice versa), in most cases it is necessary to understand the figurative, figurative meaning of phraseological units and translate not using tracing paper, but using expressions similar in meaning from the Russian language (or vice versa).
Our table can be continued with other examples, which will confirm the words of the Russian linguist Igor Evgenievich Anichkov: "With the help of idioms, like with the help of various shades of colors, the information aspect of the language is complemented by a sensory-intuitive description of our world, our life."
Russian phraseological unit | English phraseological unit | Literal translation | The meaning of phraseological units |
Backlash beat | To twiddle one’s thumbs | To beat the thumbs up with someone's fingers | Sit back |
Poor as a church rat | As a poor as a church mouse | Poor as a church mouse | Very poor |
In an interesting position | In the family way | In an interesting position | Be pregnant |
Salt the wound | To rub salt into someone’s wounds | Salt someone's wounds | Annoy someone |
Old as the world | As old as Adam; old as the hills | Old as Adam; old as the world | It has long been known |
You never know | You never can tell | Anything can happen | Anything can be |
Balm for the soul | Music to someone’s ears | Music for someone's ears | Saying something nice to someone |
After the rain on Thursday | When pigs fly | When pigs fly | Never |
Throw down the glove | To throw down the gauntlet | To challenge | Challenge someone, competition |
Lead by the nose | To lead someone up to the garden path | Lead someone down the garden path | Deceive anyone |
Soar in the clouds | To have one's head in the clouds | Have one head in the clouds | Blissfully dreaming, fantasizing about God knows what |
The soul is gone | To have one’s heart in one’s boots | Get discouraged | The man is frightened, frightened |
Lead a cat and dog life | To lead a cat and dog life | Lead a cat and dog life | Constantly quarrel |
Mouth full of worries | To have one’s hands full | Have your hands full | Be very busy |
And I didn't have time to blink an eye | Before you can say Jack Robinson | Before you can tell Jack Robinson | Everything happens very quickly |
At the devil's place | In the middle of nowhere | It is not known in what place | To be, to be, to be located somewhere far away |
Eyes went up to the forehead | One's eyes nearly popped out of one's head | Eyes almost popped out of my head | Be extremely surprised about something |
- conclusions
At the beginning of our work, we have repeatedly emphasized the figurativeness of phraseological units as their integral component. The conducted research allows us to speak about the imagery of both Russian and English phraseological units. At the same time, we consider it necessary to note the following:
- English phraseology is poorer than Russian due to the less expressiveness of the English language,
- the literal meaning of phraseological units does not coincide with their figurative meaning, and in most cases, when translating from English into Russian and vice versa, it is necessary to use not a literal translation, but similar phraseological units,
- the study of phraseological units helps to understand the figurative system of the language.
- Plans for the future
The results are presented in the diagram:
As you can see from the diagram, my peers are more familiar with emotional and colloquial phraseological units. We assumed that the reason for this was the large amount of time spent by adolescents in social networks The Internet, which in itself does not provide for the imagery and ambiguity of the used speech turns. Perhaps we are mistaken, so the use of phraseological units will be the topic of the next research project.
List of used literature
- Yu. V. Murret. "Russian proverbs, sayings and phraseological units and their English counterparts." St. Petersburg. 2008 Publishing house "Sova".
- T. K. Segal. “Preparing for the Olympiads in English language... Grades 8-11 ". Moscow. Publishing house "Iris-press". year 2009.
- V.V. Gurevich, J.L. Dozorets. "Phraseological Russian-English Dictionary". Moscow. 1995 year.
- N. Leonova "Phraseologisms in English".
- Tikhonov. A.N., Lomov A.G., Lomova L.A. Phraseological dictionary of the Russian language. - M .: Higher school, 2003.
- Zhukov A.V. Lexico-phraseological dictionary of the Russian language: more than 1400 phraseological units. - M .: Astrel, 2003.
- Kozyrev I.S. Modern Russian language. Phraseology. Lexicography. - Minsk: Higher School, 1979.
- Ozhegov S.I., Shvedova N.Yu., Explanatory dictionary Russian language - M., 1999
- The history of the origin of phraseological units. Phraseologisms as a part of national culture.
- Classification of phraseological units
- Features of English phraseological units
- Features of the translation of phraseological units
- Plans for the future
- List of used literature
> Abstracts in Russian
Phraseology
Phraseology is a branch of linguistics that studies stable phrases, phraseological units or "winged" expressions. The word itself comes from two Greek words: "phrasis" - "expression" and "logos" - "teaching". As a separate discipline, phraseology appeared in the 20th century. Many scientists and researchers consider phraseology to be a unique linguistic phenomenon. In fact, words, connecting with each other, form phrases. However, in some phrases the words retain their original meaning, while in others they form a new semantic whole. In the language, such phrases, in other words, phraseological units, are preserved as a result of frequent and prolonged use, and sometimes as a result of centuries of practice.
Phraseology is characterized by bright expressiveness, emotionality and imagery. The subject of her research is phraseological units, their signs and patterns of functioning in speech. From the point of view of origin and traditions of use, phraseological units are divided into the following groups:
Conversational: born in a shirt, lost his head, etc.
Professional: clumsy work, perplexing, rubbing glasses, etc.
Book and literary: "with feeling, with sense, with arrangement" (A. Griboyedov), "It smells of kerosene" (M. Koltsov), rolling on an inclined plane (term from a scientific book), etc.
The richness of a language is determined by the richness of its phraseology, that is, by the presence of apt catchphrases, expressive turns, figurative expressions. Often, a whole historical era is hidden behind such stable expressions. Within the framework of the Russian language, phraseological units were widely used and are used in various styles of speech: in colloquial speech, in fiction and journalistic literature. The preconditions for the emergence and development of phraseology in Russia were laid down in the works of such scientists as A. Potebnya, F. Fortunatov, I. Sreznevsky. In the Russian language, phraseological units are distinguished, both of Russian origin and borrowed. The borrowed phraseological units also include Old Church Slavonic vernacular expressions.
Phraseology is closely related to the vocabulary and stylistics of the language. For the knowledge of any language, phraseology is very important. Moreover, through fixed expressions, you can learn a lot about the character and history of a people. So, for example, in Russian phraseological units many historical events and the attitude of the people towards them. Also, phraseology is of particular importance for improving speech skills, which is important for many professions.
