home > Drilling types > A message on the composition of the modern Russian language. Summary: Modern Russian language. Expressions from colloquial and everyday speech: speak your teeth, lose your head, miracles in a sieve, fish without fish and cancer, was born in a shirt

A message on the composition of the modern Russian language. Summary: Modern Russian language. Expressions from colloquial and everyday speech: speak your teeth, lose your head, miracles in a sieve, fish without fish and cancer, was born in a shirt

QUESTION No. 1.

STRUCTURE OF THE LANGUAGE, 1) the set of levels of a given language and the relations connecting them. 2) The term used by some scientists in the meaning of a linguistic system. LANGUAGE SYSTEM, 1) a set of units of a given language level (phonological, morphological, syntactic, etc.) in their unity and interconnection; classes of units and the rules for their formation, transformation and combination. In this sense, they talk about the phonological, morphological, derivational, syntactic, lexical, semantic system of a given language or (more narrowly) about systems (subsystems) of declension and conjugation, verb and name, type and time, gender and case, etc. Definition language as a system goes back to F. de Saussure, prepared by the works of W. Humboldt and I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay.

LANGUAGE LEVELS, the main "tiers" of the language system - phonemes, morphemes, words (lexemes), word combinations - as objects of scientific research of the language (phonology, morphology, lexicology, syntax), determined by the properties of units that stand out during the sequential division of the language stream. Some scientists strive to expand the number of language levels, raising any of the complex units that can be distinguished to the rank of a separate level, others consider only two levels of language to be scientifically significant: differential (at this level, language acts only as a system of distinctive signs, which include, in addition to natural sounds speech, also distinctive written signs that can distinguish units of the semantic level) and semantic [at this level morphemes, words and phrases are distinguished as two-sided units, that is, taking into account both their sound side, or expression, and their internal (semantic) side, or content].
The FRY course consists of the following SECTIONS: vocabulary and phraseology, phonetics and phonology, spelling, graphics and spelling, word formation, grammar (morphology and syntax), punctuation.

Vocabulary and Phraseology study the vocabulary and phraseological composition of the Russian language and the patterns of its development.
PHONETICS describes the sound composition of the SRLA and the main sound processes occurring in the language, the subject of phonology is phonemes - the shortest sound units that serve to distinguish between the sound envelopes of words and their forms.
ORTHOEPY studies the norms of modern Russian literary pronunciation.
GRAPHICS introduces the composition of the Russian alphabet, the relationship between letters and sounds, and spelling - with the basic principle of Russian writing - morphological, as well as phonetic and traditional spellings. Spelling is a set of rules governing the spelling of words.
WORLD EDUCATION studies the morphological composition of a word and the main types of formation of new words: morphological, morphological-syntactic, lexical-semantic, lexical-syntactic.
MORPHOLOGISTS I am the doctrine of gram categories and gram forms of the word. She studies the lexical and grammatical categories of words, the interaction of lexical and grammatical meanings of a word and ways of expressing grammes of meanings in Russian.
SYNTAX- This is the doctrine of a sentence and a phrase. Syntax studies the basis of syntactic units - a phrase and a sentence, types of syntactic relations, types of sentences and their structure.
Punctuation is based on the syntax - a set of rules for the placement of punctuation marks.

BASIC UNITS OF LANGUAGE:
SOUNDS speech - the minimum units of the speech chain, which are the result of complex articulatory activity of a person and are characterized by certain acoustic and perceptual (associated with the perception of speech) properties. 3. p. refer to segmental means, since they correspond to the minimal linear units of the language - phonemes. Suprasegmental sound aids, e.g. tone, stress, intonation, correlate with units of greater length - such as a syllable, word, syntagma. When describing 3.p. their articulation and acoustic are taken into account. And perceptual characteristics. Articulatory all 3. p. are divided into 2 classes - vowels and consonants. From an acoustic point of view 3. p. represent a special class of sounds. When they are formed, the sources are: a) voice; b) noise.
PHONEME- a unit of the sound structure of a language, which serves to identify and distinguish significant units - morphemes, in which it is included as a segment component's mines, and through them - for recognizing and distinguishing words. F. is an invariant unit of language. Ph. Is the main insignificant unit of language, connected with meaningful distinction only indirectly. The phoneme performs perceptual (identification) and significative (distinctive) functions in the text. F. as an abstract unit is contrasted with sound as a concrete unit in which F. is materially realized in speech.
MORPHEME- one of the basic units of the language, often defined as a min sign, i.e. a unit in which a certain content (signified) is assigned to a certain phonetic form (signifier) and which is not subdivided into simpler units of the same genus. Morpheme is the minimum significant unit of the text, the textual representative of the morpheme. Distinguish M., representing one morpheme, were named accordingly its allomorphs. M. is usually regarded as a direct component of a word form. So, for example, in the word form "table" there are (at the graphical level) the root M. table, suffix (with the meaning of diminutiveness) -ik- and inflectional (expressing the meaning of tv. P. Singular) -th. Depending on the function performed, morphs are divided into form-forming, word-forming and syncretic. Formative morphs include inflections and some suffixes: table-a, read-eat, read-t, read-l, read-I, higher, and so on. The word-forming morphs include prefixes (harmful - harmless), suffixes (house - house-ik), prefixoids (out-of-staff), suffixoids (English-man). Syncretic morphs can form both new words and new word forms. Syncretic morphs include, for example, verb prefixes, with the help of which forms of the perfect form are formed: go - you-go, go-go, go-go.
LEXEMA- a word considered as a unit of the vocabulary of a language in the aggregate of all its specific gram of forms and expressing their inflections, as well as all possible meanings (semantic variants); abstract two-sided vocabulary unit. Representing a set of forms and meanings inherent to the same word in all its uses and implementations, the lexeme is characterized by both formal and semantic unity. The term "lexeme", proposed in 1918 by A.M. Peshkovsky and included in the Grammar Dictionary of N.N.Durnovo, later received content in the works of V.V. Vinogradov, A.I.Smirnitsky and A.A. Zaliznyak.
WORDFORM, a term denoting a specific word in a specific gram form. For example "cities" - word form plural gender. Ch. Of the noun "city". Every gram paradigm of a word is a system of its word form, and in real utterances every word referring to the gram being changed appears in a certain word form. In Soviet linguistics, the theory of word form was developed by A.I.Smirnitsky, who developed the views of F.F.Fortunatov, A.M. Peshkovsky, V.A. He distinguished three points in the structure of word forms: individualizing (lexical), expressed by the root of the word, typical (concrete-gram) and proper formal (generalized gram form), expressed, for example, by the ending in the word form “cities”.
OFFER Is an independent syntactic unit of a message, the grammatical meaning of which is predicativeness, and the form is the minimal structure of a schema with its own system of grammatical means proper for expressing syntactic tense and moods.
STATEMENT, i.e. a segment of speech that performs a comm function, corresponding to the goals of communication. In the speech aspect, the utterance is individual and situational, the utterances in the speech aspect are infinitely diverse.

SYNTHAGMIC RELATIONS, connections and dependencies between linguistic elements (units of any complexity), simultaneously coexisting in a linear series (text, speech), for example, between neighboring sounds (whence the phenomena of syngarmonism, assimilation), morphs (whence the phenomena of superposition or truncation of adjacent morphemes), etc. .NS. The term was introduced by F. de Saussure. It is often used as an equivalent to the concept of functions for sequentially connected linguistic elements in the process of speech. S.O. stand out in the language as opposed to paradigmatic relations, or associative connections, forming a field of study of syntagmatics. Consideration linguistic phenomena only according to their S. was characteristic of descriptive linguistics and was the basis of distributive analysis. The study of S.O. - an important aspect of the problem of the compatibility of linguistic elements, their valence, patterns of association in speech.

PARADIGMATIC RELATIONS, the relationship of opposing several elements of the language, the choice of one of the mutually exclusive elements; units of language are united, thus, in the consciousness (in consciousness, and not in reality!) of the user of the language, despite the impossibility of their real unification in the act of speech. They correspond to the function "either - or" and oppose syntagmatic relations (relations of coexistence of the elements of the language at the moment of their real unification in the act of speech and the corresponding functions "and - and"); ON. nonlinear and not simultaneous. Apparently, there is a dependence of the syntagmatic characteristics of a form on its paradigmatic properties. ON. first described by F. de Saussure as opposed syntagmatic associative relations.

The place of the Russian language in linguistic systems. The lexical composition of the Russian language from the point of view of origin. Modern orthoepic norms. Subject and principles of Russian spelling and punctuation. Parts of speech: noun, adjective, verb.

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Moscow External Humanitarian University

Academy of Journalism

Course essay

"Modern Russian language"

2002 year

Language as a subject of science

The place of the Russian language in linguistic systems

Lexicology

Lexical composition of the modern Russian language from the point of view of origin

Vocabulary of the modern Russian language from the point of view of the sphere of use

Active and passive vocabulary

Phraseology

Modern orthoepic norms

Subject and principles of Russian spelling

Morphology as a doctrine of the formation of the Russian word

Noun

Adjective

Numeral

Pronoun

Service parts of speech

Subject and objectives of syntax

Collocation. Offer

Simple sentence

Compound sentences

Complex sentences

Unionless complex sentences

Principles of modern Russian punctuation

Literature

Language as a subject of science

The Russian language is the language of the Russian people (about 140 million people), whose representatives currently live not only in Russia, but also in many other countries of the world.

Language is the main means of human communication: people cannot transmit and receive the necessary information without language, and influence those around them.

It is equally important that language is also an instrument of thought. Human thinking relies on linguistic means, and the results of mental activity are formalized in the form of certain speech units - statements complete in meaning and integral texts.

Language is a form of existence of a national culture, a manifestation of the very spirit of a nation. In proverbs and sayings, songs and fairy tales that have survived to this day, in archaic words, the language keeps references to the features of the past life of the people. The greatest works of literature have been written in Russian.

Russian is a language Of the Russian state, all the most important documents that determine the life of society; language is also a means of mass communication - newspapers, radio, television, and in last years and carried out through a computer network of electronic communication. In other words, the life of society is impossible without a national language.

The place of the Russian language in linguistic systems

The Russian language occupies a special place on the "linguistic map" of the world and belongs to the vast linguistic "family" of related Indo-European languages, which in origin go back to a common source - the Indo-European proto-language. It was spoken by the ancestors of many peoples currently inhabiting vast territories of Europe and Asia. As one of the Indo-European languages, the Russian language in terms of its grammar, phonetics and vocabulary is opposed to the languages of other language families: Caucasian (Georgian, Abkhaz, Chechen, etc.), Turkic (Turkish, Kazakh, Bashkir, Tatar, etc.), Finno-Ugric (Finnish, Hungarian, Estonian, Udmurt, etc.), Semitic (Arabic, Hebrew, etc.), Sino-Tibetan and other languages.

Within the Indo-European languages, the following groups are distinguished: Germanic languages (German, English, Swedish, etc.), Romance (Latin, Italian, Spanish, French, Romanian, etc.), Baltic (Latvian, Lithuanian), Iranian (Persian, Ossetian, etc. .), Indian (Hindi, Urdu, Gypsy) and Slavic. Russian is also among the latter.

To correctly represent the place of the Russian language in the system of languages, it should be borne in mind that all Slavic languages are divided into no three groups: East Slavic languages (Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian), West Slavic (Czech, Polish, Slovak and some others) and South Slavic (Old Slavic, Bulgarian, Serbian, Slovenian, etc.).

So, the Russian language is a representative of the East Slavic group within the Indo-European language family.

The literary language is the highest form of the Russian language, it is the language of national culture: the language of politics and art, science and official documents, the language of everyday and business communication of cultural people.

The literary language has an important feature: it is a normalized language, that is, the literary language is based on a system of norms. Linguistic norms are the historically established patterns and rules that determine.

Lexicology

Lexicology(gr. lexikos - related to the word, logos - teaching) is a section of the science of language that studies the vocabulary of the language, or vocabulary. In lexicology, the word is studied as an individual unit, as well as the place of the word in the lexical system of the modern Russian literary language.

One of the main sections of lexicology is semasiology (gr. Semasia - meaning, logos - teaching), or semantics (gr. Sema - sign), which studies all issues related to the meaning of a word, as well as changes in the meaning of a word.

In addition to the semantics of a word, lexicology studies issues of the origin and formation of the vocabulary of the modern Russian language, the relationship of a word to an active or passive vocabulary, i.e. determines the place of a word in the lexical system, as well as in the system of functional styles of the modern Russian language (neutral, scientific, business, etc.).

Lexicology studies the vocabulary of a language in its current state, as well as issues of changing the vocabulary of the language, changing the meaning of a word, the main trends in the development of the vocabulary system of the language, identifying the reasons for changing the meaning of a word and the vocabulary of the language as a whole.

A special unit of language is word... It is impossible to imagine a language without words. One word can have several meanings. In this case, the meanings of one word turn out to be related not only to each other, but also to the meanings of other words. The meanings of the word are related to its origin. One meaning - the concept can be expressed in different words. The word reveals its meaning only in the system of language.

Bearing in mind the connections between the meanings of words, they talk about the lexical-semantic system of the language... The word as a unit of the lexical-semantic system reflects reality, and from this point of view, the systematicity of words is a reflection of the systemicity of the world. This consistency in the word is visible, perceived, it, so to speak, lies on the surface. The lexico-semantic level of the language is a double system, the sides of which interact, are interconnected, they cannot be divided into a system of the content itself and a system of organization of this content.

Through communication, a person is able to form concepts... A concept is a reflection in the minds of people of the general and essential features of the phenomena of reality, ideas about their properties. Such signs can be the shape of an object, its function, color, size, similarity or difference with another object, etc.

Concepts are formed and fixed in our minds with the help of words. The connection of words with a concept (the significative factor) makes the word an instrument of human thinking. Without the ability of a word to name a concept, there would be no language itself.

The designation of concepts by words allows us to get by with a relatively small number of linguistic signs. So, in order to single out one of the many people and name any one, we use the word human... To designate all the richness and variety of colors of living nature, there are words red, yellow, blue, green etc. The movement of various objects in space is expressed by the word goes (man, train, bus, icebreaker and even - ice, rain, snow etc.

With the help of the concept, words not only name, but also generalize persons, objects, phenomena according to some distinctive feature: man Woman(by gender); mathematician, physicist, philologist(by specialty, profession); amphibians, reptiles(class of vertebrates); rose, lily, chamomile, hyacinth(flowers).

If every object in the world were called a separate word, then billions of words would be required and communication would be impossible.

In modern Russian, there are words that have one lexical meaning: bandage, appendicitis, birch, felt-tip pen, satin and the like. Such words are called unambiguous or monosemantic... There are several types of unambiguous words.

First of all, proper names are unambiguous: Ivan, Petrov, Mytishchi, Vladivostok.

As a rule, newly emerging words that have not yet become widespread are unambiguous: lavsan, dederon, foam rubber, pizza, pizzeria, briefing and the like.

Words with a narrow subject meaning are unambiguous: binoculars, trolleybus, suitcase... Many of them designate objects of special use and therefore are used relatively rarely in speech, which helps to preserve their uniqueness: can, beads, turquoise.

Terminological names are often unambiguous: gastritis, fibroids, noun, phrase.

Most Russian words have not one but several meanings. They're called ambiguous or polysemantic and opposed to unambiguous words. The polysemy of a word is usually realized in speech: the context (that is, a segment of speech that is complete in a semantic sense) clarifies one of the specific meanings of a polysemantic word. For example, in the works of A.S. Pushkin we meet the word House in such values: The lord's house, secluded, protected from the winds by a mountain, stood over the river(house - building, structure); I'm scared to leave my house(house - dwelling); The whole house was ruled by one Parasha(house - household); Three houses are calling for the evening(home - family); The house was in motion(home - people living together).

Among the meanings inherent in polysemantic words, one is perceived as the main, main, and others - as derivatives of this main, original meaning. So, the word go in the seventeen-volume "Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language" (BAS) 26 meanings are noted, and in the "Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" edited by D.N. Ushakov - 40 values.

The word gets ambiguous in the process historical development language, reflecting changes in society and nature, their knowledge by man. As a result, our thinking is enriched with new concepts. The volume of the dictionary of any language is limited, therefore the development of vocabulary occurs not only due to the creation of new words, but also as a result of an increase in the number of meanings of previously known ones, the withering away of some meanings and the emergence of new ones. This leads not only to quantitative, but also to qualitative changes in vocabulary.

The ambiguity is also determined purely linguistically: words can be used in figurative meanings. Names can be transferred from one item to another if these items have common characteristics.

Vocabulary

Homonymy and paronymy

Homonyms- these are words of the same part of speech, the same in sound and spelling, but different in lexical meaning, for example: boron - "pine forest growing in a dry, elevated place" and boron- "a steel drill used in dentistry."

Lexical homonyms are full and partial. Complete homonyms belong to one part of speech and are the same in all forms, for example: key(from the apartment) and key(spring). A partial homonyms- these are consonant words, one of which completely coincides only with part of the forms of another word, for example: tact(meaning "play the last measure") and tact(in the meaning of "the rule of decency"). The word with the second meaning is not plural.

Close to homonyms paronyms, which are words that are different in meaning, with a similar, although not identical, pronunciation (vacancy - vacancy). Errors in the use of paronyms usually fall on unfamiliar words; sometimes they lead to complete nonsense, for example: trial(instead of "process"); said touchy(instead of "offensive") word; Akaki Akakievich was very biased("Tied") to his service; words at naming("After passing") there is no need for them.

There are usually two main groups of paronyms. The first group is one-root words related to one part of speech, for example, humane-humanitarian-humanistic; duality - duality; heroism - heroism - heroism; economic - economical; daring - daring etc.

Another group is made up of paronyms with different roots and different semantic origins in the process of language development, which is often associated with borrowings from other languages, for example: Indian - Indian, escalator - excavator etc.

Synonymy and antonymy

The peculiarity of Russian vocabulary is not only that one word can name a number of objects or phenomena. There is another peculiarity: several words are capable of expressing one process: go, walk, trail, waddle, move, get in the way; one item: weapons, armor, equipment; one sign: fast, quick, fluent, greyhound, agile, agile, high-spirited, impetuous, lively... The property of words to be identical is called synonymy.

Synonyms- these are words of the same part of speech, denoting the same thing, but differing from each other in shades of lexical meaning and use in speech, for example: hippopotamus - hippopotamus, scarlet - red... The above words mean the same thing and are often loosely substituted for each other. But still, there are times when one synonym cannot replace another, for example: “Where are you going, proud horse, and where will you drop your hooves? " (A. Pushkin). In this line, in combination with the word proud use of the word horse will be inappropriate and may even acquire an ironic meaning.

In addition, synonyms may differ in the degree of modernity ( airplane - airplane), use in different styles of speech ( face - face), sphere of use ( cook - cook).

For synonyms, it is also important that they distinguish them. Individual features of the meaning allow you to highlight the types of synonyms in the vocabulary.

· Synonyms - doublets are also called absolute synonyms. They express the same concepts, interchangeable in the text: sailor - navigator, spelling - spelling, lame - lame.

· Ideographic synonyms are also called conceptual. These words are close, but not identical in meaning: do, do, implement; silence, silence, silence.

· Stylistic synonyms express the same meaning, replacing each other in different speech situations: reproduce - repeat - hammer; hoax - deception - swindle.

Antonyms- these are words that are different in sound, have directly opposite meanings: truth is a lie, good is evil, speak - be silent. Antonyms usually refer to the same part of speech and form pairs.

Modern lexicology considers synonymy and antonymy as extreme, limiting cases, on the one hand, of interchangeability, and on the other, opposition of words in terms of content. At the same time, for synonymous relations, semantic similarity is characteristic, for antonymic - semantic difference.

Antonymy in the language is presented worse than synonymy: only words that are correlative in some way - qualitative, quantitative, temporal, spatial and belonging to the same category of objective reality as mutually exclusive concepts - enter into antonymic relations: beautiful - ugly, a lot - a little, morning - evening, remove - bring closer.

Words of other meanings usually do not have antonyms; Wed: house, thinking, write, twenty, Kiev, Caucasus.

Most antonyms characterize qualities ( good - bad, smart - stupid, native - stranger, thick - rare and under.); there are many that indicate spatial and temporal relationships (large - small, spacious - close, high - low, wide - narrow; early - late, day - night); fewer antonymic pairs with a quantitative value ( many are few; the only one - numerous). There are opposite names for actions, states ( cry - laugh, rejoice - grieve), but there are few of them.

Distinguish between different root and same root antonyms. A pair of different root antonyms includes words with different roots, for example: day Night, short - long... A pair of same-root antonyms includes words with the same root, differing only in opposite prefixes, for example: undershoot - overshoot, import - export.

Separately, intraword antonymy should be highlighted (the same word has opposite meanings), for example: lend money(borrow) - lend money(to lend).

Lexical composition of the modern Russian language from the point of view of origin

The vocabulary of the modern Russian language has evolved over the centuries. The vocabulary is based on native Russian words... The original word is considered to be a word that arose in the Russian language according to the models existing in it or that passed into it from an older predecessor language - Old Russian, Proto-Slavic or Indo-European.

TO native vocabulary include all words that came to modern Russian from ancestral languages. Therefore, the primordial Russian vocabulary breaks down into 4 layers, belonging to different eras:

1. Indo-European layer... This layer includes words that have correspondences in the roots of words in many other Indo-European languages. These are, for example, words such as mother, son, brother, wolf, water, nose, three, four, take, be and others. These words are native not only for Russian, but also for many other Indo-European languages.

2. Proto-Slavic (all-Slavic) layer. The words of this layer have correspondences in many Slavic languages, are primordial for them, for example: heart, spring, rain, grass, grandson, aunt, drive, kind.

3. Only about two thousand words belong to the Indo-European and Proto-Slavic layers, but they make up 25% of the words of our everyday communication. This is easy to understand: the first, naturally, to emerge words, reflecting urgent human needs.

4. Old Russian layer... To him belong the words that arose during the period of the unity of Kievan Rus and are common for the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages: forty, ninety, spoon, wander, brown, together, squirrel, lump.

5. Russian stratum proper unites words that arose after the XIV century, that is, after the collapse of Kievan Rus. These are almost all words with suffixes. -chik / -master, -study, -lk (a), -ness and many others, complex and abbreviated words: grandmother, pilot, steamer, Moscow State University... It also includes words that changed their meaning during this period, for example, Red in the meaning of a certain color (in the Proto-Slavic and Old Russian languages, the word Red meant "good", which was preserved in phrases red girl and the Red Square).

In different eras, Russian vocabulary penetrated borrowing from other languages. For borrowing, a condition is necessary - the presence of linguistic contacts between peoples due to trade, wars, cultural interaction, etc.

Borrowings are used to name new realities and to rename old ones.

Borrowings from the Slavic languages (in particular, from the Old Slavic language) and from non-Slavic languages are distinguished.

One of the most powerful borrowing strata is the stratum Old Slavisms - borrowings from the Old Church Slavonic language. The Old Church Slavonic language is not the ancestor language of the Russian language, it is the language of the South Slavic group.

Old Slavonic words that are part of the vocabulary of the Russian language are called Old Slavs... These words are distinguished by a number of signs (phonetic, derivational and lexical), in connection with which several groups of Old Slavic signs in Russian are distinguished:

Phonetic signs are associated with the fact that the same sounds and sound combinations of the Proto-Slavic language gave different results (reflexes) in the South Slavic (Old Slavonic) and East Slavic (Old Russian) languages:

1) incomplete Old Church Slavonic combinations ra, la, re, le correspond to Russian full-voiced combinations oro, olo, ere, ate; therefore, the inconsistencies that have full-voiced correspondences in the roots of words in the Russian language are a sign of Old Slavicisms: hail - town,voice - voice,Wednesday - middle,attraction - drag... Likewise with prefixes pre-, before- having correspondences re-, before- (to transgress - overstep);

2) Old Church Slavonic ra-, la- and ro-, lo-: equal - even,rook - a boat;

3) railway according to Russian f: alien - stranger;

4) SCH according to Russian h (illuminate - candle); Old Church Slavonic in origin are participle suffixes yusch / yusch, asch / yasch: primordially Russian participle suffixes were uch / uch, ach / uch, which later became adjective suffixes: current - fluid,burning - hot;

5) a at the beginning of a word according to Russian I am: lamb - lamb,az - I am;

6) e at the beginning of a word according to Russian O: unit - one;

7) NS at the beginning of a word according to Russian at: holy fool - freak.

Word-building signs of Old Slavicism are prefixes or suffixes of Old Slavonic origin; some of them have Russian equivalents, for example: from- according to Russian you- (pour out - pour out), bottom- according to Russian with- (fall - subside), while other Russian matches do not have: - stij- (action), -know (life), -tv- (battle) other.

Group lexical Old Slavicisms make up words borrowed from Old Church Slavonic entirely. As a rule, these are words denoting religious concepts: lord, sin, creator, prophet, saint, resurrection... Such words may not have external distinctive signs. Lexical Old Slavicisms also include words with roots good-, god-, good-, super- Old Slavic origin ( prudence, superstition).

One should not think that all words with Old Slavonic omens have a tinge of bookishness or belong to high vocabulary. Many Old Slavicisms are stylistically neutral and are neither bookish nor outdated: time, wednesday, hello, brave... There are roots of old Slavic origin, which in some words are neutral, while in others they are outdated or stylistically colored: cool - cold, agree - read.

In different historical periods, borrowings from different languages became more active. So, in connection with the Tatar-Mongol yoke in the XIV-XV centuries and with the cultural and trade contacts of the Slavs and Turkic peoples, borrowings from the Turkic languages appeared, for example, sheepskin coat, herd, horse, chest other.

During the period of the transformations of Peter I, words related to navigation, shipbuilding, military affairs, from the Dutch ( gateway, harbor, boatswain), German ( soldier, storm, bayonet) languages.

In the 18th - 19th centuries, a large number of words were borrowed from French, Italian, Spanish, Polish, which are associated, first of all, with the secular nature of the culture of that time: ballet, partner, veil(from French), aria, baritone, impresario(from Italian), guitar, cigar, serenade(from Spanish), monogram(from Polish).

In Russian, borrowings from the Scandinavian languages are presented ( hook, pood, herring), from Finnish ( blizzard, flounder, walrus, tundra), single borrowings from Chinese ( tea), Japanese ( karate, ivashi), Hungarian ( goulash).

In the twentieth century, the main source of borrowing is the English language, and the process of borrowing becomes more active in the second half of the twentieth century. In the 50s. borrowed words jeans, shorts, hobby, camping, motel... In the early 90s. political, economic and cultural conditions arose that predetermined the predisposition to borrowing: the awareness of the country as part of the civilized world, the desire to overcome alienation from other countries, an open orientation towards the West in various areas.

In connection with the change in the political system, new realities and concepts arise, which causes the transfer of names from a foreign linguistic environment to Russian soil: parliament, prime minister, mayor, prefect, press secretary, press attaché, press release.

The literary language includes a new terminology:

Computer: computer, display, file, hard drive, printer;

Sports: windsurfing, freestyle, bobsleigh, kickboxing;

Financial, commercial: barter, voucher, dealer, distributor, investor, marketing;

Political and public: image, consensus, summit, electorate;

Cultural: sponsor, underground, remake, thriller, showman.

In different historical periods, including through the mediation of other languages, Greekisms penetrated into the Russian language ( philosophy, geometry, politics, democracy) and Latinisms ( republic, dictatorship, student). Most of the borrowings from the Greek and Latin languages are included in the international language fund of scientific vocabulary.

When borrowing a word mastered in Russian: begins to be written in Russian letters, acquires pronunciation and grammatical design characteristic of the Russian language. The degree of mastery of borrowed words can be different. Most of the borrowed words are fully mastered in the Russian language, and nothing reminds of their non-Russian origin.

Vocabulary of the modern Russian language from the point of view of the sphere of use

TO common vocabulary includes words used (understood and used) in different language spheres by native speakers regardless of their place of residence, profession, lifestyle: these are the majority of nouns, adjectives, adverbs, verbs ( blue, bonfire, grumble, ok), numerals, pronouns, most of the official words.

TO restricted vocabulary includes words, the use of which is limited to some locality (dialectisms), profession (special vocabulary), occupation or interests (slang vocabulary).

Dialectisms - these are features of dialects, dialects that do not correspond to the norms of the literary language. Dialecticism is a dialectal inclusion in the Russian literary language. The phonetic, derivational, grammatical features of the dialect can be reflected in the speech of people, but for lexicology the dialectisms associated with the functioning of words as lexical units are most important - lexical dialectisms, which are of several types.

First, dialecticism can denote realities that exist only in a given area and do not have names in the literary language: tyes- "vessel for liquid from birch bark", crumb- "wooden shoulder device for carrying weights."

Secondly, dialectisms include words used in a certain area, but having words with the same meaning in the literary language: hefty - very, pitching - duck, basque - beautiful.

Thirdly, there are such dialectisms that coincide in spelling and pronunciation with the words of the literary language, but have a different meaning that does not exist in the literary language, but is characteristic of a certain dialect, for example, plow -"Sweep the floor" fireman -"Burned out", thin in the meaning of "bad" (this meaning was in the past inherent in the literary language, hence comparative worse from adjective bad) or weather- "bad weather".

Dialectal traits can also manifest themselves at other linguistic levels - in pronunciation, inflection, collocation, etc.

Dialectisms are outside the literary language, but can be used in fiction to create local color, for the speech characteristics of characters.

Dialectisms are recorded in special dictionaries of various dialects, the most common of them can be reflected in the explanatory dictionary with the mark regional.

Special vocabulary associated with the professional activities of people. It includes terms and professionalisms.

Terms- these are the names of special concepts of science, art, technology, Agriculture and so on. Terms are often artificially created using Latin and Greek roots and differ from "ordinary" words of the language in that they, ideally, are unambiguous in this terminology and do not have synonyms, that is, each term must correspond to only one object of this science. Each word-term has a strict definition, fixed in special scientific research or terminological dictionaries.

Distinguish between generally understandable and highly specialized terms. Meaning generally understood terms are also known to a non-specialist, which is usually associated with the study of the basics of various sciences at school and with their frequent use in everyday life (for example, medical terminology) and in the media (political, economic terminology). Highly specialized the terms are clear only to specialists. Let's give examples linguistic terms different types:

Generally understood terms: subject, predicate, suffix, verb;

Highly specialized terms: predicate, phoneme, submorph, suppletivism.

Terms belong to the literary language and are recorded in special terminological dictionaries and explanatory dictionaries with droppings special.

It is necessary to distinguish from the terms professionalism- words and expressions that are not scientifically defined, strictly legalized names of certain objects, actions, processes associated with the professional, scientific, production activities of people. These are semi-official and unofficial (they are sometimes called professional jargon) words used by people of a certain profession to denote special objects, concepts, actions, often having names in the literary language. Jargon-professionalisms exist exclusively in the oral speech of people of this profession and are not included in the literary language (for example, among printing workers: a cap- "large heading", turn- "marriage in the form of a square"; at the chauffeurs: steering wheel- "steering wheel", brick- no-entry sign). If professionalisms are included in dictionaries, they are accompanied by an indication of the scope of use ( in the speech of sailors, in the speech of fishermen etc.).

Restricted vocabulary also includes jargon- words used by people of certain interests, occupations, habits. So, for example, there are jargons for schoolchildren, students, soldiers, athletes, criminals, hippies, etc. For example, in student jargon tail- "failed exam, pass", hostel- "hostel", spur, bomb- "varieties of cheat sheets", in the jargon of schoolchildren laces, ancestors, rodaki- parents, cupcake, bobblehead, mound, pepper, man, dude, cartilage, shnyaga- guy. Words that are included in different jargons form an interjargon ( schmuck, funny, cool, party).

Besides the term jargon, there are also the terms "argo" and "slang". Argo is a specially classified language. In previous centuries in Russia there were argos of wandering merchants - peddlers, professional fundraisers, etc. Now we can talk about thieves argos ( feather- knife, a gun- gun). Slang- this is a linguistic environment of oral communication that is different from the norm of the literary language, uniting a large group of people. A significant difference between slang and jargon is the increased emotionality of slang and the lack of selectivity in it of objects for naming with the help of special words: we use slang in almost all speech situations in informal oral communication of people. So, we can talk about youth slang - a means of informal communication between young people aged about 12 to 30 years. Slang is updated quite quickly, and the sources of constant updating of slang are jargon units (over the past few years, youth slang has switched from thieves 'jargon as the main "supplier" of vocabulary to drug addicts' jargon), borrowings ( rudder"Correct" - from the English. rule, gerla " girl "- from the English. girl), pun playful rethinking of the words of the literary language ( claudia"keyboard", ancestors"Parents"), as well as derivatives from these units ( cool, cool). At the same time, the meaning of the units used (jargon, borrowings) is usually expanded, rethought in relation to other areas of activity. For example, a drug addict will say: I'm rushing from this dope, - and from a young man you can hear: This Mouzon rushes me.

Slang and argotic vocabulary is outside the literary language and is recorded only in special dictionaries.

Words related to vocabulary of limited use are often used in fiction for the speech characteristics of characters, creating a certain color.

Active and passive vocabulary

Passive vocabulary includes historicisms and archaisms.

Histories- these are words denoting objects that have disappeared from modern life, phenomena that have become irrelevant concepts, for example: chain mail, corvee, horse tram; modern Saturday, Sunday; socialist competition, Politburo... These words fell out of use along with the objects and concepts they designated and passed into passive vocabulary: we know them, but we do not use them in our everyday speech. Histories are used in texts in which it comes about the past (fiction, historical research).

Archaisms- these are outdated names of phenomena and concepts existing in our time, for the designation of which other, modern names have arisen.

There are several types of archaisms:

1) the word can become completely obsolete and completely go out of use: Lanites- "cheeks", ya- "neck", right hand- "right hand", shuytsa- "left hand", so that- "to", ruin- "death";

2) one of the meanings of a word may become outdated, while the rest continue to be used in the modern language: stomach- "life", thief- "state criminal" (False Dmitry II was called "Tushinsky thief"); at the word to give over the past 10 years, the meaning of “sell” has disappeared, and the word throw away- the value "put on sale";

3) 1-2 sounds and / or the place of stress may change in a word: room - room,biblio m theca - library, mirror - mirror, cord - lace;

4) the obsolete word may differ from the modern one by the prefix and / or suffix ( friendship - friendship, restaurant - restaurant, fisherman - fisherman);

5) certain grammatical forms of a word may change (cf .: the title of A. Pushkin's poem “ Gypsies » - modern form gypsies) or the belonging of this word to a certain grammatical class (words piano, hall were used as feminine nouns, and in modern Russian these are masculine words).

Obsolescence of words is a process, and different words may be at different stages. Words that have not yet gone out of active use, but are already used less often than before, are called obsolete (voucher).

Outdated words opposed neologisms - new words whose novelty is felt by the speakers.

Linguistic neologisms- these are words that arise as names for new objects, phenomena, concepts that do not yet have names in the language, or as new names for already existing objects or concepts.

Linguistic neologisms arise in the following ways:

1) a new word appears in the language, a new lexical unit. It appears through borrowing ( shopping tour, charter, shaping, image) or the emergence of a new word according to the derivational models existing in the language from the "old" word ( geography® lunography) or a borrowing neologism ( marketing® marketing, computer® computer, geek, computerization);

2) a word already existing in the language has a new meaning, for example, kettle- "non-specialist with weak skills of something", hatch- "paste for text correction", round- "phase of negotiations", pirate- "unlicensed", shell- "garage". In the future, this meaning can come off and form a new homonym word.

If an object, concept, phenomenon called a neologism quickly becomes irrelevant, the neologism may not have time to become a common word, master the language, and this word can immediately go into a passive vocabulary, becoming historicism. Such a fate befell many neologisms of the NEP times, the first years of perestroika ( co-operator, gekachepist, voucher).

Linguistic neologisms are used by native speakers in their everyday speech, many are known and understandable. If the existence of a linguistic neologism is justified, pretty soon the neologism enters the active vocabulary and ceases to be understood as a new word. However, the creation of new words, word creation is also possible in other situations: an artistic word, a situation of friendly communication, the speech of a child who has not yet fully mastered the lexical stock of the Russian language. An adult, poet, writer consciously resorts to word creation in order to make his speech more expressive or to play with the rich word-formation possibilities of the language, the child does this unconsciously. The results of such word creation are called individual (contextual, copyright) neologisms... So, we find in A.S. Pushkin's words fired, küchelbekkerno, V.V. Mayakovsky: love, pedestrian, turn blue, light up.

Sometimes the author's neologisms become real words, are included in the literary language, such as words pendulum, pump, attraction, constellation, mine, blueprint, included in the Russian language from the works of M.V. Lomonosov, industry, falling in love, absent-mindedness, touching- from the works of N.M. Karamzin, fade away- from F.I. Dostoevsky), mediocrity- from I. Severyanin.

Functions obsolete words are varied. First, they can be used directly to name, designate the corresponding objects, phenomena. Thus, obsolete words are used, for example, in scientific and historical works. V works of art on historical topics, this vocabulary is used not only to designate obsolete realities, outdated concepts, but also to create a certain flavor of the era. Obsolete words can be used in fictional text to indicate the time at which an action takes place. Obsolete words (mainly archaisms) can be performed and actually stylistic functions- used to create the solemnity of the text.

Phraseology

Words, connecting with each other, form phrases. One of them free, they are formed by us in speech as needed. Each word in them retains an independent meaning and performs the function of a separate member of the sentence. For example, read an interesting book, walk down the street... But there are phrases called not free related, or phraseological... In them, words, joining together, lose their individual lexical meaning and form a new semantic whole, which, in semantics, is equated to a separate word, for example: let the red rooster go - set it on fire, beat your thumbs up - mess around, any minute - soon, with a pin head - small.

As a rule, such combinations are fixed in the language as a result of frequent and prolonged, sometimes centuries-old practice of use. One and the same combination can act either as free or as connected, depending on the context and meaning. For example: He closed his eyes and quickly fell asleep - the Dean's office closed his eyes to the student's unworthy behavior.

The set of lexically indivisible, integral in meaning, reproduced in the form of ready-made speech units of word combinations is called phraseology (from the Greek phrasis "expression" and logos "teaching, science").

Phraseologisms can be divided into groups in terms of origin and tradition of use:

Expressions from colloquial everyday speech: speak your teeth, lose your head, miracles in a sieve, fish without fish and cancer, was born in a shirt;

Expressions from professional spheres of use, from argot: stump, green street- from the word usage of railway workers; clumsy work, without a hitch, without a hitch- from the speech of carpenters; rub glasses;

Expressions from book and literary speech:

a) terms and phrases from scientific use: center of gravity, chain reaction, roll on an inclined plane, bring to white heat;

b) expressions from works of fiction and journalism: "And the casket just opened"(I. Krylov); "With feeling, with sense, with arrangement"(A. Griboyedov); "living Dead"(L. Tolstoy); "It smells like kerosene"(M. Koltsov).

Like a word, a phraseological unit can have synonyms and antonyms, for example: two boots of a pair - one field of berries, forge swords into plowshares - sheath the sword(phraseological units-synonyms); to make porridge - to disentangle the porridge, roll up your sleeves - slipshod, hard to climb - easy to climb(phraseological units-antonyms).

Phraseologisms of the Russian language by origin are divided into two groups: Primordially Russian and Borrowed.

Primordially Russian phraseological units

The emergence of primordially Russian phraseological units can refer to the time of existence:

Proto-Slavic language (Common Slavic or Proto-Slavic)

Old Russian language (East Slavic)

Old Russian and Russian languages (actually Russian)

One of the indicators of the Proto-Slavic origin of phraseological units is therefore its parallel fixation in the East, West, South Slavic languages and their dialects ( Indian summer, from head to toe); East Slavic phraseological units are registered in the Belarusian, Russian and Ukrainian languages and their dialects ( it was written with a pitchfork on the water, with all its might); actually Russian phraseological units are usually noted only in Russian ( all over Ivanovskaya, what my leg wants). Primordially Russian phraseological units can be related:

With mythological representations, folk customs, ceremonies, rituals ( sparrow night- dark night with a strong thunderstorm, the time of rampant evil spirits; headlong- the original meaning refers to the ritual delineation for protection from evil spirits; wash the bones- the emergence of phraseological units is associated with the reburial rite, in front of which the excavated remains, i.e. bones were washed.);

With material culture, specific realities, historical facts (as if Mamai passed- the Tatar Khan Mamai made devastating raids on Russia; mama's slaughter- Khan Mamai was defeated in the Battle of Kulikovo; unwashed- salt, as an expensive product, might not have been received by an unwanted guest with a treat.);

· With professional, jargon, argotic speech, terminological vocabulary: unsettle(from the professional vocabulary of drivers), quietly(from the speech of the military, glanders - hidden digging), put at stake(from gambling jargon);

· With various genres of folklore: a hut on chicken legs, a red girl, grandmother said in two, a little man with a fingernail, grab a straw;

With the names of specific people who created phraseological units or the context that contributed to its emergence: leavened patriotism(Vyazemsky), monkey labor, disservice, stigma in the cannon(Krylov), shut up the fountain(K. Prutkov), end up at the bottom(Pushkin);

Borrowed phraseological units

A significant subgroup among borrowed phraseological units is borrowings from the Old Church Slavonic language. An important source in this process was the Bible: prodigal son, do your bit, every creature in pairs, forbidden fruit, stumbling block, root of evil, manna from heaven, carry your cross and many others. Hundreds of biblicalisms have enriched not only Russian, but other languages as well: alpha and omega (Russian), alpha i amega (bel.), Alfa un omega (Latvian), o alfa eo omega (port.), Alfa a omega (words .) etc.

The phraseological units associated with ancient mythology (primarily Greek), history, literature, as well as those belonging to individual authors are also international in nature: Augean stables, scales of Themis, glory of Herostratus, sink into oblivion, wheel of fortune, Olympic calm, cross the Rubicon, tantalum flour, apple of discord and etc.; ugly duck(G. H. Andersen), whipping boy(M. Twain), blonde beast, revaluation of values(F. Nietzsche).

Phraseological borrowings can be presented in the form of cripples, half-calves and barbarisms.

Most of the borrowed phraseological units are literal, more precisely, word-by-word, component-wise translation of foreign language turns (tracing): back to our rams(revenons a "nos moutons), have the pip(French), highlight of the program(French), blue stocking(English blue stocking), the last of the mohicans, dark horse, brain drain(English), etc.

In half-clicks, only part of the phraseological units is traced, while the other is borrowed without translation, i.e. transliterated.

Barbarisms are usually celebrated in a book style: lat. omnia mea mecum porto literally "I carry everything with me": I mean small, non-burdensome property, it is used to emphasize someone's poverty, low solvency, in the meaning of a contemptuous attitude to excessive property, to comfort in everyday life, etc., indicates the spiritual wealth of a person, his immaterial wealth.

Phraseological turns are widely used in various styles of speech.

In fiction, in journalism, in colloquial speech, the use of phraseological units is associated with their expressive capabilities. The imagery, expression, characteristic of a significant part of phraseological turns, help to avoid stereotyped, dryness, facelessness in verbal communication... At the same time, phraseological units of a book nature have an "increased" expressive-stylistic coloring, their use gives speech solemnity, poetry, and bookishness.

For phraseological units of a colloquial and everyday plan, a "reduced" expressive-stylistic coloring is characteristic, which allows expressing irony, familiarity, contempt, etc. rage with fat, just spit, bast soup slurp cabbage soup) and roughly colloquial ( no skin, no faces, show Kuzkin's mother, spawn). These specific properties of phraseological turns are especially clearly visible when compared with commonly used lexical synonyms. Compare: perish - lay down your head - break your neck, deceive - mislead - lead by the nose.

In all styles of speech, interstyle phraseological phrases with "zero" coloration are also widely used, such as from day to day, secret ballot, go crazy.

Modern orthoepic norms

Possession of the norms of correct pronunciation makes it easier for people to communicate, makes it possible to reflect on the content of what they are talking about, without being distracted by how certain words are pronounced. Pronunciation varies from generation to generation. Constant changes in pronunciation lead to the presence of pronunciation variants in the spelling, which are most often associated with different pronunciation styles.

Modern orthoepic norms are a consistent system that develops and improves.

Orthoepic norms are not something fixed, once and for all established and unchanged. Orthoepic norm is the normative pronunciation and stress.

Among the basic norms of pronunciation are:

· Pronunciation of unstressed vowels.

Pronunciation of unstressed vowels and their combinations

· Some grammatical forms, eg, ending genus. case singular - her, oh

Orthoepic norms are associated with the sound side of literary speech. Orthoepy is correct speech. Orthoepy is a set of rules for the literary pronunciation of sounds and sound combinations.

Depending on the rate of speech, pronunciation styles are distinguished:

At a slow speech rate - full style:

Distinct pronunciation of sounds,

Careful articulation,

An essential condition for public speaking.

At a fast pace of speech - incomplete style:

Less distinct pronunciation of sounds,

Strong contraction of sounds, that is, reduction of sounds.

Classification of pronunciation styles depending on the stylistic orientation and the presence or absence of expressive coloring.

Neutral pronunciation style is not stylistically colored.

Stylistically colored:

1. High (bookish, academic) style;

2. Conversational style.

Different styles of pronunciation lead to the presence of pronunciation variants in the spelling.

The words of the neutral style are designed according to the norms of the neutral style of pronunciation. High style words - according to the norms of the high style of pronunciation, colloquial words - according to the norms of the colloquial style of pronunciation. The distinction between styles of pronunciation may allow some norms of the neutral style to have their correspondences in high and colloquial styles:

High style [sonnet] - neutral style [sLnet].

Neutral style [kLgda] - conversational [kLda].

The book style in orthoepy is called high. The high style of pronunciation strictly observes orthoepic norms, does not allow pronunciation options.

The speaking style of pronunciation is characterized by:

From the publisher

This textbook is intended primarily for students of philological specialties in higher educational institutions. But it is also designed for use in the educational process in a wide range of humanitarian specialties - of course, first of all, those where mastery of the expressive means of literary speech is a prerequisite for successful professional activity. It seems that in any case the textbook will be useful for future lawyers, teachers, art historians, journalists.

The peculiarity of the publication - the brevity and compactness of the presentation of the material - takes into account the variety of needs of the possible audience. Therefore, the duration of a lecture course, practical and independent studies using this textbook may vary depending on the direction, specialty of training humanities, as well as the form of study: daytime, evening or part-time.

The textbook contains all sections of the modern Russian language course; vocabulary and phraseology, phonetics, phonology and orthoepy, graphics and spelling, word formation, morphology, syntax and punctuation.

In preparing this publication, the achievements in the field of the Russian language over the past fifteen years were taken into account. The wording of certain theoretical propositions has been changed, new concepts have been introduced, terminology has been clarified, illustrative materials and bibliography have been partially updated, active processes in the modern Russian language are highlighted, especially in the field of vocabulary and syntax.

The content of the sections and paragraphs has been supplemented with new information, in particular: the provision on the somewhat changed status of the literary language has been substantiated; the list of word formation methods has been expanded; tendencies in the use of forms of grammatical number are noted; provides data on sentences of real and surreal modality, coordination of the forms of the subject and predicate, genius sentences, as well as on the ambiguity of the solution to the question of the homogeneity and heterogeneity of predicates, etc.

Thus, the title of the textbook - "Modern Russian language" - reflects the essential features of the educational material presented in it. Moreover, the textbook to some extent reveals the tendencies that, as can be foreseen today, will determine the development of the Russian language in the 21st century.

This sixth edition was prepared by N.S. Valgina based on the stable textbook of the same name, which has gone through five editions.

Introduction

The modern Russian language is the national language of the great Russian people, a form of Russian national culture.

The Russian language belongs to the group of Slavic languages, which are divided into three subgroups: Eastern - the languages Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian; southern - languages Bulgarian, Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian, Macedonian; western - languages Polish, Czech, Slovak, Kashubian, Lusatian. Going back to the same source - the common Slavic language, all Slavic languages are close to each other, as evidenced by the similarity of a number of words, as well as the phenomena of the phonetic system and grammatical structure. For example: Russian tribe, Bulgarian tribe, Serbian pleme, Polish plemiê, Czech pl e mě, Russian clay, Bulgarian clay, Czech hlina, Polish glina; Russian summer, Bulgarian lyato, Czech l e to, Polish lаto; Russian red, Serbian cr a san, czech kr a sn y; Russian milk, Bulgarian mlyako, Serbian milk, Polish mieko, Czech ml e ko, etc.

Russian National language represents a historically developed linguistic community and unites the entire set of linguistic means of the Russian people, including all Russian dialects and adverbs, as well as social jargons.

The highest form of the national Russian language is Russian literary language.

At different historical stages of the development of the common people's language - from the language of the nationality to the national - in connection with the change and expansion of the social functions of the literary language, the content of the concept of "literary language" changed.

Modern Russian literary language is a standardized language serving the cultural needs of the Russian people; it is the language of state acts, science, press, radio, theater, and fiction.

“The division of language into literary and folk,” wrote A.M. Bitter means only that we have, so to speak, a "raw" language and processed by masters. "

The standardization of the literary language lies in the fact that the composition of the dictionary in it is regulated, the meaning and use of words, pronunciation, spelling and the formation of grammatical forms of words obey the generally accepted pattern. The concept of a norm, however, does not exclude, in some cases, options that reflect the changes that constantly occur in language as a means of human communication. For example, accents are considered literary: far - far, high - high, otherwise - otherwise; grams, shapes: wave - wave, meow - meow, rinse - rinse.

The modern literary language, not without the influence of the media, noticeably changes its status: the norm is becoming less rigid, allowing for variability. It focuses not on inviolability and universality, but rather on communicative expediency. Therefore, the norm today is often not so much a ban on something as a possibility of choice. The border of normativity and non-normality is sometimes blurred, and some colloquial and vernacular linguistic facts become variants of the norm. Becoming a common property, the literary language easily absorbs the previously forbidden means of linguistic expression. Suffice it to give an example of the active use of the word "lawlessness", which previously belonged to criminal jargon.

Literary language has two forms: oral and written, which are characterized by features both on the part of the lexical composition and on the part of the grammatical structure, for they are designed for different types of perception - auditory and visual.

The written literary language differs from the oral one primarily in the greater complexity of syntax and the presence of a large amount of abstract vocabulary, as well as terminological vocabulary, in particular international. The written literary language has stylistic varieties: scientific, official-business, journalistic, artistic.

The literary language, as a standardized, processed common language, is opposed to the local dialects and jargon... Russian dialects are combined into two main groups: the North Russian dialect and the South Russian dialect. Each of the groups has its own distinctive features in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammatical forms. In addition, there are Central Russian dialects, which reflect the features of both one and another dialect.

Modern Russian literary language is the language of interethnic communication of the peoples of the Russian Federation. The Russian literary language introduces all the peoples of Russia to the culture of the great Russian people.

Since 1945, the UN Charter has recognized the Russian language as one of the official languages of the world.

There are numerous statements of great Russian writers and public figures, as well as many progressive foreign writers about the power, wealth and artistic expressiveness of the Russian language. Derzhavin and Karamzin, Pushkin and Gogol, Belinsky and Chernyshevsky, Turgenev and Tolstoy spoke enthusiastically about the Russian language.

The course of the modern Russian language consists of the following sections: vocabulary and phraseology, phonetics and phonology, orthoepy, graphics and spelling, word formation, grammar (morphology and syntax), punctuation.

Vocabulary and phraseology study the vocabulary and phraseological composition of the Russian language and the patterns of its development.

Phonetics describes the sound composition of the modern Russian literary language and the main sound processes occurring in the language, the subject of phonology is phonemes - the shortest sound units that serve to distinguish the sound envelopes of words and their forms.

Orthoepy studies the norms of modern Russian literary pronunciation.

Graphics introduces the composition of the Russian alphabet, the relationship between letters and sounds, and spelling- with the basic principle of Russian writing - morphological, as well as phonetic and traditional spellings. Spelling is a set of rules governing the spelling of words.

Word formation studies the morphological composition of a word and the main types of formation of new words: morphological, morphological-syntactic, lexical-semantic, lexical-syntactic.

Morphology is a teaching about grammatical categories and grammatical forms of a word. She studies lexical and grammatical categories of words, the interaction of lexical and grammatical meanings of a word and ways of expressing grammatical meanings in Russian.

Syntax- This is the doctrine of a sentence and a phrase. Syntax studies the basic syntactic units - a phrase and a sentence, types of syntactic links, types of sentences and their structure.

Punctuation is based on the syntax - a set of rules for the placement of punctuation marks.

Vocabulary and Phraseology

Russian vocabulary

The concept of vocabulary and lexical system

Vocabulary the whole set of words of a language, its vocabulary is called. The branch of linguistics that studies vocabulary is called lexicology(gr. lexikos - vocabulary + logos - teaching). There are distinctions between historical lexicology, which studies the formation of the vocabulary in its development, and descriptive lexicology, dealing with the meaning of a word, semantics (gr. Semantikos - denoting), volume, structure of the vocabulary, etc. considering various types of word relationships in a single lexico-semantic system. Words in it can be related by the similarity or opposition of meanings (compare, for example, synonyms and antonyms), by the commonality of the functions performed (compare, for example, the groups of colloquial and book words), by the similarity of origin or by the closeness of stylistic properties, as well as belonging to one part of speech and etc. This kind of relationship of words in different groups, united by a common feature, are called paradigmatic(gr. par a deigma - example, sample) and are basic in determining the properties of the system.

A kind of systemic connections is the degree of lexical compatibility of words with each other, otherwise the relationship syntagmatic(Greek syntagma - something connected), which often influence the development of new paradigms. For example, for a long time the word state in its meaning was associated only with the word state as "the political organization of society headed by the government or its bodies." Being a relative adjective by meaning, it was combined with a certain range of words like: system, border, institution, employee and under. Then his syntagmatic relationship expanded: it began to be used in combination with the words thinking, mind, person, action, deed and so on, while acquiring a qualitative and evaluative meaning “capable of thinking and acting broadly, wisely”. This, in turn, created the conditions for the emergence of new paradigmatic connections, which also influenced the development of new grammatical meanings and forms: since the word in certain cases performs the functions of qualitative adjectives, the formation of abstract nouns became possible from it - statehood, quality adverbs - stately, antonyms - non-state, anti-state etc.

Consequently, both types of systemic relations are closely related to each other and form as a whole a complex lexico-semantic system, which is part of the general language system.

Semasiological characteristics of the modern lexical system

Lexical meaning of the word. Its main types

In a word, its sound design, morphological structure and the meaning and meaning contained in it are distinguished.

Lexical meaning of the word- this is its content, i.e. the correlation between a sound complex and an object or phenomenon of reality, historically fixed in the minds of speakers, "formed according to the grammatical laws of a given language and is an element of the general semantic system of the dictionary."

The meaning of words does not reflect the entire totality of cognized signs, objects and phenomena, but only those of them that help to distinguish one object from another. So, if we say: this is a bird, then in this case we are only interested in the fact that we have before us a variety of flying vertebrates, the body of which is covered with feathers, and the front limbs are transformed into wings. These features make it possible to distinguish a bird from other animals, such as mammals.

In the process of joint labor activity, in their social practice, people cognize objects, qualities, phenomena; and certain signs of these objects, qualities or phenomena of reality serve as the basis for the meaning of the word. Therefore, for a correct understanding of the meaning of words, a broad acquaintance with the public sphere in which the word existed or exists is necessary. Consequently, extra-linguistic factors play an important role in the development of the meaning of a word.

Depending on what feature is the basis of the classification, four main types of lexical meanings of words can be distinguished in modern Russian.

By connection, correlation with the subject of reality, i.e. according to the method of naming, or nomination (lat. nominatio - name, name), direct, or basic, and figurative, or indirect meanings are distinguished.

Direct meaning is one that is directly related to an object or phenomenon, quality, action, etc. For example, the first two meanings of the word hand will be straight: "one of the two upper limbs of a person from the shoulder to the end of the fingers ..." and "... as an instrument of activity, labor."

Portable is such a meaning that arises not as a result of direct correlation with an object, but through the transfer of a direct meaning to another object due to various associations. For example, the following meanings of the word hand will be figurative:

1) (singular only) manner of writing, handwriting; 2) (plural only) labor force;

3) (only plural) about a person, a person (... with a definition) as the owner, owner of something; 4) a symbol of power; 5) (only singular, colloquial) about an influential person who can protect, provide support; 6) (singular only) on the consent of someone to marriage, on the readiness to marry.

Connections of words that have a direct meaning are less dependent on the context and are conditioned by subject-logical relations, which are wide enough and relatively free. The figurative meaning is much more dependent on the context; it has a living or partially extinct imagery.

According to the degree of semantic motivation, the meanings are divided into unmotivated(or non-derivative, idiomatic) and motivated(or derivatives from the former). For example, the meaning of the word hand- unmotivated, and the meanings of words hand, sleeve and others - are already motivated by semantic and derivational connections with the word hand.

According to the degree of lexical compatibility, the meanings are divided into relatively free(these include all direct meanings of words) and not free... Among the latter, two main types are distinguished:

1) phraseologically related meaning is called such that occurs with words in certain lexically indivisible combinations. They are characterized by a narrowly limited, stably reproducible range of words, the connections of which among themselves are determined not by subject-logical relations, but by the internal laws of the lexical-semantic system. The boundaries of the use of words with this meaning are narrow. So, the word bosom the figurative meaning "sincere, sincere" is realized, as a rule, only in combination with the word friend (friendship);

2) syntactically determined meaning is called such that appears in a word when it plays an unusual role in a sentence. Context plays an important role in the development of these meanings. For example, when using the word oak in the role of characterizing a person: Eh, you, oak, did not understand anything- realizes its meaning "dumb, insensitive" (colloquial).

A variety of syntactically determined meanings include the so-called constructively limited, which arises only under the conditions of using a word in a certain syntactic construction. For example, the relatively recent meaning of "district, region, place of action" in the word geography due to its use in a construction with a noun in the genitive case: geography of sports victories.

By the nature of the performed nominative functions, the meanings are actually nominative and expressive-synonymous.

Nominative are called those who directly, directly name an object, phenomenon, quality, action, etc. In their semantics, as a rule, there are no additional features (in particular, evaluative ones). Although over time, such signs may appear. (In this case, various kinds of figurative meanings develop, but this group is distinguished according to another classification criterion. See type 1.)

For example, the words writer, assistant, make noise and many others. dr.

Expressively synonymous the meaning of a word is called, in the semantics of which an emotionally expressive sign prevails. Words with such meanings exist independently, are reflected in the dictionary and are perceived as evaluative synonyms for words that have a proper nominative meaning. Wed: writer - hack writer, scribbler; assistant - accomplice; to make noise - to roam... Consequently, they not only name an object, an action, but also give a special assessment. For example, chatter(simple.) not just "make noise", but "behave noisy, fussy, dissolute, dishonorable."

In addition to the indicated basic types of lexical meanings, many words in the Russian language have shades of meanings, which, being closely related to the main one, still have differences. For example, along with the first direct meaning of the word hand the dictionaries also give its shade, i.e. separated by a semicolon, indicates "a part of the same limb from the metacarpus to the end of the fingers." (Compare in the dictionary the shades of the meanings of the word book and many other words.)

Vocabulary has been the subject of study for many generations of Russian scholars, therefore, the study of the lexical composition of the modern Russian language is still a relevant topic in our time, since the number of lexical units tends to constantly increase,characterized by the presence of both a number of common and a whole group of peculiar features in comparison with other Slavic and other Indo-European languages.

The purpose of the project: to analyze and identify the most common words in the speech of students of MBOU "Averinskaya secondary school" from the point of view of their use of common and limited vocabulary.

Project objectives:

Determine what place is occupied by non-common vocabulary - dialectisms and professionalisms in the speech of students;

Conduct a sociological study (questioning) among middle and senior school students in order to determine: the range of the most common slang words, the frequency of the use of jargon, the use of professionalisms, neologisms and dialectisms in speech.

Analyze survey results and place conclusions in diagrams;

Organize the material;

Draw conclusions on the research topic;

Perform a computer presentation.

Hypothesis: in the speech of students limited vocabulary prevails, there are practically no professionalisms, dialectisms.

Working methods and techniques: reading and analysis scientific literature, questionnaires, analysis of questionnaires, collection of frequently used profanity.

This work reveals the features of the lexical composition of the modern Russian language and focuses on the predominance of slang vocabulary in the speech of modern youth.

Language is made up of words, and words are

sounds of speech as signs for our thinking

and to express our thoughts and feelings.

F.F. Fortunatov

The origin of the vocabulary of the modern Russian language

The Russian lexical system in its modern form did not appear immediately. The vocabulary formation process is long and complex, closely related to the history of the development of the Russian people. The vocabulary of the modern Russian language has passed a long way of formation: it consists not only of native Russian words, but also words borrowed from other languages. Foreign language sources supplemented and enriched the Russian language throughout the entire process of its historical development. Some borrowings were made in antiquity, others - relatively recently.

The replenishment of the Russian vocabulary went in two directions:

1. New words were created from word-formative elements (roots, suffixes, prefixes) available in the language. This is how the native Russian vocabulary expanded and developed:head, throat, heart, palm, kind, young, dog, squirrel, ladle, ruble, throw, very, currant, you need.

2. New words poured into the Russian language from other languages as a result of the economic, political and cultural ties of the Russian people with other peoples: sandwich (German), pate (German), pavilion (French), pasta (Italian), soprano (Italian). The composition of the Russian vocabulary from the point of view of its origin can be schematically represented in the table:

Primordially Russian vocabulary

The primordially Russian vocabulary is heterogeneous in its origin: it consists of several layers, which differ in the time of their formation.
The most ancient among the primordially Russian words are Indo-Europeanism - words that have survived from the era of Indo-European linguistic unity. According to the assumptions of scientists, in the V-IV millennia BC. there was an ancient Indo-European civilization that united tribes living in a vast territory. So, according to the research of some linguists, it stretched from the Volga to the Yenisei, others believe that it was the Balkan-Danube, or South Russian, localization. The Indo-European linguistic community gave rise to European and some Asian languages (for example, Bengali, Sanskrit). The words denoting plants, animals, metals and minerals, tools of labor, forms of management, types of kinship, etc., go back to the Indo-European proto-language:oak, salmon, goose, wolf, sheep, copper, bronze, honey, mother, son, daughter, night, moon, snow, water, new, sew and etc.

Another layer of primordial Russian vocabulary is made up of words all-Slavic , inherited by our language from the common Slavic (Proto-Slavic) language, which served as a source for all Slavic languages. This language-base existed in the prehistoric era on the territory of the interfluve of the Dnieper, Bug and Vistula, inhabited by ancient Slavic tribes. By the VI-VII centuries. AD the common Slavic language disintegrated, opening the way for the development of Slavic languages, including Old Russian. Common Slavic words are easily distinguished in all Slavic languages, the common origin of which is obvious in our time.

Among the common Slavic words there are words of different parts of speech: specific nouns:head, throat, beard, heart, palm; field, mountain, forest, birch, maple, ox, cow, pig; sickle, pitchfork, knife, seine, neighbor, guest, servant, friend; shepherd, spinner, potter; abstract nouns (there are fewer of them):faith, will, guilt, sin, happiness, glory, rage, thought; Verbs: see, hear, grow, lieand etc.; adjectives:kind, young, old, wise, slyand etc.; numerals: one two Three and etc.; pronouns: me, you, we, you and etc.; pronominal adverbs: where, how and etc.; service parts of speech: over, a, and, yes, but also others.

The general Slavic vocabulary numbers about two thousand words, nevertheless, it is the core of the Russian dictionary, it includes the most common, stylistically neutral words used both in oral and written speech.

The third layer of primordially Russian words consists ofEast Slavic(Old Russian) vocabulary, which developed on the basis of the language of the Eastern Slavs, one of the three groups of ancient Slavic languages (Slavic languages that had their source in the ancient common Slavic (Proto-Slavic) language, by sound, grammatical and lexical features, were separated into three groups: southern, western and eastern).

The East Slavic linguistic community developed by the 7th-9th centuries. AD in Eastern Europe. The tribal unions that lived here go back to the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples. Therefore, the words that remained in our language from this period are known, as a rule, in Russian, and in Ukrainian, and in Belarusian, but are absent in the languages of the Western and Southern Slavs. As part of the East Slavic vocabulary, one can distinguish: the names of animals, birds:dog, squirrel, jackdaw, drake, bullfinchand etc.; names of tools: ax, blade and etc.; names of household items:boot, bucket, chest, rubleand etc.; names of people by profession:carpenter, cook, shoemaker, millerand etc.; settlement names:village, settlementand others, as well as other lexico- semantic groups.

The fourth layer of native Russian words isproper Russian vocabulary, formed after the XIV century, i.e. in the era of independent development of the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages. The language of this period already has its own words that belong to the proper Russian vocabulary. Actually Russian words stand out, as a rule,derivative basis : bricklayer, flyer, locker room, community, intervention.As part of the Russian vocabulary itself, there are also words with foreign language roots, which have passed the way of Russian word formation and "overgrown" with Russian suffixes, prefixes:partisanship, non-partisan, aggressiveness; ruler, glass, kettle; words with a complex stem:radio center, steam locomotive, as well as a lot of compound abbreviated words that supplemented the language in the XX century:Moscow Art Theater, timber industry, wall newspaperand etc.
The original Russian vocabulary continues to be replenished with words that are created on the basis of the word-formation resources of the language, as a result of a variety of processes characteristic of Russian word formation.

Borrowings from Slavic languages

A special place in the composition of Russian vocabulary among Slavic borrowings is occupied byOld Church Slavonic words, or Old Slavicisms(Church Slavicism). These are the words of the oldest Slavic language, well known in Russia since the spread of Christianity (988). As the language of liturgical books, the Old Church Slavonic language was at first far from colloquial speech, but over time it experienced a noticeable influence of the East Slavic language and itself, in turn, left an imprint on the language of the people. Russian chronicles reflect numerous cases of mixing of these related languages.
The influence of the Old Slavonic language was very fruitful, it enriched the Russian language, made it more expressive and flexible. In particular, Old Slavonicisms began to be used in Russian vocabulary, denoting abstract concepts for which there were no names yet:gold, night, fisherman, boat; finger, mouth, lanita, percy(cf. Russians: finger, lips, cheeks, chest); god, sin, sacrifice, fornication.

A noticeable role in the 17th-18th centuries. (in connection with the reforms of Peter I), words from Germanic languages (German, English, Dutch), as well as from Romance languages (for example, French, Italian, Spanish) were played. German includes a number of words in trade, military, everyday vocabulary and words from the field of art, science, etc.: bill, stamp; corporal, camp, headquarters; tie, boots, workbench, chisel, jointer; spinach; easel, bandmaster, landscape, resort. Some nautical terms are Dutch: buer, shipyard, pennant, harbor, drift, pilot, sailor, raid, flag, navy, etc.

From of English language until the 19th century also included some naval terms: midshipman, bot, brig, but significantly more words related to development public life, technology, sports, etc. entered the XX century, for example: boycott, leader, meeting; tunnel, trolleybus, basketball, football, sports, hockey, finish; steak, muffin, pudding, etc. English words (often in the American version) became especially widespread in the 90s of the XX century. due to economic, social and political transformations in Russian society... Borrowings of the late XX century. touched on different spheres of life: technical (computer, display, file, byte), sports (bobsleigh, overtime, fighter), financial and commercial (barter, broker, dealer, distributor, leasing), art (remake, talk show, underground, thriller), socio-political (briefing, rating, impeachment, lobby), etc.

The French include certain borrowings of the 18th-19th centuries, such as everyday words: bracelet, wardrobe, vest, coat, tights; broth, marmalade, cutlet, toilet, as well as words from military vocabulary, art, etc .: ámaêá, artillery, battalion, garrison, cannonade; actor, poster, play, director, etc.

Musical terminology of Italian origin stands out from other Western European borrowings: aria, allegro, libretto, tenor, bravo, buffoonery, sonata, carnival, cavatina; some everyday words also entered: vermicelli, pasta (came through French), gondola, etc. A small number of words came from the Spanish language: serenade, castanets, guitar, mantilla, then: caravel, caramel, cigar, tomato, etc.

There are few borrowings from the Finnish language: walrus, dumplings, blizzard; from Hungarian: bekesha, khutor.

Borrowed vocabulary of limited use occupies a special place. It includes words that are heterogeneous in the degree of mastering them in the Russian language and in stylistic coloring, which also makes it possible to distinguish several groups of borrowed vocabulary of limited use.

Book words that have not received universal distribution (immoral, apologist, accentuate, shock). These words, as a rule, have Russian or Old Church Slavonic synonyms: immoral - immoral, vicious, depraved, licentious; apologist - defender, intercessor, supporter; accentuate - highlight; shock - shake, stun, stun, stun. Many "fresh" borrowings can be added to these examples: show - play, performance, spectacle; stagnation - stagnation; corruption - corruption of officials, bribery, bribery; business - entrepreneurship; privatization - denationalization; conversion - conversion; presentation - presentation of something new (book, film); inauguration is a solemn procedure for the inauguration of the head of state. Terms constitute a significant part of the borrowed book vocabulary. Many of them can be conditionally attributed to a certain foreign language source. For example, the terms cosmos, automaton go back to the Greek language, and aggregate, negative, to Latin. Most of the terms of foreign language origin do not have Russian synonyms, which makes them irreplaceable in the scientific style (jargon, dialect, phoneme, morpheme, metric, rhyme). However, there are also many such foreign-language terms that have Russian or Old Slavonic synonyms: import - import, evolution - development, aggressive - predatory. Russian synonyms usually have a weakened shade of scientificity, formality, therefore, in book styles, foreign language terms are often preferred.

Borrowed words that penetrated into the Russian language under the influence of salon-noble jargon (amorous - love, bon vivant - a frivolous person, rendezvous - a date, sentiment - sensitivity). The words of this group were significantly archaized, they always have Russian synonyms, which are most often used in speech.

Exotisms are borrowed words that characterize the specific national characteristics of the life of different peoples and are used to describe non-Russian reality. So, when depicting the life and life of the peoples of the Caucasus, the words aul, saklya, dzhigit, arba are used; when describing the events in Afghanistan, the exoticism of the dushmans, the Taliban, the Taliban movement, etc .; Italian flavor is given to speech by the words gondola, tarantella, Spanish - mantilla, castanets, hidalgo. Distinctive feature exoticism is that they do not have Russian synonyms, therefore, the appeal to them when describing the life of other peoples is dictated by necessity. Against the background of other foreign language vocabulary, exoticisms stand out as words that are not fully lexically mastered in the Russian language.

Foreign language inclusions in the Russian vocabulary (oh "kay, merci), which often retain the non-Russian spelling: happy end (English) - happy ending, pater familias (Latin) - the father of the family, dum spiro spero (Latin) - while I breathe, hope.

Vocabulary of the modern Russian language from the point of view of the sphere of use

Common vocabulary includes words used (understood and used) in different linguistic areas by native speakers regardless of their place of residence, profession, lifestyle: these are the majority of nouns, adjectives, adverbs, verbs (blue, bonfire, grumble, good), numerals , pronouns, most of the official words.

Restricted vocabulary includes words whose use is limited to some locality (dialectisms), profession (special vocabulary), occupation or interests (slang vocabulary).

Dialectisms are features of dialects, dialects that do not correspond to the norms of the literary language. Dialecticism is a dialectal impregnation in the Russian literary language. The phonetic, derivational, grammatical features of the dialect can be reflected in the speech of people, but for lexicology the most important dialectisms associated with the functioning of words as lexical units are lexical dialectisms, which are of several types.

Special vocabulary is associated with the professional activities of people. It includes terms and professionalisms.

Terms are the names of special concepts of science, art, technology, agriculture, etc. Terms are often artificially created using Latin and Greek roots and differ from the "ordinary" words of the language in that they, ideally, are unambiguous in this terminology and do not have synonyms, that is, only one object of a given science should correspond to each term. Each word-term has a strict definition, recorded in special scientific research or terminological dictionaries.

It is necessary to distinguish professionalisms from terms - words and expressions that are not scientifically defined, strictly legalized names of certain objects, actions, processes associated with professional, scientific, industrial activities of people. These are semi-official and unofficial (they are sometimes called professional jargon) words used by people of a certain profession to denote special objects, concepts, actions, often having names in the literary language.

Jargon-professionalisms exist exclusively in the oral speech of people of this profession and are not included in the literary language (for example, for typographers: a hat - a "large heading", a marashka - a "marriage in the form of a square"; for drivers: a steering wheel - a "steering wheel", a brick - no-entry sign). If professionalisms are included in dictionaries, they are accompanied by an indication of the sphere of use (in the speech of sailors, in the speech of fishermen, etc.).

Limited use vocabulary also includes jargon - words used by people of certain interests, occupations, habits. Words that are included in different jargons form an interjargon (schmuck, funny, cool, party).

Slang and argotic vocabulary is outside the literary language and is recorded only in special dictionaries.

Having formed on the basis of Russian folk speech in all its diversity, the Russian language has absorbed all the best, all the most expressive of those means that are inherent in folk speech. And the modern Russian language, which is a fully formed communicative system, continues to draw expressive means - words, phrases, syntactic constructions - from dialects, vernacular, professional jargons. As a result of my research, which was conducted among students of MBOU "Averinskaya secondary school", it was revealed that students actively use slang in their speech. The use of non-literary vocabulary is most often observed when schoolchildren communicate with each other and when expressing some kind of feeling (surprise - cool !, delight - wow !, irritation - fuck off, etc.) But an interesting fact is that sometimes without context , very often these words and expressions are accompanied by facial expressions and gestures. Because without them it can be difficult to understand the meaning of the statement. This is confirmed by the fact that 7th grade students could not find all the correspondences to slang words and expressions (for example, the word "get crazy" without being applied to some situation turned out to be difficult to explain). Depending on the situation, words can express various, up to the opposite, emotions: disappointment, irritation, surprise, joy. For example: Well, you fucking give! (surprise), Don't bother me, damn it (annoyance), Hey, damn it! (delight), etc. Students believe that emotions and feelings that overwhelm them cannot be expressed in literary language (one of the reasons for using slang).

Slang was, is and will be in school vocabulary. It can neither be prohibited nor canceled. It changes over time, some words die, others appear, just like in any other language. It is impossible to imagine a modern student without slang at all. The main advantages here are expressiveness and brevity.

You cannot treat slang as something that only pollutes the Russian language. This is an integral part of our speech. In the questionnaires that I offered to the students, I asked them to indicate the words that children use most often. Analysis research work and my observations made it possible to distinguish the following semantic slang groups in the students' speech:

	Group name	Examples of
	Body parts	Rake, (hands), pack, tower (head), zenki, thorn (eyes), mitten (mouth), locators (ears);
	Words denoting people by profession	teacher (teacher), drove (driver), historian (history teacher), cop (policeman);
	Appliances	box, TV set (TV), mobile, sotik (mobile phone), computer (computer), video recorder (video recorder), dividishka (DVD);
	Transport	motik, motak (motorcycle), bike (bike), car (car), nine, ten, fifteen (car models)
	Words denoting people by kinship	ancestors, relatives, rodoki, laces (parents), godfather, folder (dad), mom (mom), sister (sister), lads (friends), brother, brother (brother), me (boy)
	Studies	homework (homework), deuce (score "2"), penny (score "5"), counter
	Food	hawka, hawka, havchik, zhrachka (food), boutique, boutique (store), canteen (canteen)
	Money	grandma, loot, bucks, piece, lave, wooden
	Appraisal words	cool, cool, lafa, nishtyak, zashibis, buzz (good, excellent), cool (interesting), cool (excellent), one hundred pounds, specifically (exactly), by nature, really (true), vosche (admiration), shameful, dumb, lame (bad, ugly), lucky (lucky), bullshit (very simple)
	Verbs	fuck off, untie, unhook, untie (step away, leave off), bazaar (talk), joke (joke), load (annoy), break off (failure), get crazy, stunned (surprised), stir up, spike (cheat), tear off (get ), hang out (rest), bastard, trudge (very good), slip away, reel (escape), gaze, stare (look), smile (smile), load (bother, pester), sew, hammer (kill), perish, fade (go away), run over (threaten);
	Words denoting people according to their quality of character	rat, ram, pig, dog, elk, goof, loshara, brake, six, woodpecker, goat, schmuck, dilda, cow

In the speech of relatives and school teachers involved in different kinds activities, there are names of different subjects, including foreign languages. From the vocabulary of parents, such words pass into the children's vocabulary. As a result of the survey, some professional words and expressions were identified that students know and use in speech. For example, battery, radiator, gearbox, crop rotation, agricultural technology, medicines, pediatrician, ophthalmologist, ENT.

In my work, I tried to identify those words that are most often used by adults and students of my school in order to identify the composition of vocabulary at the present stage of its development. Students actively use non-literary vocabulary in their speech. The study proves the presence of slang, dialectal, professional, slang words and expressions in the vocabulary of schoolchildren. A selective survey of students in grades 6 and 7 revealed their attitude to the use of jargon. A total of 14 people were interviewed.

When asked why students use jargon, the data presented in the table (Appendix II) were obtained.

The reason for using such different words as expressive means is that they are considered fashionable. The answers to the questionnaires show that with age, students understand that their speech is wrong and try to correct it. At the same time, students don't think about how they speak. To find out what percentage of schoolchildren's speech is made up of lexical innovations, what new words they use and whether they understand their meaning in the same way, I conducted a survey of classmates. In the first part of the questionnaire, they were asked to choose from 2 synonyms (literary and slang), the one that they use more often; in the second part - to bring the synonyms they use to literary words.

Age of the respondents: 14-17 years old. Number of respondents: 22 people.

An analysis of the questionnaires confirmed the assumption that slang prevails over literary speech in schoolchildren's communication, both among boys (63% of slang words, 37% of literary words) and among girls (52% and 48%, respectively) (Appendix III). Results of answers to the question "Do you try to do without jargon?" presented in the table (Appendix I).

In the process of research, I found out that slang has existed for a long time (since the days of our mothers and grandmothers), but the degree of use of this phenomenon in the language has increased in our time. Consequently, the hypothesis that I put forward is correct: in the speech of students, limited vocabulary prevails, there are practically no professionalisms and dialectisms. In the first place - slang, jargon, and dialectisms and professionalisms are very rare. This means that our task is to learn to use this vocabulary appropriately in accordance with the communication situation and to learn the literary norms of the language: the norms of pronunciation, word formation, etc.

Bibliography

N.P. Borisenko. "A sad sign of the times, or what is foul language" (Newspaper "Russian language" No. 4, 2000)
E. G. Borisova. On some features of the modern jargon of youth // Journal "Russian language at school". - M .: 1987. - No. 3. - P. 26 - 29.
A. A. Bragin. Neologisms in Russian. - M .: Education, 1973 .-- 222 p.
M. A. Denisova. "Literary Norm and Practice of Speaking" (РЯШ №1, 1996)
O. P. Ermakova. "Sources of jargon replenishment" ("Russian language" No. 40, 1999)
N. S. Valgina, D. E. Rosenthal, M. I. Fomina. Modern Russian language. - M .: Higher school, 1987 .-- 528 p.
O.B.Sirotinina. The main criteria for good speech // Good speech. - Saratov, 2001 .-- 234 p.

Appendix I

Student questionnaire questions:

What is youth slang?

Do you know the words of youth slang? (Not really)

Do you use these words in your speech? (often, rarely, never)

Underline the ones you use the most.

For what purpose do you use them?

a) Think that it is fashionable, modern.

b) Are needed in speech for the connection of words.

c) They help to overcome the lack of words in my speech.

d) Make speech easier to understand for friends.

e) Help to assert self.

f) Give your speech liveliness, humor.

6. Could you do without slang words and expressions?

The vocabulary of the modern Russian language is heterogeneous. Having passed a long and difficult path of development, he concentrated in himself words that are different in time of occurrence and in origin. Some words arose in deep prehistory (I, that; three, five; brother, sister; fire, sky head, etc.), others - in recent years, before our eyes (perestroika - in 1986, one-mandate - in 1994).

Originally Russian words (mountain, say, etc.) coexist with words borrowed from other languages (for example, a ship - from Greek, jury - from French, etc.). The variety and richness of the vocabulary of the modern Russian language is explained by the long and complex history of the people - its bearer, the property of the vocabulary to directly and immediately reflect new phenomena in everyday life, social life, culture, science and technology.

1. Primordially Russian words ... The main lexical array of the Russian language is represented by native Russian words. These are words that originally belonged to the Russian language, which arose in it or was inherited by it from the common Slavic and even Indo-European language-base.

The primordially Russian vocabulary includes several layers, differing in the time of formation:

1.1. Common Indo-European vocabulary is words that arose in the common Indo-European language-basis and passed into Proto-Slavic, from Proto-Slavic into Old Russian, and from Old Russian into modern Russian, (mother, widow; flea, wolf; birch, oak; salt, coal; sky, swamp; order, carry; dilapidated, barefoot).
1.2. Common Slavic (Proto-Slavic) vocabulary is words that arose in the Common Slavic (Proto-Slavic) language (before the 6th century AD), are now known to all or many Slavic peoples and have passed into Old Russian, and from Old Russian into modern Russian (grandfather, father-in-law, bird cherry, willow; earth, field; breathe, crawl).
1.3. East Slavic (Old Russian) vocabulary is the words that originated in the Old Russian (East Slavic) language (VI-XIV centuries) and passed into the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages. (stepdaughter, fidget; rat, jackdaw; basket, samovar, dense, gray; flounder, boil).
1.4. Actually Russian vocabulary is a vocabulary that arose as part of the Russian language itself - the language of the Russian (Great Russian) nationality (from the 14th century), and then the language of the Russian nation (from the 17th - 18th centuries to the present day) (publicity, prepayment, invention).
2. Borrowed words

The Russian language has learned a significant number of words from other languages and, in turn, has enriched their vocabulary.

Borrowings in Russian are divided into two types:

2.1. Borrowings from Slavic (Old Church Slavonic, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Polish, Czech, Slovak and Bulgarian) languages. Old Slavicisms. (enemy, sweet; announce, transform; lanits, verb).
2.2. Borrowings from non-Slavic (Greek, Latin, Turkic, Scandinavian, Western European and other) languages (metropolitan, stage, lantern).

A special type of borrowing includes tracing paper... The term tracing paper goes back to the French word calque with the meaning "copy on a transparent sheet, imitation." Calca is a word (or phraseological unit) formed by a Pomorphic translation of a foreign language word. For example, the words alphabet, tracing the Greek alphabztos (alphabet), case (Latin casus), adverb (Latin adverbium).

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A message on the composition of the modern Russian language. Summary: Modern Russian language. Expressions from colloquial and everyday speech: speak your teeth, lose your head, miracles in a sieve, fish without fish and cancer, was born in a shirt

The place of the Russian language in linguistic systems. The lexical composition of the Russian language from the point of view of origin. Modern orthoepic norms. Subject and principles of Russian spelling and punctuation. Parts of speech: noun, adjective, verb.

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Moscow External Humanitarian University

Academy of Journalism

Course essay

"Modern Russian language"

2002 year

Language as a subject of science

The place of the Russian language in linguistic systems

Language as a subject of science

The place of the Russian language in linguistic systems

So, the Russian language is a representative of the East Slavic group within the Indo-European language family.

The literary language is the highest form of the Russian language, it is the language of national culture: the language of politics and art, science and official documents, the language of everyday and business communication of cultural people.

The literary language has an important feature: it is a normalized language, that is, the literary language is based on a system of norms. Linguistic norms are the historically established patterns and rules that determine.

Lexicology

Vocabulary

Homonymy and paronymy

Homonyms- these are words of the same part of speech, the same in sound and spelling, but different in lexical meaning, for example: boron - "pine forest growing in a dry, elevated place" and boron- "a steel drill used in dentistry."

Synonymy and antonymy

In addition, synonyms may differ in the degree of modernity ( airplane - airplane), use in different styles of speech ( face - face), sphere of use ( cook - cook).

For synonyms, it is also important that they distinguish them. Individual features of the meaning allow you to highlight the types of synonyms in the vocabulary.

· Synonyms - doublets are also called absolute synonyms. They express the same concepts, interchangeable in the text: sailor - navigator, spelling - spelling, lame - lame.

· Ideographic synonyms are also called conceptual. These words are close, but not identical in meaning: do, do, implement; silence, silence, silence.

· Stylistic synonyms express the same meaning, replacing each other in different speech situations: reproduce - repeat - hammer; hoax - deception - swindle.

Antonyms- these are words that are different in sound, have directly opposite meanings: truth is a lie, good is evil, speak - be silent. Antonyms usually refer to the same part of speech and form pairs.

Modern lexicology considers synonymy and antonymy as extreme, limiting cases, on the one hand, of interchangeability, and on the other, opposition of words in terms of content. At the same time, for synonymous relations, semantic similarity is characteristic, for antonymic - semantic difference.

Words of other meanings usually do not have antonyms; Wed: house, thinking, write, twenty, Kiev, Caucasus.

Lexical composition of the modern Russian language from the point of view of origin

Vocabulary of the modern Russian language from the point of view of the sphere of use

Active and passive vocabulary

Phraseology

The set of lexically indivisible, integral in meaning, reproduced in the form of ready-made speech units of word combinations is called phraseology (from the Greek phrasis "expression" and logos "teaching, science").

Phraseologisms can be divided into groups in terms of origin and tradition of use:

Expressions from colloquial everyday speech: speak your teeth, lose your head, miracles in a sieve, fish without fish and cancer, was born in a shirt;

Expressions from professional spheres of use, from argot: stump, green street- from the word usage of railway workers; clumsy work, without a hitch, without a hitch- from the speech of carpenters; rub glasses;

Expressions from book and literary speech:

Modern orthoepic norms

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Introduction