Variety of social interests. Social structure. Social interests in politics
The media can be viewed as:
Medium of information
Means of communication
A product of professional creativity
What is being studied: geography, participants in events, authors of publications, formats, genres.
Sampling problem: the risk of getting on those numbers where there are no specific headings (for example, in a daily newspaper). Regularity, frequency should be taken into account.
The scope of the study can be different: daily activities, special.
Foreign sociologists pay a lot of attention to qualitative research of the media audience. Academic surveys are conducted, i.e. deep, related to interests, needs), they are conducted by universities. Commercial surveys are conducted by specialized firms that are mainly engaged in mediametric, quantitative audience research.
The position of a sociologist in foreign media is a common occurrence. If the audience is more than 100 thousand people, then there is necessarily a full-time sociologist. But more often sociological firms and services are invited to conduct specific research.
An essential direction in modern Western empirical sociology is the development of problems of the relationship between man and society through channels mass media, the place and role of the latter both in social structures and in individual consumption. Since the 80s, the so-called "information processing theories" have been developed, which are based on socio-psychological approaches and ideas about the role mass communication in society.
Concrete studies show that not only specialists, but also the general public have their own ideas about the functions of mass communication and this in a certain way affects the consumption and assimilation of information. One of the main functions of the media in modern society is considered to be the reflection of the surrounding reality. At the same time, a certain degree of lack of freedom is stipulated both in the image of the “worldview” by the media and in its perception by different groups of the mass audience. One of the pioneers of this trend in the 70s was the researchers of the “information agenda”, whose main hypothesis was the assumption that the most effective mass information is not in changing opinions and attitudes, as sociologists of the first half of this century imagined, but in marking the boundaries of events. of which large masses of people are aware.
Further research, however, brought more questions than answers, but this area remains one of the most popular among researchers. Thus, American sociologists compared the main topics that sounded on the three main TV channels in news programs over the two weeks under study with the survey data on the interest of TV viewers in these topics. Such comparisons give a clear idea of the "scissors" between the audience's expectations and the offer from the information channels, and allow the latter to make adjustments to their work.
The relationship between the media and society, their evolution is clearly manifested in the study of the attitude of the population towards journalists and their activities, as well as in ideas about the role (functions) of the media. Thus, polls conducted by the French Institute public opinion SOFRES in 1975 showed that the public's confidence in all media channels for 12 years has fallen, including the press by 16 points, to the radio by 14, and to TV by 22 points. Nevertheless, in the opinion of the respondents, the reliability of the images of events on television is higher than in the press (59% of those who trust TV versus 46% - in the press). However, this illusion is obviously dissipating. One of the reasons for the decline in media confidence is the loss of faith in the independence of journalists. Another reason can be considered the frequent appeal of the media, in the opinion of the French, to unimportant problems and the fact that they poorly reflect the real opinions of the population.
The traditional object of attention of the sociology of mass communication - the mass audience - remains in the center of attention of modern foreign researchers, but the approaches to its study have undergone significant changes over the past decades. Once perceived as a step forward in structuring the anonymous audience, its division according to socio-demographic characteristics is now perceived as necessary, but clearly insufficient. Moreover, more and more researchers provide evidence that socio-demographic characteristics are more suitable as a way to describe the characteristics of audience groups that have developed on other grounds - interests, motives, positions, etc.
The main feature of research in recent decades is the rejection of the “passive” audience model and the search for signs (psychological, social, communicative) that determine their association (often temporary, unstable) around certain sources of information, channels, broadcasts.
Significant changes have occurred in the understanding and use of such traits traditionally included in audience research as interests and motives for using the media. The division of the mass audience according to interests has now become clearly insufficient and conditional. The notion that elite TV programs are watched by a select public turned out to be erroneous, and it is now proposed to focus researchers' attention on studying the spectrum of informational interests of a single audience, rather than a multitude of audiences with one or few interests each. Based on this, TV should strive to create a variety of programs designed for a variety of interests, and not for a specific, often mythical, audience.
Modern sociology of mass communication pays great attention to the study of the motives of the audience's appeal to certain media or types of information. On the basis of a significant number of studies, a fairly stable structure of the main motives of a person's turning to TV has been revealed: communication, pastime, habit, escapism, relaxation, entertainment, raising vitality and receiving information.
One of the key problems of interaction between the media and public opinion is the question of whether they should be a “mirror” of opinions or their “sculptor”. In a broader sense, this is the problem of the correlation of the "picture of the world" in reality, in the mass media and in the minds of people. Researchers, for example, note that leading American news agencies give developing countries as much space in their messages as developed countries. However, as a rule, they highlight negative aspects (corruption, crime, backwardness) in the life of developing countries, which leads to a distortion of the “picture of the world”. The same distortion was at one time recorded by researchers of the reflection in the British press of the anti-war (against the American war in Vietnam) movement in Great Britain.
Problems of interaction between the media and public opinion are being actively developed not only against each other, but also against the third force, which is often called “decision-making circles” (from the government to various kinds of leaders). In this circle, the media act as a mouthpiece of public opinion and as a channel for influencing social processes... Moreover, the effectiveness of the influence of the media in the latter case is better controlled and measured than the influence on the formation of public opinion.
Journalistic activities are carried out in certain socio-political conditions (state, economic, cultural-historical, religious, national) with a certain nature and relationships of various social forces (classes, parties, trade unions, business associations). At the same time, the vital activity of society proceeds to a large extent as the functioning of a large number of various social institutions. They arise as a set of functional and normative foundations of people's life in a particular area (family, property, upbringing), which then acquire a legislative framework and organizational forms. Journalism is one of the most important SI, without which the normal functioning of society is inconceivable, regardless of the basis on which it is created and operates. Modern journalism in a society in a transitional stage of development is very diverse, in different proportions it bears the features of the "old" and "new". Journalism like Social Institute, consists of three substructures - civil, economic, state, which form three social type MEDIA.
Mass media of the civic "body" of society... GO is the area of “self-standing” of a person as a citizen actively seeking and realizing his civil rights. This includes the media of organizations that openly defend their positions and go out on their funds (political parties, associations of entrepreneurs, associations of veterans). Commercial media produced for profit. Mass media of various non-political organizations. State media- created by various power structures, both federal and regional. State-owned public media - most fully can realize common interests. The essence of democracy: deliberative (requiring deliberate decisions), participatory (conscious participation of all citizens) and dialogical (when decisions are born as a result of conciliatory discussions). Journalism has a huge role to play in information support of democracy through achieving maximum awareness of citizens. What is needed is political, ideological, cultural pluralism ("plural"), not monism ("1") or dualism ("2"). As well as tolerance ("patience"), a disposition for constructive interaction, social dialogue in the media about problems that different forces solve in different ways, an open dialogue, compromise, and consensus.
Spheres of mass media regulated by law: Intrajournalistic relations; relations between media and sources of information; the rights of journalists to disseminate information; the relationship between the media and the audience. The state determines the volume and nature of direct participation of the state. bodies in mass information activities and controls the activities of the media (censorship).
Media as 4 power. Power is a manifestation of the ability of a subject to dominate in relations with other social subjects, the ability to carry out their will, influencing "counterparties" in their own interests in one way or another. There are types of power - state political regulation, economic incentives, ideological influence. The civil defense media and the state-public media are the media of the “fourth estate”. Its strength lies in the spiritual and ideological influence, in the formation of mass consciousness.
Journalism monitors all spheres of life, is a tribune of diverse opinions on a wide range of issues, is a public expert, participates in creating a spiritual atmosphere in society, enables citizens to speak out and be heard, acts as an engine of democratic progress, ensures information security, and implements part of national policy. Mediademocracy - interaction on an equal footing between business, government, non-profit organizations and the media.
Each media channel has its own "+". The newspaper has the principle of deferred reading, the radio has mass character, and TV embodies the picture and sound (this works for trust). Each has its own “-”: newspapers have no “movement”, radio has a concentration on sound, and TV is now “cluttered”.
Newspapers are the founder of this system. Until the middle of the 19th century, only central and provincial publications were published with the status of socio-political. Since the second half of the 19th century and, especially, in the first decade of the 20th century, there has been a sharp differentiation of newspapers, both vertically (along a regional basis) and horizontally (along social characteristics). In the 20th century, there is an even greater coverage of different social strata of the reading public. In the 1920s, the first electronic link in the media was radio. At this time, magazines are rapidly developing. The radio also has horizontal and vertical differentiation. Television has appeared since 1947, and since the 50th there have been regular television broadcasts. TV, radio, newspapers - interact with each other, there should be cooperation between them.
As for other parameters regarding the social. groups of society, then 1) the efficiency is the highest for radio, for TV is average, for newspapers is rather low (weekly - monthly editions); 2) the conditions for obtaining information from radio and newspapers are not limited, TV has restrictions, but “+” in family information receipt; 3) the quality of obtaining information is the best in newspapers (analytical, specialized editions), audiences perceive information on the radio better, but there is practically no analytics there; the quality of information on TV now depends on the channel ("Maximum"> "Posner"); 4) the most important thing for the audience is the distribution area - newspapers (state, region, city, districts), radio (network and local, but in districts there is not everywhere, broadcast and by wire), TV (federal and local channels, but again not all channels are available in the region, there is cable TV).
Formation over the past twenty years in the Russian Federation of the Institute social work was accompanied by the development of various forms and models of its interaction with the media, among which the most important are the following: media coverage of social issues and the formation of public opinion; the performance of social work functions by specific individuals or the media in general; control, analysis and monitoring in the field of social work, social policy and social protection; implementation of joint project activities of subjects of the media and social work, etc.
Share your work on social media
If this work did not suit you at the bottom of the page there is a list of similar works. You can also use the search button
Other similar works that may interest you. Wshm> |
|||
| 16759. | Restructuring of corporate borrowers at the choice of lenders: solving macro problems at the micro level | 14.73 KB | |
| A significant deterioration in the economic situation in the country and the world has led to the fact that most Russian enterprises, including large ones, have faced numerous financial problems and a constant increase in debt. The total volume of defaults is such that the total for the year since September 2008. The reason lies in the fact that all the money settled in banks: to support the financial market and industries ... | |||
| 3721. | Mechanisms for solving social problems of youth | 55.86 KB | |
| At the same time, the solution of youth problems as a priority direction of functioning Russian society is in the stage of formation. Along with this, in public life and public policy, there is a mistaken hope that everything will work out by itself in connection with the development of macroeconomic processes. | |||
| 16785. | The concept of "social heat" as the basis of various social problems in the educational system of Russia | 10.59 KB | |
| Paradoxically, the harm that was caused to their health and life is ultimately a consequence of the contemporary forms of socializing pressure of society, which wanted to receive from its citizens as much labor and, accordingly, material benefits. Both are themselves in trouble and both are a problem for the whole society. Our society has developed a relationship that we call the motivating pressure of society. A significant part of the individuals of modern society spend their lives trying to achieve what with what ... | |||
| 21726. | 77.33 KB | ||
| Key words: civil society; the principle of separation of powers; the formation of the rule of law, etc. The object of research is public relations in the field of formation civil society and the rule of law. Target thesis: study of the trends and problems of the formation of the rule of law and civil society in the Republic of Belarus Research objectives: To determine the basic concepts and stages of development of civil society; Give a definition of the concept of civil society; Consider interaction ... | |||
| 2862. | The decision of the customs authority on the complaint | 4.3 KB | |
| Decision of the customs authority on the complaint Decision of the customs authority on the complaint against the decision action of the inaction of the customs authority official is accepted in writing. Such a decision must indicate: 1 the name of the customs authority that considered the complaint; 2 number of the solution; 3 date and place of drawing up the decision; 4 position surname and initials of the customs officer who made the decision on the complaint details of the document confirming his authority to consider the complaint, with the exception of the head of the customs ... | |||
| 21184. | Solution of the problem "Supplier selection" | 247.47 KB | |
| Initial data for the problem Supplier selection Data for calculating additional costs Transport tariff rub m3 Norm of transport stock days Rate fear of stock days Rate bank credit Rate for freight forwarding Add. Initial data for the task Inventory management Trade assortment of the company and average annual stock No. of assortment position Average annual stock of assortment position y. LOGISTICS LOSS MODEL COST DEFICIENCY FOR PROVIDING MOTION OF STOCK MANAGEMENT. Solved two tasks related to supplier selection and management ... | |||
| 19053. | Optimal solution to the dual problem | 256.75 KB | |
| Method 2 The optimal solution to the dual problem can be obtained from the following equation. They can be used to determine the optimal solution to one problem directly from a simplex table containing the optimal solution to another. After finding the optimal solution to the problem being solved, the optimal solution to the inverse problem is determined by one of the described methods. | |||
| 8653. | Solving systems of linear equations | 91.38 KB | |
| If the number of equations in the system coincides with the number of unknowns m = n, then the system is called square. The solution of the linear system 2.2 is a set of numbers that, when substituted for unknowns, turn each equation of the system into a true equality. For a system of linear equations, the matrix A = is called the matrix of the system and the matrix A = is called the extended matrix of the system Definition. | |||
| 871. | Solving non-standard problems in mathematics lessons | 62.39 KB | |
| How much will a heron weigh if it stands on 2 legs. A pair of horses ran 40 km. How many each horse has run Seven brothers have one sister. How many children are there in the family? Six cats eat six mice in six minutes. How many cats do you need to eat a hundred mice in a hundred minutes. They cost 6 glasses 3 with water 3 empty. | |||
| 19491. | Solving Partial Differential Equations | 267.96 KB | |
| Shielded two-wire line CALCULATION To perform the calculation, you must start the PDE Toolbox for this, you must run the pdetool command in the MTLB workspace. - Two-dimensional model of a conductive line First, a system model is built from geometric primitives, see ... | |||
The image of certain social groups drawn by the media is of great importance for socialization. If an individual has no real experience of interacting with them, then the television image will become for him the only form of their representation. Even on the perception of those groups with whom the individual directly communicates, television versions can have a noticeable impact (women, ethnic minorities, criminals, residents of other countries, politicians,
youth subcultures, religious groups, etc.).
For example, images of young people are often used in television advertisements. They appear primarily as consumers of certain goods, in a situation of leisure. Drinks, food, clothing, household appliances - the range of objects surrounding the young man. This creates the image of a carefree hedonist who does nothing - neither work nor study. His only occupation is entertainment, while not too sophisticated (we are not shown young people who visit, for example, the theater or read books).
In other programs, young people do not meet too often. A young man who watches TV regularly will not see a reflection of the real, everyday problems he faces in life. (Isn't this the source of popularity of all kinds of youth talk shows, where, albeit at an extremely primitive level, youth problems are still discussed?) The television image of youth is not an accurate reflection of it.
Many groups do not "exist" at all in the information space or are represented in a small and one-sided way. If we talk about Russian television, then such an “excluded” group are, for example, the disabled, as well as manual workers (representatives of the working class), pensioners. The latter fall into the lens, as a rule, when it comes to either an increase in pensions, or a low level of the same pensions. Thus, pensioners turn into “eternal supplicants”, “hanging on the neck of the state,” which does not correspond to reality. Many retirees continue to work actively, help their loved ones, and very little hope for government assistance. Not to mention the fact that a significant part of government officials, even of the highest rank, are people of retirement age.
A special "painful" point of the Russian media is national relations. Russia is a multinational country.
But Russian television does not reflect this situation. Representatives of ethnic minorities practically do not appear on the screens, unless we are talking about some regular interethnic conflict or manifestations of xenophobia. Often the media (and not only television) even contribute to the incitement of xenophobia, since they paint a negative, repulsive image of representatives of “non-Russian” nationalities.
In 2004 V.M. Peshkova researched a number of publications in the Moscow press dedicated to the Azerbaijani diaspora in Moscow. The results of the content analysis of the articles of "Komsomolskaya Pravda" and "Moskovsky Komsomolets" showed that Azerbaijanis are described using words such as "black", "Caucasians", "guests from the south", "Caucasian men", "burning guys from the Caucasus "," Warm company of southerners ".
The description of Azerbaijanis was dominated by stereotypes related to temperament, physical features, attitude to work. Certain social roles were attributed to Azerbaijanis, primarily those related to trade, as well as criminal activity. The image of Azerbaijanis was clearly associated with a certain threat.
The researcher concludes: “despite the fact that there is information in the press that creates a complex, multi-component collective image of the Azerbaijani community (employment in the field of culture, belonging to the intelligentsia, the role of a victim) and, therefore, can contribute to the formation of an ambiguous attitude towards Azerbaijanis, in the overwhelming majority of cases, a typical set of features is reproduced that define the Azerbaijani community as a so-called "commercial minority", characterized by their migrant status and cultural distinctiveness as alien to "us" 1.
However, if the "Caucasian peoples", albeit in a negative way, but are represented in the media, then other Russian peoples
generally "invisible" to them. How many stories can one recall, for example, to Tatars, Bashkirs, Kalmyks, Buryats, representatives of northern peoples? More than 100 different peoples have lived in Russia for centuries, contributing to the development of the country. But if we judge about Russia on the basis of the “pictures” of the media, we can conclude that only Russians and some generalized “Caucasians” live in Russia (in particular, all the numerous peoples of the North Caucasus for the everyday consciousness of the population of the European part of Russia are “on the same face” ).
In modern society, the media, and especially television, shape the image of reality. Various social groups are also part of reality. But, as you know, the "image" does not always reflect reality adequately. In the ordinary mind, the images created by the media often replace the true reality. And this substitution can have quite tangible social, political and psychological consequences.
1. How has the development of the media influenced the culture of modern societies?
2. What are the characteristics and functions of mass culture?
3. What is the role of the media in the socialization of the individual in modern society?
4. What is the essence of the concept of “disappearance of childhood” proposed by N. Postman? What is the role of television in the “disappearance of childhood”? Do you agree with Postman's point of view?
5. What is ideology? What is the ideological influence of the media?
6. Give examples of the ideological presentation of material on Russian television.
7. In your opinion, should the media promote the establishment of one or another ideology? Why?
8. Why do you think the media pay more attention to certain social groups and ignore others?
9. In your opinion, representatives of what social groups most often come to the attention of the Russian media? Why?
10. In your opinion, can the media change the stereotypical ideas about any social group that have developed in society? What needs to be done for this?
11. Give a general description of the impact of the media on the culture of modern Russian society.
1. Abercrombie N., Hill C, Turner B. Sociological Slo-
var. - M .: "ZAO Publishing House" Economics ", 2004.
2. Adorno T. A new approach to the industry of culture // Contexts of modernity-1: actual problems of society and culture in Western social theory. - Kazan: Kazan University Publishing House, 2000.
3. Aronson E. Social animal: An introduction to social psychology. - M .: Aspect-Press, 1999.
4. Bennett T. Politics of the "popular" // Contexts of modern
ness-I: actual problems of society and culture in
Western social theory. - Kazan: Publishing house Kazans-
Who University, 2000.
5. Berger A. Narratives in mass culture // Contexts of modernity-II: a reader. - Kazan: Kazan University Publishing House, 2001.
6. Brueckner P. Eternal euphoria: an essay on forced happiness. - SPb .: Publishing house of Ivan Limbakh, 2007.
7. Gouldner A. Ideology, the apparatus of culture and the new industry of consciousness // Contexts of modernity-I: actual problems of society and culture in Western social theory. - Kazan: Kazan University Publishing House, 2000.
8. Dondurei D. Fear Factory // Otechestvennye zapiski. 2003. No. 4.
9. Dubin B.V. Post-Soviet media: changing attitudes, functions, assessments // Bulletin of public opinion. Data. Analysis. Discussions. 2005. No. 2 (76).
10. Zvereva V. Representation and reality // Otechestvennye zapiski. 2003. No. 4.
11. Kroto D., Hoynes W. Media and ideology // Contexts of modernity-P: a reader. - Kazan: Kazan University Publishing House, 2001.
12. Kukarkin A.V. Bourgeois mass culture. - M .: Politizdat, 1985.
13. Kurennoy V. Media: means in search of goals // Otechestvennye zapiski. 2003. No. 4.
14. Merrin W. Television kills the art of symbolic exchange: the theory of Jean Baudrillard // Contexts of modernity-P: a reader. - Kazan: Kazan University Publishing House, 2001.
15. Peshkova V.M. Content analysis of the Moscow metropolis press about the Azerbaijani community // Demoscope WEEKLY. 2004. No. 179-180.
16. Poluekhtova I. Telemenu and TV consumption // Notes of the Fatherland. 2003. No. 4.
17. Postman N. The disappearance of childhood // Notes of the Fatherland. 2004. No. 3
18. Production and consumption of cultural products // Otechestvennye zapiski. 2005. No. 4.
19. Ritzer D. Modern sociological theories. SPb .: Peter, 2002.
20. Riel M. Cultural theory and its relation to the spectacles of popular culture and media // Contexts of modernity-N: a reader. - Kazan: Kazan University Publishing House, 2001.
21. Turner B. Mass culture, difference and lifestyle // Contexts of modernity-I: actual problems of society and culture in Western social theory. - Kazan: Kazan University Publishing House, 2000.
22. Tester K. Media and morality // Contexts of modernity-P: a reader. - Kazan: Kazan University Publishing House, 2001.
23. Featherstone M. Cultural production, consumption and development of the cultural sphere // Contexts of modernity-I: actual problems of society and culture in Western social theory. - Kazan: Kazan University Publishing House, 2000.
24. Horheimer M., Adorno T. Dialectics of education. - M .: Publishing house "Medium", 1997.
25. Shendrik A.I. Sociology of culture. - M .: UNITY-DANA, 2005.
26. Language of the media as an object of interdisciplinary research: textbook. allowance / otv. ed. M.N. Volodin. - M .: Publishing house of Moscow State University, 2003.
Media audience- a massive social community united by participation in the consumption of information products.
The media audience is heterogeneous. It is structured, segmented according to many different criteria: age, gender, educational, economic, professional, ethnic, regional, religious, etc.
Different segments of the media audience prefer different types of information products, are involved to varying degrees in the process of information consumption, and have unequal access to information resources.
In addition, social groups that form the audience of the media can perceive the broadcast information in different ways. This process is always conditioned by the social experience of individuals associated with their social status, characteristics of socialization, cultural capital.
All of the above factors should be taken into account when analyzing the impact of the media on public opinion and people's behavior in society, their value orientations and attitudes.
The attitude of the audience to media products is an important indicator of the effectiveness of their activities. However, the attitude of the audience to the media is also an indicator of the state of the audience itself - its values and preferences, its main interests, the level of concern for certain social problems, attitudes towards politics and other institutions of society. Therefore, the study of the audience of the media is one of the most important tools for studying public opinion, the state of mass consciousness.
Media audience research is diverse in its objectives, but it can be roughly divided into three main areas.
Firstly, studying the impact of media on the audience of the so-called effects or consequences of media. The focus is on visual media, primarily television. Recently, the influence of the Internet has attracted more and more interest. This type of research is closely related to public attention to the problems of the influence of the media on children and youth, the moral climate in society, and basic cultural values. This type of research belongs to the sphere of interests not so much of sociology as of the psychology of mass communication, more precisely, it is at the “junction” of sociological and psychological problems.
Secondly, studying the attitude of the media audience to their products, the dynamics of audience preferences. In this case, the study of the audience allows us to understand the trends in the development of mass consciousness, value dynamics. Ultimately, this type of audience research can be considered as one of the forms of sociological research of the culture of society.
Thirdly, “Audience measurement” - collection of quantitative information about those who consume media products, about the demand for this or that type of these products. This type of research includes, first of all, the determination of the ratings of certain programs. This type of research is mainly inspired by the interests of advertisers who need to know which programs are more profitable to advertise on. Thus, this type of research is, as a rule, not so much scientific as it is commercial in nature.
♦ Research on the impact of media on audiences
The emergence of the media immediately sparked public debate about their impact on traditional cultural values and morality. Already the appearance of the first "tabloid
novels ”caused a surge of criticism from the intellectual and creative elite of society. Concerns about the harmful influence of the media increased with the advent of cinema, later television; today, new fears about the internet are emerging. How justified are such fears?
As G. Cumberbach 1 notes, one of the earliest studies of the influence of the media was related to cinema. In 1928, the Payne Foundation was established in New York to study the impact of cinema on young people. Within the framework of the foundation, 12 independent research projects were carried out, the results of which were summarized by W. Charter. The main conclusion was this: “Despite many fears from the society, cinema has very little effect on young people, and even then - more in matters of fashion than morality, and there is no good reason to associate criminal behavior with going to cinemas” 2.
Already in 1951, a study conducted in Britain by the "Ministerial Committee for Children and Cinema" led to similar conclusions. 38 000 cases of juvenile delinquency were investigated, of which only 141 crimes were committed under the influence of cinema - 0.4% 3.
| 1 Cumberbach G. The impact of the media on society: an unfinished discussion // Media: an introduction. - M .: UNITI-DANA, 2005.S. 326.2 Ibid. 3 Ibid. |
However, research on the impact of the media with the massive distribution of television has intensified especially. In the second half of the 20th century, hundreds of studies were carried out in various countries related to the identification of the effects of the media. But they did not give unequivocal results. As an example, we can cite the large-scale study of Huismann and Heron, carried out in 1986 and covering a number of countries. Researchers from Holland, Australia, Poland, Israel, the USA and a number of other countries were involved in the project. The results turned out to be paradoxical:
In Australia, too, no correlation was found between "televiolence" and aggressiveness.
In the United States, paradoxically, a link between early experiences of "televiolence" and later aggressiveness has been established for girls.
In Israel, the same correlation was found for cities, but not for rural areas.
The Finnish authors admitted that they had established some connection between televiolence and aggression; this correlation is weak in girls; for boys it is negative, i.e. the more the boys watch scenes of violence on the screen, the less later they were aggressive in life! " one .
The conflicting results of such studies indicate that the media affects people to varying degrees and not so much directly as indirectly. It is virtually impossible to prove a causal relationship between watching TV and the actions of people. However, it is also impossible to completely deny the existence of an impact.
There are several theories of media exposure. Based on the work of R. Harris 2, let us characterize these theories.
Unified Consequence Theory
According to this theory, the mass audience perceives media messages in the same way and quite intensely. The media appear as a very powerful means of influencing the mass consciousness, as an instrument of propaganda. G. Lasswell used the metaphor of a hypodermic syringe - under
under the influence of constant information "injections", people are capable of vicious and destructive actions.
This theory is not widely popular today, since numerous studies show that the audience is not a passive object of media influence. People perceive media reports in different ways and often critically. The nature of the impact of a message on a person largely depends on his personal experience, psychological characteristics, social affiliation, etc. Already P. Lazarefeld showed that the influence of the media is mediated by "opinion leaders", is determined by differences in intelligence and education, etc. However, denying the presence of a certain unified effect of media reports does not mean the absence of any effect at all.
There is also such an important phenomenon as the cumulative effect of media reports. Repeated repetition of the same information must inevitably have some effect on the audience, although the presence of this effect is difficult to confirm experimentally. Examples of such impact can be observed in public life quite often. Russian opinion polls show that people tend to follow the lead of the media on foreign policy issues, for example, in defining Russia's “enemies” or “friends”. “Enemies” in the eyes of the majority of respondents regularly turn out to be those states that become objects of criticism in the media - the United States, Georgia, and so on.
Social learning theory
This theory goes back to behaviorism and the works of the American researcher A. Bandura. From the point of view of behaviorism, human behavior is the result of the assimilation of certain patterns, the adherence to which is reinforced by rewards from the social environment (or punished if the social environment is considered wrong).
Internal motives of behavior are completely ignored by this theory, human behavior is built according to the "stimulus-response" model.
In the light of this theory, the media appear as a source of role models - people see certain models and follow them.
“For social learning to take place, a person's attention must first be attracted by some example in the media. Next, a person must remember the model of behavior and start thinking about it ("cognitive replay"). Finally, he must have the cognitive abilities, motor skills and motivation necessary to perform certain actions. Motivation is based on internal or external reinforcement (reward) of one kind or another, pushing a person to perform these actions. For example, an unrestrained behavior of a person can be reinforced if it makes an impression on other people, as well as if it pleases that person or brings him some financial benefit. "
Cultivation theory
This theory was originally developed by D. Gerbner. From the point of view of this theory, the constant influence of the media, gradually shaping our ideas, in a certain way unifies the differences in the perception of the world inherent in various social groups and individuals, and thus contributes to the cultural homogenization of society.
According to Gerbner, the media "adjusts expectations" and "cultivates needs." The media industry, and above all television, “1) smears the traditionally existing differences in the worldview of people; 2) mixes their particular life realities in a generalized cultural flow; 3) connects this generalized reality with their own institutional interests and the interests of their sponsors. The result of this painstaking work of processing
irreconcilable differences in social life should be a gradual strengthening of social stability and the development of the most acceptable and friendly in relation to both the communication system and partners in communication itself, models of social behavior ”1.
Under the influence of constant viewing of television programs, certain "imprints" of events and facts accumulate in the minds of people, which affect the perception of reality. Research shows that avid TV viewers have more consensus about reality than people who rarely watch TV. In addition, people who often watch programs associated with demonstrations of violence and aggression consider the world to be more violent than people who do not abuse these programs.
The media "cultivate" certain views of their audience related to politics, cultural values, social issues, fashion, etc.
Cultivation theory is popular, however different people are not equally susceptible to the "cultivating" influence of the media. Audience activity and specificity should always be taken into account. After all, no one forces people to watch certain programs. Many people avoid watching TV altogether or keep it to a minimum, drawing information from other sources.
Thus, the media "cultivate" certain views, if people themselves are ready to succumb to such cultivation. Children in this regard are more malleable than adults. People who are more educated and capable of critical thinking are less dependent on the opinions of the media than people with a lower level of education. Other differences between people, both social and psychological, and situational, are also significant.
Socialization theory
Socialization theories view the media as one of the important agents of socialization in modern societies. One of these theories (N. Postman's theory of the “disappearance of childhood”) has already been discussed in the section “Socializing function of the media”.
The media are becoming an important source of knowledge about the world for children and adolescents, as well as a role model. Children are more susceptible to the influence of the media than adults, because they have limited life experience and, due to their age, are not able to relate to the perceived information consciously and critically. However, the extent and nature of the impact of the media on children and adolescents depends on the family. Adults are quite capable of controlling how children watch TV, and their opinions can affect how children understand certain messages. The climate in the family can determine the preference of children for certain programs. The problem is that many children lack parental attention, and television often replaces normal family communication.
The potential of the media can be used to target children. This refers to the creation of special educational programs, children's films. Experiments have been carried out that have shown the fruitfulness of this type of influence (the example of "Sesame Street" was considered in the section "Methods of Empirical Research of Mass Communication").
Last years of great concern is the introduction of children and adolescents to the Internet, the availability of information that could harm them. The problem is recognized at the international level and has already moved to the legal plane.
“The need to combat both crimes committed using the Internet and information harmful to children disseminated on the Internet has already been recognized by the world community.
For example, the European Union approved the Safe Internet program in 2004, according to which it was
allocated 45 million euros for the period from 2004 to 2008 for its implementation. In 2005, a new program "Safe Internet Plus" was approved. Within the framework of these programs, financing is carried out within the framework of the European Union for the activities of public and private organizations in several areas:
Creation " hotline»To identify illegal information on the Internet;
Development of legal norms and self-regulation rules aimed at ensuring the protection of children on the Internet;
Carrying out educational activities to educate children and parents about the dangers of using the Internet;
Development and implementation of Internet content filtering systems that protect children by filtering (screening out) information that is harmful to the health and development of children.
Integration is obviously needed Russian Federation in the international fight against crimes committed on the Internet, as well as the development and adoption of a domestic target program aimed at ensuring the protection of children from harmful and illegal information on the Internet, taking into account the prospects for the development of not only the World Wide Web, but also mobile telephony, advanced technical whose samples provide an opportunity to access Internet resources, including both positive and negative consequences of their use.
Within the framework of international cooperation, it is possible to conclude an international treaty on ensuring the protection of children on the Internet, which would oblige the states parties to the treaty to use a unified international system for indexing sites, which would create a more effective system of information security for children both at the domestic and international levels. " one .
1 Efimova L. Problems of legal protection of children from information that is harmful to their health and development, disseminated on the Internet. - http://www.medialaw.ru/publications/ zip / 156-157 / l.htm
Use and satisfaction theory
This theory differs from the previous ones because it places great importance on audience activity. According to the theory of use and satisfaction, the impact of the media depends on how people are guided when choosing a particular information product. A person quite deliberately uses the media either as a source of information or as entertainment. If a person is watching an action movie to fill free time and having fun, he hardly takes what is happening on the screen too seriously. For many people today, TV or radio is just a familiar background noise that does not attract much attention.
Perceiving political information, a person already has certain views. These views often determine the nature of the perception of information - a person either approves and accepts it if it corresponds to his opinion, or rejects it, even without listening attentively, if it contradicts his beliefs.
Films with a lot of scenes of violence will not be watched by a person who is annoyed and repulsed by violence. Thus, the impact of the media on a person is largely determined by how a person uses them and what kind of satisfaction they receive.
Use and gratification theory allows us to reformulate the question of media impact. Instead of asking how the media affects a person, it might be worth asking why people prefer certain programs.
Summarizing the results of various studies, R. Harris 1 identifies several types of consequences, or effects of the media; behavioral, attitudinal, cognitive, physiological.
Behavioral consequences consist in the fact that a person commits an act directly under the influence
1 Harris R... Psychology of Mass Communication. - SPb.-M .: Olma-Press, 2002.
information gleaned from the media. It is this type of consequence that attracts the most interest, and it is precisely its presence that is most difficult to prove. Let's give an example.
“In March 1986, four New Jersey teenagers agreed to commit collective suicide and followed through with their plan. In the week after this tragic event in the Midwest, two more teenagers were found dead, and it seemed that their suicide was similar to the previous one. Naturally, in the media the confusion and pain caused by the suicide among young people sounded due to the case.
Similar information.
A.V. Kuznetsov
Saratov State University, Department of Political Science
Over the past fifty years, the pace of world development has accelerated dozens of times, which in turn has left an imprint on all spheres of public life. The state, civil society, business and the media are facing or are already in a state of change. The reason for this state of affairs is that the process of change is taking place at different rates in different regions of the world. This allows us to assert that the information society has fully manifested itself where industrial development has reached the highest rates. These leading states include the United States, a number of countries of the European Union, Japan, as well as states showing high rates of economic growth. In these states, in addition to changes in the production-consumption sector, tendencies that did not take place before began to become actual, namely the pluralization of public structures, a high level of public needs and expectations, a large scale of uncertainty and risk, informatization of society, a drop in public confidence in government bodies. ... The listed trends can be combined under one common denominator, such as the growth of the diversity of society, namely the diversity of its interests and needs. A comprehensive description of this phenomenon can only be given in the future, but some conclusions can be drawn already today.
At the end of the last century, the world entered the era of administrative reforms. This was due to the crisis symptoms in the public administration system, which was expressed in the excessive growth of the administrative apparatus, in the increase in the costs of its maintenance and in the low quality of the services provided by the state. All of the above was reflected in the growing distrust of the public sector and its representatives.
The phenomenon of the diversity of society can be considered in different ways, the growth of the diversity of public interests is one of the modern trends in the development of the social system. The analysis of social processes gives grounds to single out a number of phenomena that affect the complication of the social structure in the direction of an increase in the pluralization of social attitudes and opinions.
Modern technologies, namely the means of communication based on them, have become an accelerator of change. The ability to quickly receive and exchange information affects the consciousness of society and each individual person and contributes to the formation of many opinions and views. The amount of information gives the right to choose a point of view or makes the individual think independently, draw conclusions and create his own image of reality, because the world around is a reflection of our consciousness. To analyze the impact of communication media on the growth of the diversity of public interests, we will focus on the media and the Internet.
The media is an important element of the social system.
It is not just a mediator between the event and the audience, a means of mass communication. It is a factory for the production of images and points of view. Society consciously or unconsciously accepts them.
Within the framework of the industrial economic order, through the media, the state constructed a unified society, since the media were a powerful lever of influence on the mass consciousness. A unified society is easily manageable, controllable, mass character is convenient for a representative system of democracy. Already in the 1960s. in the USA and Western Europe The media began to lose their monopoly on shaping public opinion. Rather, it survived, but lost its mass character. The American sociologist E. Toffler wrote about this, who characterized this phenomenon as “demassification of the mass media” 1. It was expressed in the fact that the traditional media were gradually losing their audience, whose interest shifted towards television and radio. Subsequently, cable television came to homes and began to rapidly capture the interest of the audience.
The dominance of American media moguls like NBC has been undermined. The de-massification of the media is the result of the de-massification of society, and perhaps vice versa, it is like the chicken-and-egg dilemma.
The phenomena studied by E. Toffler back in 1980 still exist today. It should be noted that there is a continuation of the above process. This is expressed not only in "demassification", but also in the democratization of the mass media. The Internet has played a huge role here. Dale Peskin and Andrew Nachison, heads of the Media Center at the American Press Institute in Reston, Virginia, have introduced a new concept: “we are the media” 2. It is used to describe the emerging phenomenon of global access to information content from an infinite variety of sources (mobile phone, PC), content that involves citizens' participation in the creation of news and information that affects society.
Direct proof of the new phenomenon is the Google search engine. Its main task is how to organize the world's information, that is, to enable people to organize the world in which they live. People are empowered to search, find information that reflects their personal preferences, and act accordingly.
Blogs are another manifestation of diversity. These virtual diaries allow you to formulate ideas and connect people around the world. Sites such as Global Voices http: // www. globalvoicesonline.org, collect the stories and opinions of ordinary citizens who tell in the first person about unique situations, while maintaining the identity of their culture. Their power is so compelling that sites such as http://www.technorati.com have been created on the Internet to track more than 25 million blogs, which is only about a quarter of the ezines in the blogosphere. Global networks allow people to post news, thoughts, ideas and images anywhere, anytime.
In the new chain of information transmission, the role of editor is played by the Internet through the "blogosphere". In this sense, digital media inherently undermines the interests of any institution based on power and control. Companies such as Google, MSN and Yahoo are replacing traditional media as the main custodians of information.
Another process, which can also be an argument in defense of the thesis about the growth of the diversity of public interests, is the rapid development of civil society throughout the civilized world. This process is most active in countries that have chosen the democratic path of development, as well as in countries ranked as non-democratic.
At the same time, it is necessary to pay special attention to the fact that after the Second World War, the movement towards democracy is increasing. According to the American political scientist S. Huntington, human civilization has witnessed three waves of democratization and two periods of "rollback" from democracy3. The chronological framework of the beginning of the second wave roughly corresponds to the end of World War II, to be precise, this is the period from 1943 to 1962. This is followed by the stage of the collapse of democracy. Since 1975, a new third "wave of democratization" begins, which continues to this day.
According to the Christian Science Monitor, the daily US scientific daily, the spread of democracy has been one of the defining geopolitical trends over the past 25 years. In 1975, the leadership was elected by the population in 30 countries of the world. By 2005, the number of such states had risen sharply to 1194. Despite the success, the Western establishment is concerned that this process has stalled and a rather long-term process of stagnation is being observed.
Trends in the development and strengthening of civil society institutions signal the opposite: movement towards expanding democracy and open dialogue between all sides of the political process.
Former UN Secretary General Kofi Annan, in his report “We the Peoples: the Role of the United Nations in the 21st Century”, delivered at the UN General Assembly meeting on March 27, 2000, emphasized that “the sphere of international public relations, including the UN, should still be is wider open to the participation of many actors whose contributions are essential to the governance of globalization. Depending on the issues at hand, they can be civil society organizations, the private sector, parliamentarians, local governments, academia, educational institutions and many other types of organizations. Today, global issues are no longer the exclusive prerogative of foreign ministries, and states are no longer the only initiator of solutions to numerous problems of our small planet... Numerous, diverse and increasingly influential non-state actors are involved in the creative development of new forms of global governance alongside national decision-making mechanisms. The more complex the problem - whether it is negotiating a ban on landmines, imposing restrictions on emissions that contribute to global warming, or the establishment of an International Criminal Court - the more often we see non-governmental organizations, institutions participating in the search for consensus solutions, together with states private sector and multilateral agencies ”5.
Indeed, every year the trend towards an increase in the number of international non-governmental organizations (NGOs) expressing the interests of civil society is becoming more and more definite. According to the head of Roszarubezhtsentr E.V. Mitrofanova, the number of NGOs in the world has increased 40 times over the past decade6. This is a new reality that cannot be ignored, as it represents an opportunity to make decisions and solve problems in a new way, that is, together. This applies not only to international practice, but also to domestic practice, since under the new conditions the state is not able to ensure high-quality and fair governance without resorting to the help of public structures.
Describing the peculiarities of public administration at the present stage of development, experts note the desire to ensure that social aspects are taken into account in economic policy and structural adjustment. It is a reaction to the trend towards economic liberalization that characterized the 1980s and 1990s. last century. This reaction is largely the result of appeals from civil society (CS) and nongovernmental organizations, the number and influence of which, as noted above, has grown significantly over the past decade.
The diversity of NGOs is a consequence of the diversity of public interests. Under the new conditions, the state has a radical need for additional channels for obtaining information from society.
The governments of the USA, the European Union, Russia and the entire civilized world have already faced the problem of the quality of governance. A disproportion, incompatible with efficiency, has arisen between archaic public administration and an increased degree of diversity in its sphere of responsibility. There are only two conceivable ways of solving the problem of the ratio of manifolds7:
1) complication (increasing the degree of diversity) of the subject of management (government bodies);
2) simplification (decrease in the degree of diversity) of the managed object (social structures).
The implementation of the second option in modern conditions is more than utopian. Only organizational simplification of society is possible by reducing the number of parties, economic and political units. But this will not have the expected effect, since it will not affect the evolutionary processes within society. As before, there will be an increase in political pressure on the power structures bypassing traditional systems political representation. The development of NGOs is an external expression of the indicated tendency. Complication of the subject of management seems, in our opinion, the most correct solution and requires detailed consideration.
There are three main ways to bring the system of government bodies to the required level of complexity.
1. Extensive path: expanding the structure of government bodies and increasing the number of officials.
2. An intensive path: substantial complication of officials, that is, the development of human capital. Complicating the process of recruiting bureaucracy, departmental training and retraining programs.
3. Network approach: it is necessary to introduce the concept of "knowledge management" 8 (knowledge management), which plays a key role in disclosing the meaning of this approach. Social networks presuppose the restructuring of the system of vertical administration based on hierarchies into a system of horizontal management, involving the participation of civil society in the development of political decisions, exchange of knowledge and cooperation based on dialogue.
The first way is the least effective, since it leads to the creation of a bulky, clumsy machine that requires huge financial costs to maintain life and perform high-quality functions. Modern practice shows that administrative reforms reject the extensive path, since they are aimed at optimizing management functions and reducing financial costs. The attempt to create a competent and responsible official deserves more credibility than the practice of increasing their number. But this approach is also not satisfactory, since a qualitative improvement in the content does not at all cancel out the shortcomings of the form. The solution development system remains poorly responsive to signals from the external environment. The conclusion is obvious: the problem of the correlation of varieties can be solved in only one way, namely, by transforming both the form and content of government bodies.
In our opinion, the first two ways to create an effective public administration system should be considered as measures implemented within the framework of one general approach, which can be characterized as reforming the traditional hierarchical management system. With this approach, the task is to preserve the well-established practices and the existing structure of public administration based on the principles of one-man management, clear regulation of actions, and the assessment of efficiency in terms of the amount of utilized resources. Innovations introduced into the old structure do not have the goal of radically transforming it, but only modernizing individual blocks of the system, including through the implemented programs of informatization of the public sector. It is necessary to note the special role of the network management model, the implementation of which can ensure the creation of a new system of government bodies, as well as provide additional opportunities for expanding democratic practice.
Diversity, as a consequence of the increased amount of information, produces information itself, namely the diversity of public interests and attitudes. Political decision-making presupposes the accumulation of information, its structuring and analysis, which ultimately leads to the acquisition of knowledge and its application to streamline public life. The knowledge gained is formalized into clear norms or orders, the power of which extends to the entire territory of the state.
In a simplified form, the process of political decision-making is shown, which is fundamental in any political system in the world. The active administrative reforms of the last two decades are proof that a huge array of errors has accumulated in the mechanism for developing and making political decisions, and it requires overhaul... The increased volume of information produced by society often leads to a lack of awareness of the authorities in decision-making, which affects the quality of public policy. Society's response: mistrust, misunderstanding, social tension. The result of poor governance: system instability. The consequences can be unpredictable for the political elite. She is interested in stabilizing the situation for the long term. Accordingly, in the context of a diverse society, the political system should be able, in our opinion, to solve two main management tasks:
1) obtaining the required amount of information about society, 2) high-quality information processing and knowledge acquisition.
The acceleration of time is one of the features of the information society, where innovations in both the economy and the public sector are becoming a decisive factor in the struggle for competitiveness.
Knowledge, which produces innovations, gains the main power. The understanding comes that investing in education, that is, in the abilities of the individual, is the driving force of development. Undoubtedly, this approach is relevant in the field of public administration. Knowledge management is becoming a prerequisite for the successful course of administrative reforms, the purpose of which is to bring the system of public administration to the required level of complexity. The development and adoption of political decisions is already unthinkable without taking into account the cultural, economic and political diversity of society. The only way to achieve "good governance" is to expand democratic practices. Such an opportunity is provided by the introduction of the institution of electronic government, which can play the role of a catalyst for change in the public administration sector9.
The formation of electronic technologies for the implementation of government activities can affect the nature of management in different ways: from strengthening established management practices to transforming the management structure in line with the strengthening of horizontal transactions. In the context of the increasing complexity of the social structure, preconditions arise for a qualitatively new nature of the interaction between the public sector and the external environment. In the process of cooperation, agreement and agreement acquire key importance, which make it possible to develop solutions on common topical issues.
It is the network types of organization and interaction that give rise to the diversity of public interests. The network model expands the rights of the “minority” to participate in politics, which is difficult to achieve with hierarchical structures.
Bibliography
1 See: E. Toffler. Third Wave. M., 2004.S. 266.
2 Nachison E., Peskin D. The latest media are changing the global society // http://usinfo.state.gov/journals/itgic/0306/ ijgr / peskin.htm.
3 See: S. Huntington, Third Wave: Democratization at the End of the Twentieth Century. M., 2003.367 p.
4 The Christian Science Monitor. Global spread of democracy stalled // http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/1121/p01s02-usgn.html
5 We the peoples: the role of the United Nations in the 21st century // http://www.un.org/russian/conferen/ millennium / 2000–6.htm
6 The role of civil society structures in the Russia-EU dialogue // http://www.rusintercenter.ru/?lang=ru&text=16
7 Shabrov O.F. Diversity as a factor of public administration efficiency // http://shabrov.info/Statji/ raznoobr2.htm
8 Smorgunov L.V. E-government, knowledge management and administrative reforms // http: // politex.info/content/view/59/40/
9 See: L.V. Smorgunov Abilities of the state and criticism of the concept of electronic government // Internet and modern society: Tr. X All-Russia. united conf. SPb., 2007.S. 38.
