Utopianism the most significant representatives and their work. The economic doctrine of the utopian socialists. And also other works that may interest you
The idea of the "golden age", namely the idea of equality in labor and consumption, has been known to public thought since time immemorial. V Ancient Greece believed that the era of the "golden age" was in the past, at the dawn of human life, the Hebrew thinkers saw the kingdom of universal harmony and justice in the future. These ideas were transformed along with social development, but in one form or another they were always present in social thought up to the 19th century.
Unlike the petty-bourgeois critics of capitalism, who called for a return to the past, the socialists criticized capitalism from the perspective of the future. They first pointed to the transitional nature of capitalist relations, considering society as a constantly evolving system, where one stage is replaced by another, more perfect than the previous one. Utopian socialists, objectively reflecting the interests of the working people, believed that their task was social transformation in order to improve the situation of all members of society. Rejecting political struggle, they constantly appealed to the ruling class, promoting their views.
The 19th century utopian socialists who painted fantastic pictures of the future, but did not see the real ways to achieve them, include primarily such thinkers as Saint-Simon, C. Fourier and R. Owen.
From an earlier utopian doctrine Saint-Simon (Claude Henri de Rouvroix)(1760-1825) significantly differs evolutionary-historical approach... According to his theory, society consistently goes through certain eras, approaching the "industrial system" - a society of the future that has ended the exploitation of man by man, which he envisioned as a society of equality and abundance, capable of meeting the physical and spiritual needs of the people. The future, in his opinion, belongs to the industrial class, which includes entrepreneurs, farmers, bankers, employees, workers, as well as scientists and artists. The second class, which included the king, nobles, officials and clergy, he called feudal lords, considered his activities useless and even harmful to society. Spontaneous market relations should be replaced by a planned economic system based on the compulsory nature of labor and a fair distribution system: from each according to his ability, each ability according to her deeds.
A rather bright figure of utopian socialism, who presented her teaching as a strictly scientific theory, became Charles Fourier(1772-1837). His works are distinguished by a synthesis of deep thoughts and ideas, which were fully realized only in the 20th century, and a crazy fantasy, at times reminiscent of sheer nonsense. C. Fourier wrote a number of works: "Theory of four movements and universal destinies" (1808), "Treatise on domestic and agricultural association" (1822), "New economic and societal world" (1829), etc., in which he outlined his vision new society. Criticizing the capitalist stage of development of society, he believed that the economic activity of people in conditions of free competition leads to anarchy of production. In the principle of "natural freedom", proclaimed by A. Smith, he saw the conditions under which a person with his own selfish personal interests opposes all other members of society. Charles Fourier intended to realize the idea of justice and equality by transforming private property into collective property, in the process of forming the so-called "phalanges" - collectives of producers numbering up to 2 thousand people. The communal method of farming in the phalanges, in which all the females of this association, regardless of their property status, will be obliged to work, will, according to Fourier, eliminate envy, hostility and selfishness, as well as the opposition between mental and physical labor. The created social income will be divided into parts: 4 /12 will be the income of the owner of the capital, 5 /12 will be distributed according to work and 3 /12 will go to reward talents who will prove themselves in the course of the "competition" that has replaced capitalist competition. Recognizing only the evolutionary path of development, through the formation in the depths of the old society of the prerequisites for the transition to a new stage of social progress, C. Fourier denied the revolution, considering it a means of enriching swindlers and intriguers.
English utopian socialism has a number of features in comparison with French, since capitalism and the class struggle were more developed in England. The famous utopian experimenter who put his theoretical ideas into practice, Robert Owen(1771-1858), was close to the working class in contrast to the French utopian socialists. In the 1830s. “Owenism” became a symbol of the labor movement, although R. Owen himself, putting forward projects for the reorganization of society, was an opponent of the class struggle. R. Owen wrote a large number of scientific works reflecting economic problems: "Education of the Human Character" (1813), "Report to the County of Lenark" (1820), "The Book of the New Moral World" (1836), etc.
Criticizing the "unjust" capitalist society, R. Owen tried to organize a fair exchange market, where the exchange would be carried out in accordance with the cost of labor for the production of goods. The intermediary in the exchange of goods in such a market is not money, which he believed was created to achieve the maximum of evil and the minimum of good, but special receipts - "labor money". Trying to practically realize his idea, R. Owen created the “National Bazaar of Fair Exchange”, which, however, did not cope with its task and was soon abolished.
He considered the basis of a "fair" system to be public property, which is capable of forming a new person striving to develop their own best qualities... He conceived his plan to rebuild society in 1800 when he became a co-owner of a spinning mill in Scotland, located in a remote settlement. Having solved the economic problems of the enterprise, he realized that creating an ideal community was possible only by changing the consciousness of people, through painstaking educational work. As a humane leader, R. Owen made a lot of efforts to eradicate theft, drunkenness, fights, dishonest attitude to their duties, national and religious hostility. The workers developed a sense of community, a desire to maintain cleanliness and order without being forced, to be hardworking, disciplined and organized, to lead a highly moral lifestyle. Having achieved high labor productivity and profitability of the enterprise, R. Owen reduced the working day from 16 to 10.5 hours, solved a number of social issues by creating a system of social security and insurance, building kindergartens, schools, and a cultural center for children and adults. The experiment of forming an industrial community with a high level of well-being of its members was clearly a success; the enterprise developed successfully even during the economic crisis of 1815–1816. However, in 1829 R. Owen was forced to leave the enterprise due to a falling out with a co-owner. Everything that had been developed over the years fell into decay, thereby showing the instability of the system he created and its dependence on a specific personality. And although neither he nor anyone else succeeded in successfully repeating the experience put forward by R. Owen, he continued to spread the ideas of creating a communist model of society, trying to get ahead of the time and at the same time realizing that modern manners of people do not allow it to be realized ...
The rise of utopian socialism
In the late Middle Ages (XVI-XVII centuries), significant changes took place in the economic thought of Western Europe, caused by the deep process of development of manufacturing production. Great geographical discoveries and plundering of colonies accelerated the process of capital accumulation. During this period, social utopias arise. One of the founders of utopian socialism was Thomas More (1478-1532) - an outstanding humanist thinker, politician in England, executed for opposition to absolutism (refused to take the oath to the king as head of the church). The son of a wealthy judge and himself a lawyer by training, More held high government positions, despite this, he sympathized with the misfortune of the masses. In 1516 he published the famous book "Utopia", which laid the foundation for utopian socialism and gave it its name. More sharply criticized the social order in England, the methods of the initial accumulation of capital. He saw the root cause of poverty in private property and opposed it. More was the first critic of capitalism. Mora's views were of little scientific value. These were only dreams. Among the early representatives of utopian socialism is the Italian thinker Tommaso Campanella (1568-1639), who came from among the poorest peasantry. He is known as an active participant in the struggle for the liberation of southern Italy from the yoke of the Spanish monarchy. Caught up in the hands of enemies, Campanella spent 27 years in casemates. There he wrote his famous work "City of the Sun" (1623), in which he sharply criticized the social structure of Italy at that time. In it, Campanella put forward a project of an ideal utopian state - the city of the Sun, which was based on a community of property. Reflecting the traditions of economic thought in the Middle Ages, he focused on a natural economy. The society of the future was presented to him as a set of agricultural communities in which all citizens are involved in the work. Campanella recognized the individuality of the home and family, the community of work, and rejected the thesis that after the abolition of property, no one would work. Consumption in the city of the Sun, he believed, will be public, provided there is an abundance of material goods, poverty will disappear. Relations between people should be based on the principles of friendship, comradely cooperation and mutual understanding. However, neither T. More, nor T. Campanella knew the real paths to a new society. They limited themselves to describing a utopian state with unusual orders, which showed the historical limitations of their economic projects. The essence of the utopian concepts of the early utopian socialists was a gravitation towards the primitive ideal of a social order based on the principles of equality of needs and equality of abilities. However, in the first half of the 19th century. under the influence of the works of representatives of classical political economy, the doctrines of the utopian socialists have undergone significant qualitative changes. For utopian socialism, this period, associated with the completion of the industrial revolution, is significant for the understanding of new economic realities, which were reflected in the developments of the leaders of this school, H. Owen in England, A. Saint-Simon and PI. Fourier in France. It was these authors and their followers who began to associate their ideas with those that had developed by the beginning of the 19th century. then prevailing principles of the classical school of political economy. They, like the classics, lean towards further acceleration scientific discoveries and technical inventions, any possible productivity gains.
The classics considered capitalism to be an eternal and natural order. In contrast, the utopian socialists criticized capitalism, pointing out the poverty and misery of the working masses. They believed that capitalism would be replaced by a social order that would bring happiness to all members of society. They called the ideal social system differently: so, A. Saint-Simon called it industrialism, PI. Fourier - harmony, H. Owen - communism. They considered their task to be the development of consciousness, the promotion of their ideas, their implementation through the creation of a commune, "falaster", or "bazaars of fair exchange." Utopian socialism was the opposite of class interests, but rejected political struggle and revolution, hoping for transformation social order in a peaceful, evolutionary, compromise way.
Claude Henri de Rebrois Saint-Simon (1760-1825) - A French utopian socialist who, because of his convictions, renounced the title of count and the rank of nobility, is one of the authors of this direction of economic thought. He owns such famous works, as "Letters of a Geneva inhabitant to his contemporaries" (1803), "On the industrial system" (1821), "Catechism of industrialists" (1823-1824), etc.
In their judgments, the transition from feudalism to an industrial socially just system is inevitable due to the coming changes and such growing factors as science, reason and advanced ideas.
In his opinion, antagonistic (opposite) classes will disappear in the new society and the government will find instead of political economic functions.
However, it should be noted that, unlike all other representatives of utopian socialism, he was the only one who did not deny the existence of private property in the new society. Saint-Simon believed that "it is this institution that is the basis of the social order" and that "the law that establishes property and regulates the use of it" is necessary.
He assigns an important role in society to "industrialists", thanks to whom "the vast majority of the nation" will begin to live "in happier conditions." He calls three large classes industrialists: 1) farmers (peasants); 2) workers and engineers, scientists; 3) merchants. They are the ones who produce all the wealth. The non-industrial class includes nobles (landowners), financiers (bankers).
In building a new society, Saint-Simon in every way defended the proximity of the interests of the royal power and industrialists. Royal power must unite with industrialists in the fight against the remnants of feudalism. Saint-Simon rejected the forced transition to a new society and believed that education, the consciousness of people would contribute to the development of a new society.
Robert Owen (1771-1858) - English utopian socialist, author of works containing projects of socialist transformations. Among them are such works as: "On the Education of the Human Character" (1813-1814), "Report to the County of New Lanark" (1820), "Book on the New Moral World" (1836-1844), etc. ...
His interpretation of the economic category "value" approaches the classic interpretation of D. Ricardo. He unconditionally accepted the labor theory of value, but did not admit the position that the value of a commodity also includes profit. It is the injustice of its occurrence, in his opinion, that is the reason for the deprivation of workers and economic crises.
H. Owen, being a large manufacturer for a long time, predicted many social events in the context of the factory organization of social production. So, for his workers in New Lanark, back in the 19th century, he built special comfortable dwellings, a dining room, a trading store, a savings bank, Kindergarten and nursery, etc. And by the established order of labor, R. Howen was half a century ahead of the factory labor legislation:
Reducing the working day for adults from 17 to 10 hours;
Abandoning child labor (children under the age of 10) and creating schools that were secular for the first time;
Destroyed production fines, which were previously commonplace.
In his works, G. Owen tries to substantiate the concept of the "rational structure of society." During the transition to a new society, according to the scientist, it is necessary with the help of "smart laws" to correct the old system without any violence. The domination of private property, the scientist believed, is the main reason for the countless number of "injustices, crimes and misfortunes" experienced by man, and machines that could be "the greatest blessing" become "the greatest curse." The replacement of the “unjust social order will be carried out” gradually, peacefully and wisely, “implementing the“ scientific principles. ”Owen offered to buy up private land for“ its market price from those who wish to sell it, thereby turning it into public property in the future. It will be a source of government revenue. "On these lands, the scientist proposes to create villages with a population of 500-3000 people. All these measures should be carried out by a smart government and provide reasonable conditions for society, which, according to Owen, will be 26 laws - the so-called smart constitution :
Widespread use of machines to replace manual labor, including household;
The transformation of labor into the only measure of value;
Ensuring an abundance of wealth for mankind by replacing metallic money with "labor bonds";
The use of various means for the education of the population, especially the press;
Elimination of "useless private property" and, accordingly, profits thanks to the contacts of producers without intermediaries, and so on.
World Harmony;
Establishment around the world of one language, money, measures, etc .;
Consistently high yields;
Liberation of blacks and slaves;
Achievement of high cultural morals;
Opportunity to increase income from smart management. Utopian socialism is a trend that originated in early XIX century and was intended to combat exploitation in society. Utopian socialism reflected the future society as a society of abundance, ensuring the satisfaction of human needs and the flourishing of the individual. This trend is characterized by the use of the hypothetical method "what would happen if ...".
However, this direction of economic science still has quite significant elements from the point of view of predictions that came true, of a social and economic nature. This seems to be especially relevant given the current realities. modern society, require the development of socially oriented concepts for the development of the country's economy.
In the late Middle Ages (XVI-XVII centuries), significant changes took place in the economic thought of Western Europe, caused by a deep process of development of manufacturing production. Great geographical discoveries and plundering of colonies accelerated the process of capital accumulation. During this period, social utopias arise. One of the founders of utopian socialism was Thomas More (1478-1532), an outstanding humanist thinker, politician in Tudor England, executed for opposition to absolutism (refused to take the oath to the king as head of the church). The son of a wealthy judge and himself a lawyer by training, More held high government positions. But despite this, he sympathized with the plight of the masses.
In 1516 he published the famous work "Utopia", which laid the foundation for utopian socialism and gave it its name. More sharply criticized the social order prevailing in England, the methods of the initial accumulation of capital. He saw the root cause of poverty in private property and opposed it. More was the first critic of capitalism. Mora's views weren't very special.
scientific theory. These were only dreams. Among the early representatives of utopian socialism is the Italian thinker Tommaso Campanella (1568-1639), who came from among the poor peasantry. He is known as an active participant in the struggle for the liberation of southern Italy from the yoke of the Spanish monarchy. Caught up in the hands of enemies, Campanella spent 27 years in casemates. There he wrote his famous work "City of the Sun" (1623), in which he sharply criticized the social order
Italy at the time.
In it, Campanella put forward a project for an ideal utopian state - the city of the Sun, which was based on a community of property. Reflecting the traditions of economic thought in the Middle Ages, he focused on a natural economy. The society of the future was pictured to him as a set of agricultural communities, in which all citizens are involved. Campanella recognized the individuality of housing and family, the universality of labor, rejected the thesis that after the abolition of property, no one would work. Consumption in the city of the Sun, he believed, will be public with an abundance of material goods, poverty will disappear. Relations between people should be based on the principles of friendship, comradely cooperation and mutual understanding.
However, neither a utopian state with unusual orders, in which the historical limitations of their economic projects were manifested T. More, nor T. Campanella knew the real ways to a new society. They limited themselves to a description.
Expressing the dreams of the nascent proletariat for a future society, the great utopian socialists Henri Claude , Saint-Simon ,
Charles Fourier and Robert Owen came out with revelatory criticism of capitalism. Great utopians have made valuable contributions to the economic
science, for the first time pointing out the historically transient nature of capitalism, noting that capitalist relations are not eternal and natural. They considered the development of human society as a historical process in which the previous stage is replaced by another, more highly developed one. The representatives of utopian socialism, wrote VI Lenin, “looked in the same direction as the actual development was going; they were ahead of this development. " The classics of bourgeois political economy considered capitalism to be an eternal and natural order. In contrast, the utopian socialists exposed the vices and ulcers of capitalism, its contradictions, pointing to poverty and misery
working masses. Criticizing the capitalist mode of production, the great utopian socialists declared that it should be replaced by such
a social order that will bring happiness to all members of society. Their criticism of capitalism was sharp and angry, helping to educate the workers and preparing the conditions for the perception of the ideas of scientific socialism. In their projects for the future justice of the social system, the socialists
the utopians foresaw many features of a socialist society, did not confine themselves to the demand for the reorganization of consumption and distribution, but came up with the idea of transforming production itself. They called the ideal social system differently.
So Saint-Simon called it industrialism, Fourier - harmony, Owen - communism. But they all proceeded from the absence of exploitation, the elimination of the opposition between mental and physical labor, from the fact that private property would disappear or would not play a special role in the future society. V Western Europe at the end of the 17th - beginning of the 19th centuries, manufactory dominated, and factory production was just in its infancy. The material conditions of capitalism and the formation of the proletariat as a special working class were at an early stage. The proletariat was still a fragmented mass and was not ready for independent action, acted as an ally of the bourgeoisie in the struggle against the remnants absolute monarchy and feudal exploitation. Under these conditions, socialism and the workers' movement developed independently, in isolation from each other.
Utopian socialists did not see real ways of transition to a society of social justice, did not understand the historical mission of the proletariat, although they noted
the opposite of class interests. They regarded the proletariat as an oppressed, suffering mass. They considered their task to be the development of consciousness, the promotion of their ideas, their implementation through the creation of a commune, "phalanster" or "bazaars of fair exchange." The imperfection and inconsistency of the socialist theories of the utopians corresponded to immature capitalist production and undeveloped class relations. Since the material conditions for the liberation of the workers have not yet been created,
representatives of utopian socialism put forward fantastic projects for a future society. They put themselves above the classes, claiming that they reflect the interests of all members of society, but appealed to the ruling classes in promoting their projects. They rejected political struggle and revolution, relying on the transformation of society through the propaganda and agitation of the ideas of social justice. This was the utopianism of ideas. However, despite the limitations of utopian socialism, during the formation of capitalism it was a progressive teaching reflecting the aspirations of the nascent proletariat, and was one of the sources of Marxism.
Saint-Simon called the future just society an industrial system. He believed that an industrial society would develop on the basis of large-scale industrial production, industry - according to a certain plan, and management would be carried out from a single center by the industrialists. Development plans for industrial production and distribution of products will be drawn up by scientists; industrial capitalists, having rich experience, will lead the organization of management, and the workers will directly work on
implementation of the developed plans. By creating a new public organization, Saint-Simon intended to achieve the elimination of the anarchy of production and the establishment of planning and centralism in the management of the economy.
In his industrial system, Saint-Simon retained capitalist property, opposing landowners and usurers. But the capitalists, in his opinion, will work in the "golden age", organizing labor. He believed that they would not have any power, and naively assumed the voluntary transformation of the capitalist-owner into a capitalist-worker. The capitalist Saint-Simon also retained the right to receive unearned income as a reward for capital, but on the whole his social utopia was directed
against the domination of the bourgeoisie, and not to defend the capitalist interests and the power of the technocracy, as the supporters of the modern bourgeois theory of "industrial society" are trying to present. Saint-Simon did not advocate "organized capitalism", but for organized labor and did not notice that
capitalists can organize labor only in a capitalist way.
Describing the economic processes that he observed during analysis of civilization,
Fourier predicted the replacement of free competition by monopolies. He even gave his own classification of monopolies, highlighting such types as colonial monopoly, simple maritime monopoly, cooperative, or closed monopoly.
associations, government monopoly, or public administration.
Fourier, exposing civilization, showed the doom of the capitalist system, but, like other utopian socialists, he did not see any real paths to a "harmonious society." He was an opponent of the revolution, a supporter of reforms, the transition to justice and the elimination of exploitation through agitation and example. The transition to a new social system, Fourier believed, is possible by discovering the law on the basis of which society should live and develop. He stated that it was he who discovered this law and that his "theory of fate will fulfill the demand of nations, providing everyone with abundance."
A just society, Fourier dreamed, would consist of associations of producers (phalanges), created without coercion, based on the principle
meet the needs of all people. This society, in his opinion, should be classless and harmonious. With the establishment of "universal unity," he wrote, poverty, injustice and war would disappear. Each phalanx will occupy a certain land plot, on which its members will produce products, and then distribute them themselves. According to Fourier's plan, agriculture should become the basis of the future system, and industry should play a subordinate role. This was the manifestation of Fourier's petty-bourgeois illusions. In the phalanx, he retained private property and capital, and the distribution was partly to be carried out in terms of capital. But Fourier believed that this would not do any harm, because all workers would become capitalists, and capitalists - workers.
Thus, through reforms, Fourier mistakenly assumed to establish a classless society.
Characteristic feature Owen's economic views is that, unlike the French utopian socialists who rejected bourgeois political economy, he relied in his theoretical constructions on Ricardo's labor theory of value. He, following Ricardo, proclaimed labor as the source of value. Owen made a socialist conclusion from the theory of ore value, stating that the product of labor should belong to those who produce it.
Criticizing capitalism, he noted the contradiction between the growth of production and shrinking consumption, which, in his opinion, is the cause of economic crises. But in contrast to Sismondi, who tried to turn history back to small-scale production, Owen said that poverty and crises would be destroyed with a socialist organization of labor. Along with private property, Owen declared the existence of money as an artificial measure of the contradiction between labor and capital.
Socialism is a theory based on equality (material goods, scope of rights and obligations) and community of property. The socialist trend set itself the goal of achieving a happy and just life in society.
Utopian socialism is a trend that originated in the early 19th century and was intended to combat exploitation in society. The founders of this trend were C. A. Saint-Simon, C. Fourier and R. Owen.
Utopian socialism saw the primary task of social transformation in the creation of large-scale social production based on free labor and systematically applying the achievements of science and technology. He portrayed the future society as a society of abundance, ensuring the satisfaction of human needs and the flourishing of the individual.
This trend is characterized by the use of a hypothetical method, that is, the advancement of hypotheses - "what would happen if", "suppose that", etc.
The utopian socialists spread their ideas among people by sending letters.
The main works of Claude Henri de Rouvroix Saint-Simon (1760-1825) are "Letters from a Geneva inhabitant", "Views on property".
CA Saint-Simon saw the meaning of history in the gradual transition from one formation to another (from slaveholding to feudal, and from the latter to industrial) under the influence of the growth of knowledge and the development of the economy.
He believed that the future belongs to large industrial production and the industrial class (entrepreneurs, workers, scientists).
He defended organized labor, which is based on the principle: from each according to his ability, to each according to his deeds.
To create a society of the future, from the point of view of C.A. Saint-Simon, it is necessary to rebuild not only the material conditions of life, but also to develop the spiritual qualities of people.
Charles Fourier (1772 - 1837) believed that the success of a new society requires an increase in labor productivity, providing wealth for all, for which social income should be distributed accordingly: 4/12 - capital, 5/12 - labor and 3/12 - talent. With the strengthening and development of the structure of association, these proportions, as suggested by C. Fourier, will change in favor of labor. The structure of the association will create large-scale collectivized and mechanized agriculture, combined with industrial production. This connection will take place in the primary cells of society - "phalanges", located in huge palaces - "phalansters". Thus, the transition to public ownership will take place on the scale of labor collectives. At the same time, according to C. Fourier, competition will be replaced by competition, from which everyone will win.
The capitalists must provide the means for the creation and functioning of the phalanges.
S. Fourier did not exclude the possibility of the existence of private property. The role of the state in such a society is negligible and is a relic of the past.
Robert Owen (1771 - 1858), in contrast to the above-mentioned utopians, put his theoretical views into practice.
R. Owen considered the main enemy of society to be private property. He offered to replace the money with receipts, which indicate the amount of labor expended by the employee. On this principle, he intended to organize a fair exchange market.
In 1800, R. Owen became the manager of a spinning plant in New Lenark (Scotland), where he put his ideas into practice. He tried to create in this enterprise the so-called ideal industrial community, which, in his opinion, guarantees both the well-being of workers and high productivity, as well as high profits. R. Owen taught the workers to be organized and orderly, and reduced the working day to 10.5 hours. Kindergartens, a cultural center, etc. were built under his leadership.
The enterprise flourished in the conditions of the economic crisis of 1815-1816, but after the departure of R. Owen in 1829, his brilliant experiment collapsed.
The rise of utopian socialism
In the late Middle Ages (XVI-XVII centuries), significant changes took place in the economic thought of Western Europe, caused by a deep process of development of manufacturing production. Great geographical discoveries and plundering of colonies accelerated the process of capital accumulation.
During this period, social utopias arise. One of the founders of utopian socialism was Thomas More (1478-1532), an outstanding humanist thinker, politician of Tudor England, executed for opposition to absolutism (refused to take the oath to the king as head of the church). The son of a wealthy judge and himself a lawyer by training, More held high government positions. But despite this, he sympathized with the plight of the masses.
More sharply criticized the social order prevailing in England, the methods of the initial accumulation of capital. He saw the root cause of poverty in private property and opposed it.
More was the first critic of capitalism. Mora's views did not represent a particular scientific theory. These were only dreams.
Among the early representatives of utopian socialism is the Italian thinker Tommaso Campanella (1568-1639), who came from among the poor peasantry. He is known as an active participant in the struggle for the liberation of southern Italy from the yoke of the Spanish monarchy. Caught up in the hands of enemies, Campanella spent 27 years in casemates. There he wrote his famous work "City of the Sun" (1623), in which he sharply criticized the social structure of Italy at that time.
In it, Campanella put forward a project for an ideal utopian state - the city of the Sun, which was based on a community of property. Reflecting the traditions of economic thought in the Middle Ages, he focused on a natural economy. The society of the future was pictured to him as a set of agricultural communities, in which all citizens are involved. Campanella recognized the individuality of housing and family, the universality of labor, rejected the thesis that after the abolition of property, no one would work. Consumption in the city of the Sun, he believed, will be public with an abundance of material goods, poverty will disappear. Relationships between people should be based on the principles of friendship, comradely cooperation and mutual understanding.
However, neither a utopian state with unusual orders, in which the historical limitations of their economic projects were manifested T. More, nor T. Campanella knew the real ways to a new society. They limited themselves to a description.
It is difficult to say exactly when and by whom the word "socialism" was first used. It is believed that this happened in 1834, when I saw
light book of the French writer Pierre Leroux "On Individualism and Socialism". At the same time, one of the "heroes" of this topic, Robert Owen, also used this term.
The word socialism did not then have a strictly defined content. It denoted a very motley set of convictions and hopes for the establishment of a just social order in which the selfishness and self-interest of the owner classes would be overcome on principles that exclude inequality in the distribution of property and income, an order in which the interests of society and the individual would miraculously coincide.
It is customary to define this set of socialist theories as "utopian". The word utopia was first pronounced by the author of the book of the same name, Thomas More, in the 16th century. He invented this word, literally translated from Greek it means - "a place that does not exist."
socialist utopian economic idea
The word "utopian" characterizes ideas and ideas, the implementation of which is either impossible or extremely difficult.
What are the reasons for these ideas and their popularity? Historians explain the birth of the socialist ideal by the historical conditions of the 19th century: capitalism was established in the economies of the developed countries of Europe. His first steps were accompanied by the destruction of the traditional foundations of life for many segments of the population (peasantry, small traders, nobility). A working class was born, whose position in those years was extremely difficult. The pursuit of profit ruled out the very idea of the need for social support for the disadvantaged strata of the population.
The socialist ideal arose as a reaction to the difficulties and deprivation of large masses of the European population, from the desire to create a society in which guarantees of well-being were presented to everyone.
Continuers of utopian socialism
Expressing the dreams of the nascent proletariat for a future society, the great utopian socialists Henri Claude, Saint-Simon, Charles Fourier and Robert Owen came out with revelatory criticism of capitalism. The great utopians made a valuable contribution to economics, first pointing out the historically transient nature of capitalism, noting that capitalist relations are not eternal and natural. They considered the development of human society as a historical process in which the previous stage is replaced by another, more highly developed one. Representatives of utopian socialism, wrote V.I. Lenin, "looked in the same direction as the actual development was going; they were ahead of this development."
The classics of bourgeois political economy considered capitalism to be an eternal and natural order. In contrast, the utopian socialists exposed the vices and ulcers of capitalism, its contradictions, pointing out the poverty and misery of the working masses. Criticizing the capitalist mode of production, the great utopian socialists argued that it should be replaced by a social order that would bring happiness to all members of society. Their criticism of capitalism was sharp and angry, helping to educate the workers and preparing the conditions for the perception of the ideas of scientific socialism.
In their projects for the future justice of the social system, the utopian socialists foresaw many features of a socialist society, did not confine themselves to the demand for the reorganization of consumption and distribution, but came up with the idea of transforming production itself. They called the ideal social system differently.
Saint-Simon
So Saint-Simon called it industrialism, Fourier - harmony, Owen - communism. But they all proceeded from the absence of exploitation, the elimination of the opposition between mental and physical labor, from the fact that private property would disappear or would not play a special role in the future society.
In Western Europe, at the end of the 17th - beginning of the 19th centuries, manufactory dominated, and factory production was just in its infancy. The material conditions of capitalism and the formation of the proletariat as a special working class were at an early stage. The proletariat was still a fragmented mass and was not ready for independent action; it acted as an ally of the bourgeoisie in the struggle against the remnants of the absolute monarchy and feudal exploitation. Under these conditions, socialism and the workers' movement developed independently, in isolation from each other.
Utopian socialists did not see real ways of transition to a society of social justice, did not understand the historical mission of the proletariat, although they noted the opposite of class interests. They regarded the proletariat as an oppressed, suffering mass. They considered their task to be the development of consciousness, the promotion of their ideas, their implementation through the creation of a commune, "phalanster" or "bazaars of fair exchange." The imperfection and inconsistency of the socialist theories of the utopians corresponded to immature capitalist production and undeveloped class relations. Since the material conditions for the liberation of the working people had not yet been created, representatives of utopian socialism put forward fantastic projects for a future society. They put themselves above the classes, claiming that they reflect the interests of all members of society, but appealed to the ruling classes in promoting their projects. They rejected political struggle and revolution, relying on the transformation of society through the propaganda and agitation of the ideas of social justice. This was the utopianism of ideas. However, despite the limitations of utopian socialism, during the formation of capitalism, it was a progressive doctrine reflecting the aspirations of the nascent proletariat, and was one of the sources of Marxism. Saint-Simon called the future just society an industrial system. He believed that an industrial society would develop on the basis of large-scale industrial production, industry - according to a certain plan, and management would be carried out from a single center by the industrialists. Development plans for industrial production and distribution of products will be drawn up by scientists; the industrial capitalists, having rich experience, will lead the organization of management, and the workers will directly work on the implementation of the developed plans. By creating a new public organization, Saint-Simon intended to achieve the elimination of the anarchy of production and the establishment of planning and centralism in the management of the economy.
In his industrial system, Saint-Simon retained capitalist property, opposing landowners and usurers. But the capitalists, in his opinion, will work in the "golden age", organizing labor. He believed that they would not have any power, and naively assumed the voluntary transformation of the capitalist-owner into a capitalist-worker. For the capitalist, Saint-Simon also retained the right to receive unearned income as a reward for capital, but on the whole his social utopia was directed against the domination of the bourgeoisie, and not at protecting capitalist interests and the power of technocracy, as the supporters of the modern bourgeois theory of "industrial society" are trying to present ... Saint-Simon did not advocate "organized capitalism", but for organized labor and did not notice that capitalists can organize labor only in a capitalist way.
Charles Fourier
Describing the economic processes that he observed in the analysis of civilization, Fourier predicted the replacement of free competition by monopolies. He even gave his own classification of monopolies, highlighting such types as colonial monopoly, simple maritime monopoly, cooperative, or monopoly of closed associations, state monopoly, or state administration.
Fourier, exposing civilization, showed the doom of the capitalist system, but, like other utopian socialists, he did not see any real paths to a "harmonious society". He was an opponent of the revolution, a supporter of reforms, the transition to justice and the elimination of exploitation through agitation and example. The transition to a new social system, Fourier believed, is possible by discovering the law on the basis of which society should live and develop. He stated that it was he who discovered this law and that his "theory of fate will fulfill the demand of nations, providing everyone with abundance."
A just society, Fourier dreamed, would consist of associations of producers (phalanges), created without coercion, based on the principle of meeting the needs of all people. This society, in his opinion, should be classless and harmonious. With the establishment of "universal unity," he wrote, poverty, injustice and war would disappear. Each phalanx will occupy a certain plot of land, on which its members will produce products, and then distribute them themselves. According to Fourier's plan, agriculture should become the basis of the future system, and industry should play a subordinate role. This was the manifestation of Fourier's petty-bourgeois illusions. In the phalanx, he retained private property and capital, and the distribution was partly to be carried out in terms of capital. But Fourier believed that this would not do any harm, because all workers would become capitalists, and capitalists - workers. Thus, through reforms, Fourier mistakenly assumed to establish a classless society.
Robert Owen
A characteristic feature of Owen's economic views is that, unlike the French utopian socialists who rejected bourgeois political economy, he relied in his theoretical constructions on Riccardo's labor theory of value. He, following Riccardo, proclaimed labor as the source of value. Owen made a socialist conclusion from the theory of ore value, stating that the product of labor should belong to those who produce it.
Criticizing capitalism, he noted the contradiction between the growth of production and shrinking consumption, which, in his opinion, is the cause of economic crises. But in contrast to Sismondi, who tried to turn history back to small-scale production, Owen said that poverty and crises would be destroyed with a socialist organization of labor.
Along with private property, Owen declared the existence of money as an artificial measure of value as the cause of the contradiction between labor and capital. He is proposing to destroy money and introduce the equivalent of labor costs - "working money". The project of "working money" showed that Owen did not understand the essence of the category of value as an expression of the social relations of commodity producers. Since value is a social category, it cannot be measured directly by labor time, it can be expressed only in relation to goods to each other. Owen tried to implement the project of "working money", organizing the "Bazaar of fair exchange", which quickly stocked up on slow-moving goods, and those goods that could be profitably sold on the market were taken from receipts. The "fair exchange bazaar" quickly disintegrated, unable to withstand the onslaught of the capitalist elements.
Unlike the petty-bourgeois capitalists, economists and other utopian socialists, Owen, along with the "workers money" project, proposed a reorganization of production and even tried to create a "Union of Production". To organize such a union, the capitalists had to sell the means of production to the trade unions. But nothing came of this intention, since the capitalists did not even think to sell their enterprises, and the trade unions did not have the means for this.
List of sources used
1. The history of economic studies is the modern stage. Textbook / Ed. A.G. Khudokormova, M .: INFRA M 1998
2. Yadgarov Ya.S. History of Economic Thought. Textbook for universities. 2nd edition - M .: Infra-M, 1997
3. Mayburg E.M. An introduction to the history of economic thought. From prophets to professors. - M .: Delo, Vita - press, 1996
4. Titova N.Ye. History of Economic Thought. Course of lectures - M: Humanit. Publish. center VLADOS, 1997
5. Agapova I.I. History of economic doctrines - M .: VM, 1997.
1.French utopian socialism. A. Saint-Simon and C. Fourier
The ideas of Western European utopian socialism are rooted in the late Middle Ages. Their theoretical predecessors were T. More, the author of the famous book "Utopia" and T. Campanella, who presented his teachings in the work "City of the Sun". Representatives of utopian socialism proceeded from the need to return to the eternally established laws of natural law, which requires justice and equality of people. They condemned existing social structures, opposing inequality, exploitation and oppression, usually for moral or religious reasons. In addition, private property was criticized, and they proposed extending their models of the structure of society to all of humanity.
The classics of utopian socialism include A. Saint-Simon, C. Fourier, R. Owen.
Utopian socialism - concept social structure based on the concept of the most perfect social order, corresponding to the social, economic, political interests of certain social groups and being the ultimate goal of their aspirations and activities.
Claude Henri de Revrois Saint-Simon (1760-1825) belonged to an aristocratic family. He was educated at home under the guidance of D'Alembert. Having entered military service, he, as part of the French troops, participated in the struggle of the North American colonies for independence, which significantly influenced the formation of his political and legal views. In 1783 he returned to France. Brought up on the ideas of the encyclopedists and on the experience of the American Revolution, Saint-Simon enthusiastically embraced the French Revolution. He advocated the principles of freedom, called on the National Assembly to abolish the privileges of nobles and clergy, and renounced the title of nobility and count. At the same time, he was engaged in speculation (he bought confiscated land at an extremely low price). In 1793 he was arrested (most likely by mistake), and was soon released. By the Napoleonic era, he had already squandered all his fortune and for the next 20 years lived in extreme poverty. At one time he worked as a scribe in a pawnshop. But by the age of 60, his life is getting better. He has students and followers. Rich followers provide him with the opportunity to live in abundance and work. In May 1825 Saint-Simon died.
Major works: "Letters of a Geneva inhabitant to his contemporaries", "Essay on the Science of Man", "Catechism of Industrialists", "New Christianity".
State and law. Saint-Simon's views on the state and law were largely determined by his concept of historical progress. He believed that every major revolution in the economic and political life of society is the result of a revolution in philosophical views. Mankind, naturally developing, moves towards its "golden age" and goes through three stages:
- theological(the period of antiquity and feudalism, the rule of religion), the leadership of society belonged to priests and feudal lords;
- metaphysical(the period of the collapse of the theological system, the domination of bourgeois relations), led by jurists and metaphysicians (pseudoscientists);
- positive(the future social system is the "golden age" based on science), the society is led by scientists and industrialists. This period ends with the establishment of a system that will make the life of most people the happiest.
Project of the social structure of society. New social system was considered by Saint-Simon as a system of industrialism.
Industrialism - a system built in accordance with a scientifically drawn up plan of universal combined activity carried out by the entire society. The main features of the new society are the introduction of mandatory for all productive labor, the distribution of its results according to needs, state production planning, transformation state power from a tool for managing people into a tool for organizing production, the gradual establishment of a worldwide association of peoples and universal peace with the erasure of national borders. However, in the future society, private property and class division should be preserved.
State form Saint-Simon believed that the introduction of the system of industrialism at a positive stage would not require the destruction of traditional state-legal forms. The monarch will remain, the government and the bicameral parliament will remain. Their function is to maintain order. But between the king and parliament, two intermediate instances are created, in whose hands all the fullness of secular power is concentrated: the Council of Scientists, which develops plans for social transformations, and the Council of Industrialists (representatives of industry and banks), which compiles the country's budget and controls its implementation. Saint-Simon believed that reforms would be carried out from above. As for the people directly (in whose interests the transformation of society is being carried out), then, according to Saint-Simon's conviction, there is no need to interfere in the reorganization of society.
Sensimonism - a doctrine developed by the followers of Saint-Simon on the basis of his ideas, but in a number of essential features going much further than the teachings of the founder himself. They gave the teacher's thoughts a great social acuity. Thus, in describing historical periods, they emphasized the importance of exploitation and the need to combat it much more sharply. “Man, they said, has so far exploited man: the slave gentlemen; patrician plebeians; serf lords; land owner-tenants; idle toilers - this is the progressive history of mankind to the present day. " The Sensimonists demanded the socialization of property, the abolition of hereditary privileges, planned management, and the emancipation of women. Sensimonism ceased to exist in the early 1830s.
Along with A. de Saint-Simon, the ideas of utopian socialism at the beginning of the 19th century. were put forward by such a wonderful thinker as Charles Fourier.
Francois Marie Charles Fourier(1772-1837) in Besançon in the family of a clothing merchant. During the Great French revolution participated in the Lyons anti-government uprising. His family property was confiscated, and Fourier himself was imprisoned. After some time, he was drafted into military service. In 1799 he became a traveling salesman.
In the middle of the 19th century, the Fourier system, revised and refined, had a noticeable impact on thinkers seeking a new social ideal. Fourier's followers conducted a social experiment in the United States at the famous Brook Farm in Roxbury, Massachusetts.
Major works: " The theory of four movements and universal destinies ”,“ Treatise on the Household-Agricultural Association ”(1822),“ New Economic Societal World ”(1829) and“ False Industry ”(1835-1836).
State and law. The worldview of Charles Fourier, even to a greater extent than the worldview of A. de Saint-Simon, is painted in moral and religious tones. He claims to be a prophet to whom God revealed the true laws social development and instructed to show mankind the way to eliminate the existing unjust social order and establish a new system of universal "harmony" and general prosperity. S. Fourier declares that God controls nature and society according to his will, but in accordance with the laws of mathematics. God sets the laws for the development of both nature, the universe as a whole, and human society.
The torments and misfortunes of mankind, entangled in the web of an unjust capitalist civilization, are explained, according to S. Fourier, by the fact that until now society has failed to cognize the truly just “social code” provided by God. This divine social code, the honor of the discovery of which accidentally fell to the lot of S. Fourier, proceeds, in his opinion, from the recognition of the main and decisive factor of social progress of the natural natural properties of an individual person, his passions, which are an instrument for the implementation of the will of God, aimed at the benefit of all mankind ... In the teachings of S. Fourier about the role of natural, natural properties and passions of man, one can clearly feel, despite all the originality of this teaching, the influence of the theory of natural law.
The entire history of mankind represents, in the opinion of the thinker, only certain stages on the path of comprehending the divine social code. This is the path from social "disorder", "incoherence", "disharmony" to social harmony, to a just social order.
Man, he notes, is inherent according to God's providence, natural passions and drives, the full satisfaction of which can only be ensured by the entry of society into the era of "harmony", when it will be fully guided by the divine social code known to it.
The thinker divides the entire previous history of mankind into the following periods: savagery, barbarism, patriarchy, civilization. It is highly noteworthy that one of the main factors determining the transition from one period to another, he considers, along with such a factor as the change in the legal status of women in society, the level of industrial development. In particular, S. Fourier reveals an understanding of the progressive significance of the development of large-scale industry, as well as science and technology in the period of civilization, by which he understands the domination of bourgeois relations as necessary objective prerequisites that ensure the possibility of transition from a "disharmonious", "civilized" system to a system " harmony "or" associations ".
The right is nothing if a person does not have material guarantees for its implementation: “In fact, the right is illusory when you cannot exercise it. Evidence of this is the constitutional right to sovereignty that the people have. Despite this splendid prerogative, the plebeian cannot even dine if he does not have a sous in his pocket. But it is very far from a claim to sovereignty to a claim to dine. So many rights exist on paper, but not in reality, and granting them becomes an insult to someone who cannot attain rights a hundred times less. " In his criticism of the apologists of civilization, Charles Fourier expresses the idea of the decisive influence of the right to work in the system of human rights in society; he points out that these apologists, speaking of human rights, forget "to put forward as a principle the right to work, which is truly impracticable in civilization, but without which all other rights are worth nothing."
Its ideal is peaceful cooperation of all classes, the peaceful transformation of the existing unreasonable, unjust civilization system into a fair system, where "social harmony" reigns on the basis of a friendly union of all social groups within the framework of productive associations, or, in the terminology of Charles Fourier, phalanges.
Each phalanx, according to the project of the thinker, should represent an agricultural and industrial association, covering approximately 1600-1700 people. The division of labor in the phalanx must be entirely adapted to the individual passions and abilities of each member of the phalanx. People who have approximately the same inclinations and passions are united within the phalanx into corresponding production "series" or groups.
The entire industrial, everyday and cultural life of the members of the phalanx should be regulated, according to S. Fourier, by the mechanism of human passions, which in the system of civilization are suppressed in every possible way and are at odds with each other, and in the system of associations they for the first time form a harmonious, harmonious and coordinated system. This mechanism includes twelve passions: five sensory (taste, touch, sight, hearing, smell), four mental (friendship, ambition, love, fatherhood) and three "distributive" or ruling (passion for intrigue, passion for diversity and passion, expressed in enthusiasm, inspiration). Fourier attaches decisive importance in the activity of the mechanism of passions to the last three, that is, to "distributive" passions. Only under the conditions of a system of associations based on taking into account the natural properties and inclinations of each of its members, "all twelve passions will be developed and satisfied in each individual person and, therefore, everyone will achieve happiness, which consists in the complete free development of passions." This doctrine of S. Fourier proclaims the only one corresponding to "the covenants of nature and the foreseeable design of God" .
The thinker believed that since the association would ensure the free transition of its members from one production group to another, creative competition would develop as much as possible between representatives of all kinds and kinds of physical and mental labor. As a result, labor, which in the structure of civilization, as a rule, is compulsory and disgusting to man, will turn for the members of the phalanx into pleasure, into a natural need for life. All this will lead to an extraordinary increase in labor productivity, providing the opportunity to fully satisfy the material and cultural needs and desires of the members of the phalanx. S. Fourier emphasizes that under these conditions the poorest member of the phalanx will be richer and happier than the richest person in the civilization.
2.English utopian socialism by R. Owen
Political worldview Roberta Owen took shape in England, in which industrial development and the acuteness of the social contradictions of capitalism reached in the first half of the nineteenth century. a higher level than in France. In England, on the basis of the industrial revolution of the late 18th century. during this period a powerful development of capitalist production takes place.
Robert Owen(1771-1858) was born in Newtown (Montgomeryshire, Wales) into a family of an artisan. He studied at a local school, at the age of ten he joined the manufacture trade in Stamford (Northamptonshire). After four years at Stamford, he got a job in Manchester, where his work was so successful that by 1790 he was appointed manager of a cotton mill, which employed five hundred workers. In 1794, he became co-owner and manager of the Chorlton Twist Company in Manchester, and in 1799, together with his associates, acquired from David Dale a spinning mill in New Lenark, near Glasgow.
Owen improved the working and living conditions of the workers, installed new machines, opened a shop for workers, where he sold goods at discounted prices, a school and a kindergarten for their children. In 1814, having bought out the shares of partners, Owen founded a new company, which, as shareholders, included, among others, the Quaker William Allen and the philosopher Jeremiah Bentham. Economic crisis, which came after 1815, prompted Owen to propose a plan for the resettlement of the unemployed in the "villages of community and cooperation." True, Owen's anti-religious views alienated many of his followers. Only by 1825 did he manage to create an experimental community, and after it other communes in Great Britain. Owen had traveled to America a year earlier and founded a labor commune in Wabash, Indiana, which he called the New Harmony. Owen envisioned the future society as a free federation of small socialist self-governing communities based on common ownership of property and labor. Soon difficulties arose in the colony, and in 1828 it disintegrated.
Owen spent the rest of his life in England. In 1829 he left the management of the factory in New Lenark and began to popularize his teachings.
His active work helped to consolidate the co-operative movement in the UK and contributed to the introduction of more humane labor laws.
Major works: pamphlet A New Look at Society, or Experiments on the Formation of Human Character (1813), The Book of the New Moral World (1836-1844).
State and law. Like A. de Saint-Simon and C. Fourier, R. Owen denies the revolutionary way of eliminating the existing social system and the transition to socialism. He believes that “it is necessary to prevent violent destruction public life which may arise from the daily increasing need and extreme demoralization " . He calls on the possessing classes to prevent the revolution of the working people and the poor masses by carrying out decisive social reforms aimed at a serious improvement in the material conditions of these masses.
The thinker is entirely on the position of cooperation of all classes of society, equally, in his opinion, interested in the victory of reason and "common sense", supposedly prompting the need for a peaceful transformation of the existing social system based on ignorance and delusions of the human mind.
R. Owen's plans on practical methods and ways of a gradual transition to a new social order, in particular through the imposition and development of workers' cooperatives, the creation of "exchange banks" and "exchange bazaars", do not at all imply a radical breakdown of the old society, but only a peaceful introduction into the existing one. the system of experiments and examples of practical construction of the elements of a new, "reasonable" order.
The most important features of R. Owen's system of utopian socialism are: tolerance of the bourgeoisie, propaganda of humility and peacefulness, abstractness of principles and lack of understanding historical development, denial of class struggle, preaching philanthropy and universal love.
The essential aspects of R. Owen's worldview must be recognized as a deep criticism of capitalism as a system that brings poverty, ruin and hunger to the working people, its irreconcilably negative attitude to private property, justification of the need for public property in a new, "reasonable" system, decisive exposure of religious obscurantism and religious prejudices. For R. Owen, the relentless striving to subordinate the entire content of the plans for social transformations developed by him to the cause of a radical improvement in the material situation of the working class and other strata of the working people, and to raising their cultural level is highly characteristic.
Educational-methodical literature
- Anthology of world political thought. - M., 1997.Vol. 1-5.
- Anthology of world legal thought. - M., 1999.Vol. 1-5.
- History of state legal doctrines. Textbook. Resp. ed. V.V. Lazarev. - M., 2006.
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- History of political and legal doctrines: a reader. - M., 1996.
- History of political and legal doctrines. Ed. A. N. Khoroshilova. - M., 2002.
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- Chicherin B.N. History of political doctrines. - M., 1887-1889, T.1-5.
- Volgin V. P... French utopian socialism. - M., 1985.
- Anderson K. M... Robert Owen's Mexican Project // History of Socialist Doctrines. - M., 1987.
- Anikin A.V. Youth of Science: The Life and Ideas of Economic Thinkers before Marx. - M., 1985.
- Volgin V. P... Saint-Simon and Saint-Simonism. - M., 1961.
- A.P. Levandovsky Saint-Simon. - M., 1973.
- Plekhanov G.V. 19th century French utopian socialism // Fav. philosopher. manuf. - M., 1957.Vol. 3.
- Saint-Simon A... Selected Works. - M., 1948.Vol. 1-2.
- Toritsyn T. M... The teachings of Robert Owen and his influence on the spread and development of socialist ideas. - Ryazan, 1972.
- Utopian Socialism: A Reader. / Common ed. A.I. Volodin. - M., 1982.
- Fourier S. Selected Works. vols. 1-4. - M. - L., 1951-54.
Questions for self-control and preparation for testing:
- What is Saint-Simon's concept of historical progress?
- What are the features of R. Owen's British utopian socialism?
- Expand the essence of the "Social Code" S. Fourier?
- Who were the theoretical predecessors of Western European utopian socialism?
- What is the definition of utopian socialism?
