Who are the gypsies. The history of the origin of the Roma. Of the alcoholic drinks, Gypsies prefer strong ones. For men, vodka is preferable, for women - cognac. Grape wines are generally not consumed. It is considered honorable to drink a lot, but
Roma are one of the most numerous ethnic groups in the world that do not have their own state. They can be found in any country in Europe, the CIS, in the countries of America, and their number is about 8-10 million people. How did it happen that the Roma began to lead a nomadic lifestyle and settled in many countries of the world, while their closest relatives continue to live in their homeland?
According to geneticists, the ancestors of modern gypsies left India around the 6th-10th centuries and moved to Persia (the territory of modern Iran). According to one version, 1000 people were given by the padishah of India as a gift to the Shah of Persia. According to historical information, these were jewelers and musicians, and the donation of representatives of valuable professions was a common thing for that time. After living there for about 400 years, the gypsies headed west and soon found themselves in Byzantium.
On the territory of Byzantium, they adopted Christianity and lived along with other peoples, being full members of society. According to written sources, the gypsies were famous blacksmiths. In addition, they were engaged in the manufacture of horse harness, horse breeding, and also trained animals and gave performances.
But after the fall Byzantine Empire In the 15th century, the Roma, in search of work and food, left their homes and moved to the north and west of Europe. In Europe itself, there were rather difficult times and immigrants were not very happy. The situation was complicated by the fact that the first Roma to arrive in new countries were, as a rule, not the best representatives of Roma society. Seekers of an easy life, not burdened with family and household, they were engaged in theft, cheating and begging. This led to the fact that the reputation of tramps and fraudsters was entrenched for the Roma, it was more and more difficult for them to find work and become part of European society. Looking for better life Roma from Spain and Portugal began to move to Latin America.
Thanks to a difficult history and constant wanderings, the Roma found themselves in genetic and linguistic isolation from the closest native speakers of their language - the Indians. The Romani language belongs to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indian languages. The language itself has several dialects that have formed in different regions of compact residence of the Roma. In addition to their native language, Roma often speak the language of the country in which they live.
According to statistics, the largest number of Roma live in the United States, where there are about 1 million. More than 500 thousand Roma live in Brazil, Spain and Romania, and about 200 thousand representatives of this people are registered in Russia. Today, April 8 is considered the Day of the Roma and, despite the fact that this people does not have their own state, they have their own flag, in the center of which there is a symbolic wagon wheel.
Gypsies are considered a free and mysterious people, which are characterized by an ambiguous attitude of society. This is due to their lifestyle, traditions and customs. Some do not like the nationality for fraud and deception, others “do not like it” and invite its representatives to various events and holidays to enjoy songs and dances. Signs of what gypsies look like include flamboyant looks and clothing that set them apart from the crowd.
Characteristic features of gypsies
Gypsies are a large ethnic group of Indian origin. A common self-name is roma, rum (or romals in the vocative case). However, other ethnonyms are also used: the Finnish and Estonian peoples call the gypsies "black" (kale), the French - Bohemians, the British - Egyptians. They are also called Sinti, Manush and so on.
Since ancient times, the nationality has been wandering around cities and countries, without having its own state.
On April 8, 1971, at the First World Gypsy Congress, they were proclaimed a single non-territorial nation. Since then, this date has been listed as the International Day of the Roma. By tradition, in the evening they light a candle and carry it along the street.
The territories where the people live includes the countries of Europe, North Africa, North and South America, Australia. According to Wikipedia, the number of European Roma is 8-12 million. In Russia in 2010 the number of representatives of the nationality is equal to 220 thousand. In many countries, Roma are few and far between. Such small groups are found among the Croats or in China.
However, it is difficult to say exactly how many Roma live in a particular territory. This is due to their characteristic feature- lack of "legal visibility". Roma and their children live in a camp, often are not registered, do not have documents, passports, and are listed as “missing”.
The nation belongs to the Indo-Mediterranean race of the large Caucasian race. They speak the Gypsy language of the Indo-Aryan group of the Indo-European family, which splits into a number of dialects.
The religion of the Roma includes the Christian religion, Islam. Nationality representatives Orthodox faith worship God very much and observe church holidays and customs. Easter and Christmas are significant events for Christians.
The self-name of the Roma professing Islam is Ogly.
Depending on the territorial affiliation, 6 branches of the nationality are distinguished.
Western gypsies include:
Oriental gypsies:
In addition to the named, there are narrow groups: British, Scandinavian kale, Romanicel and so on. In Hungary, an ethnos was formed, known as the Lovari. The large branch of rum also includes various groups, for example, the kotlyars shown in the photo.
IN European countries there are ethnic groups close to the Gypsies in their way of life: Irish travellers, Central European Yenishi. However, they have a different origin.
Hindus are truly anthropologically similar to gypsies. The first stand out tall, the Hungarian representatives are characterized by average indicators.
Face and head shape
Gypsies are characterized by dolichocephaly (long-headed), straight and slightly sloping forehead.
The photo shows the famous boxer Johann Wilhelm Trollman "Rukeli".
Gypsies are easily distinguished by their dark complexion, reminiscent of a shade of chocolate or old parchment.
Eyes
Mostly the color of the eyes of a representative of the people is dark, brown, possibly green.
The latter is especially revered by the gypsies, since it is characterized by magical power. But they avoid blue-eyed people because of the "evil eye" that can send trouble.
The photo shows the actress, dancer, singer Soledad Miranda, who died tragically at the age of 27.
Gypsies are distinguished by expressive, piercing and quick gaze, which introduces a person into a state similar to hypnosis, helps to see the past and future.
Nose
The forms of the sense of smell in gypsies are varied. Large nose is found predominantly. Moreover, it can be long, thin. The shape is possible straight or aquiline with a hump.
The photo shows the footballer Zlatan Ibrahimovic.
Hair
For gypsies, hair is a sign of happiness - the longer the better. Previously, they were often shaved off as exiled and isolated. Therefore, women and men try not to wear too short hairstyles.
Characterized by dark and curly hair, the red color is considered to attract happiness. Also, the gypsies have chestnut, golden-blond shades.
The photo shows a dancer, model, artist Adelina Plakhotnaya and singer, member of the group "Roots" Alexander Berdnikov.
Adelina Plakhotnaya
Alexander Berdnikov
In France, there are Jitanes - blue-eyed representatives of the nationality with blond hair.
Blond gypsies are shown in the photo.
Gypsy appearance
The image of the fairer sex among the gypsies is distinguished by its brightness, expressive makeup, fluffy colored skirts, beautiful jewelry made of gold: rings, brooches, chains are always present.
At the same time, modern Western European standards of beauty are alien to them - they do not show long naked legs.
It is believed that the area below the waist is clear only in young girls before the birth of children. After that it becomes "nasty" and you cannot touch this area. Two puffy toe-length skirts cover the "dirty" area, but one is not enough.
The photo shows gypsies in traditional costumes.
Face
The look of the beautiful gypsy woman is mesmerizing, you can endlessly look into her "diamond" eyes. Their color is predominantly brown or green.
Hair is lush, long, thick, black, dark brown, red, light brown shades. Often curly. The skin is usually dark, but light color is also possible.
Actress, model, dancer Rita Hayworth is recognized as one of the most beautiful gypsy women.
Figure
Traditional gypsy dances allow a good look at the figure of the gypsy.
Such dances help fathers to look after girls who will be suitable as brides for their sons.
Gypsies are characterized by a flexible, graceful body. Young girls are slim, fragile, gentle.
The photo shows the actress and singer Diana Savelyeva.
Since families with many children are peculiar to Roma, the figures of a woman become rounded by maturity, grow fat. However, numerous childbirth does not affect natural grace and grace.
Gypsy names and surnames
The full name of the nationality includes 3-5 parts:
- official;
- secular;
- patronymic;
- surname;
- the nickname of the branch of the family.
The official name is the one recorded in documents or received at baptism.
The secular is widely used when communicating in Everyday life with gypsies or other nationalities. This includes:
- A nickname is a kind of characteristic of a person or the events occurring with him ("Water", "Crow").
- Baptismal - if it differs from the official one;
- Name in gypsy or other exotic language (Tagari).
Secular names can coincide with the official ones or be their abbreviations: Dmitry - Mito. At the same time, a person is called this way not only in childhood and adolescence, but also throughout his life.
Patronymic is used when you need to introduce yourself officially (when interacting with government agencies, with a solemn congratulation, and so on).
The peculiarity of the naming system is present among the kotlyars. They may have a patronymic for their father, mother, or both.
The gypsy is satisfied with a secular name, which is used even together with a surname.
Surnames are used in the same way as other Europeans. With a large family, a special nickname is added to the surname. In Russia, it usually comes from the secular name of famous ancestors.
In gypsy society, good names are those that are associated with faith, God, jewelry, the sun. These are Bogdan (given by God), Zlata, Vera, Drago (precious), Ruby, Diamond and so on. Also "flower" names for women are welcomed: Lily, Jasmine, Rose and others.
To designate a character trait in a person they call: Veselina (cheerful), Svetlana (light), Shanita (calm), Shuko (handsome) and so on.
Origin
In the world
The roots of the Gypsy people originate in India. This is evidenced by their genetic analysis. Haplogroup H (Y-DNA) is present in Roma (60%) and indigenous Indian people (27%). It is also found among Tajik, Syrian peoples, Kalash, Kurds from Turkmenistan.
Originally gypsies from the northwest of India and appeared about 1.5 thousand years ago. Persians and Greeks influenced their language. Rajasthan, Kashmir and Gujarat define the homeland of the Roma.
After 6 centuries, the immigration of the nationality to Europe took place, most likely due to their oppression by the Muslims. At the same time, there is a mixing of blood with other nationalities. Most of the representatives of the nationality occupy the territory of Europe, but most of all there are Romanian and Hungarian gypsies. Their number is in the range of 2.5-8 million. In Bulgaria, the share of the nationality is 4.7% of the population (370 thousand people). A sufficient number of representatives among the Serbs.
The photo shows Roma in Romania and Hungary.
Gypsies in Romania
Gypsies in Hungary
The description of history during the tyranny of the German fascists led by Adolf Hitler includes the mass extermination of the Roma, along with the Jews.
For a long time, the attitude of other nationalities to the Gypsy nation has been ambiguous. Until the 15th century, Europeans were well-disposed towards them, but then the situation changed to the opposite. Why this happened is explained by the behavior of the gypsies: it turned out that they steal, cheat, begging, which earned the reputation of fraudsters and vagabonds.
After that, the displacement of the nationality from the territories, spread rot, bullying and even murder began. However, after 3 centuries the situation has stabilized, the Roma are more tolerant.
The nationality is divided into sedentary castes, semi-sedentary and nomadic. The latter lived in a tabor, the main one in which was the Vaida - the leader. He resolved internal conflicts, represented people before the authorities of the country, where they were wandering at that moment.
Sedentary or semi-sedentary took root everywhere, adjusting to religious customs and accepting the faith of the people where they were located.
In Russia
The paths from where the Gypsies came from on Russian soil are the Balkan countries (in the 15th century), Germany, Poland (in the 16th-17th centuries). They appeared in the 17th century on the territory of modern Ukraine.
The increase in the number of Roma occurred with the expansion of the borders of Russia. With the annexation of a part of Poland, Polish Roma arose, Bessarabia - Moldavian, Crimea - Crimean.
Before the 1917 revolution, men were engaged in the horse trade, women - fortune telling and magic. The nomads were fond of begging, fortune telling and witchcraft, sometimes blacksmithing. Gypsies who settled in St. Petersburg in the 30s of the 19th century joined the choirs, many of which were freed by the government from serfdom. The popularity of the people and their culture at that time was extremely high. Noble people married gypsy girls.
After the revolution, a decree is issued for the people to organize a way of life suitable for work. So the Gypsies joined the Soviet family, the nationalities fought together with the enemy during the Great Patriotic War.
The only gypsy who was awarded the title "Hero of the Soviet Union" was Timofey Prokofiev, Marines. Thanks to the gypsy, the Germans did not defeat the Nikolaev landing. He conducted machine-gun fire to the last and even after a fatal wound in the head, mustering his strength, fired a burst at the approaching fascists.
In 1956, a decree was again issued, after which the bulk of the nomads adopted a sedentary lifestyle. Modern Roma are endowed with rights: to choose the sphere of work, to receive secondary and higher education... However, only a few use them.
The origin of the gypsies is known to scientists, but there are rumors everywhere who they are and where they came from. There are versions that these are Moldovans or Romanians. Or even gypsies are descendants of the sunken Atlantis. Moldovan and Romanian people belong to other ethnic groups. And the version of belonging to Atlantis is due to the mystical abilities of the ethnos.
The nationality is correctly written in the plural "Gypsies", despite the fact that Alexander Pushkin's poem is called "Gypsies" - this is an outdated form.
Features of the character and life of gypsies: customs and laws
In 1971, after the World Roma Congress, the national anthem and the flag presented in the picture were adopted.
The people use symbols as a coat of arms: a deck of cards, a horseshoe, a wheel.
Gypsy is characterized by a free lifestyle. Its representatives to this day are engaged in primordial affairs: they sing, dance beautifully, walk, play the guitar, train bears and other animals, and love to guess. At the same time, predominantly friendly and warm relations develop in the community.
Cheerful jokes are invited to order for holidays: birthday, weddings, anniversaries.
Gypsies are often portrayed as swindlers, beggars. They can be found at train stations, on trams, trolleybuses, electric trains, sitting on the roadside with small children, where they ask for alms.
They stick to passers-by with an offer to tell fortunes, they are excellent psychologists who can get into trust. If a person talks and answers, they ask him for alms by suggestion. In this case, the victim voluntarily gives all the money from the wallet.
Of interest is the ethnic group of sea gypsies - the Baggio, roaming the Indian Ocean. They live in huts above the water and go fishing. They go ashore exclusively for trade, boat repair, replenishment fresh water or in the event of a funeral.
However, modern young sea gypsies often do not want to live by the rules of their ancestors. They move to land, study and work in normal conditions, which was not accepted by previous generations.
Films are made about the life of the Roma, the rules and traditions: "The Return of Budulai", "The Tabor Goes to Heaven", "The Gypsy" and so on. Many world-famous actors have gypsy roots.
For example, People's Artist of Russia Yekaterina Zhemchuzhnaya, shown in the photo.
The famous actor and comedian Charlie Chaplin was a gypsy.
There are disputes about belonging to the nationality of many famous people. Data are given that famous singer Elvis Presley comes from a family of German gypsies who emigrated to the United States.
The peculiarity of the life of a nation lies in the fact that its representatives are often either fabulously rich or poor. In the first case, their houses resemble palaces with luxurious and expensive furnishings.
In the second case, the Roma live in extreme poverty in the absence of basic living conditions. They are often illegal.
Gypsies eat simple food, in dishes national cuisine Hungarian, Bulgarian, Romanian tendencies are traced. They like chicken, lamb, beef, beetroot soups, sauerkraut, prepare tumals (tamals) - minced meat wrapped in corn tortilla, harba - a product made of blood, liver and bacon. The national drink is black tea with herbs and berries.
Roma life is filled with customs and rules, many of which must be followed.
Other nationalities have beliefs associated with gypsies. If you dreamed of a camp, the dream book says about the desire for a promiscuous sex life with a frequent change of partners. The dream, when gypsies ride from place to place, signals nostalgia for the past. The fortune teller is seen to be handed over to the wrong person. In general, what gypsies dream of means haste of decisions, actions. If you went to buy something from them, it portends a loss of money.
Wedding
The rite is responsible for the transition of young men and women to a new hierarchical status. This is the reason why gypsies marry early. If a 19 year old girl is single, she is considered a spinster. At what age young people get married, parents often decide. The girl is recognized as a potential bride after 14 years. Only in late marriages are the feelings and choices of lovers taken into account.
The wedding is preceded by the betrothal performed by the parents. In early marriages, the decision to marry does not depend on the will of the children.
Redemption of the bride is possible, but in this case she is expected to work off the funds spent.
The girl marries a virgin. The proof in the form of a bloody sheet is provided after the wedding night. If a gypsy girl is not a virgin, it is considered a shame by the nation.
Marriages between representatives of the nationalities of different states are unlikely. This is tantamount to marrying a non-gypsy, which is not encouraged by gypsy law. Re-marriages are frowned upon.
Funeral
The ceremony, as the funeral takes place, is due to the belief that a person in the other world needs things that are in life. The Gypsies prepare for burial in advance, the children save up money in order to see their parents with dignity. A gravestone of impressive size is considered luxurious, where the deceased is depicted in full growth.
When a person is buried, three objects are handed over to relatives or friends through the coffin: an icon (male or female), a carpet and a bed. They put the essentials and alcohol inside. Mirrors are hung for 40 days, mourning is observed for a year.
Gypsy curses
Rituals are recognized as carrying magical powers and are considered among other nationalities to be the reason why gypsies are dangerous. However, not all of them have mystical abilities. A true magician will not waste complex rituals. Therefore, curses from angry fortune-tellers are usually empty phrases.
Gypsies can curse when they hurt the family. Usually there is no charge for it.
Signs of a person's curse are:
- weight loss or gain, deterioration in well-being, appearance(getting old);
- the development of diseases that do not respond to treatment;
- apathy;
- nightmares;
- a believer does not wear a cross, refuses to attend church because of fear;
- family scandals;
- care of pets from the house.
To remove spoilage, it is advisable to use water - to wash in the morning in the river for 12 days, uttering a special conspiracy. Also, cemetery rituals and others are used to get rid of damage.
Gypsy law
It is an unwritten set of rules to be followed in and out of Roma society. Currently, each country has its own law and even within it. different types nationality.
Compliance is monitored by elderly members of the community, conflicts and violations are examined by a Roma court, which includes reputable people.
The worst sentence is the expulsion of the criminal.
The main postulate of the law is compliance with the rules and restrictions of non-Roma society in dealing with it.
Murder, rape, grievous bodily harm are prohibited.
The rules of behavior within the Roma society were also voiced: clothes, holidays, everyday life, an overview of professions, and so on.
Common stereotypes
Stereotypes about Roma have come from numerous stories about their lives, stories of victims of fraud and people's own observations, since Roma are present in almost every country in the world.
- They have no homeland. Roma are people without a specific citizenship, which is often denied to them even if they were born in a given country. The recognition of the nationality as non-territorial made them legally "invisible".
- They don't like to study. Representatives of the nationality send their children to school in order to teach basic knowledge: to read, write, count. Often after that, the child quits classes, helping his parents in the trade.
- It is considered an honor for gypsies to drink a lot and not get drunk.
- Gypsies good psychologists with hypnosis. For this reason, they should be avoided, fortune-telling will do more harm than good for them. The main goal of the gypsy woman is to get income. Rare personalities have the ability to predict, the rest create a magical image around themselves: witchcraft balls, tarot cards and other paraphernalia.
- Roma have high statistics on domestic violence. The wife bears a heavy burden, submitting to her tyrant husband, while she is forced to endure, since tradition presupposes marriage for life.
- There must be at least one son in a gypsy family. If this does not happen for a long time, the boy is taken from the orphanage, regardless of his nationality. This was one of the reasons explaining the claim that the gypsies stole children. Often people, seeing in the camp a light, blue-eyed and completely unlike other child, declared that he had been stolen.
- If the family has a two-story house, the woman cannot go up to the second floor if the husband is on the first
According to linguistic and genetic studies, the ancestors of the Roma originated from India in a group of about 1000 people. The time of migration of the ancestors of the Roma from India has not been precisely established, as well as the number of migration waves. But it is known that the padishah from India presented 1000 people as a sign of gratitude to the Shah of Persia. Various researchers roughly determine the outcome of the so-called "proto-Gypsy" groups of the 6th-10th centuries AD. NS. By the most popular version based on the analysis of borrowed words in the Roma languages, the ancestors of modern Roma spent about 400 years in Persia before the Roma branch moved westward into Byzantium. They were the ancestors of the European gypsies: rum, kale, sinti, manush... Some of the migrants stayed in the Middle East. It is believed that another branch went to Palestine and through it to Egypt.
As for the so-called Central Asian Roma, or lyuli, then they, as sometimes figuratively say, are cousins or even second cousins of European Roma. Thus, the Central Asian Roma population, having absorbed various flows of migrants from the Punjab (including the Baloch group) over the centuries, has historically been heterogeneous.
The Gypsies of Europe are the descendants of the Gypsies who lived in Byzantium. Documents indicate that the Roma lived in the center of the empire and on its outskirts, and there most of these Roma adopted Christianity. In Byzantium, the Roma quickly integrated into society. In a number of places, their leaders were given certain privileges. Written references to Roma from this period are scarce, but they do not seem to generate any particular interest or perceived as a marginal or criminal group. Gypsies are referred to as metalworkers, horse harness makers, saddlers, fortune-tellers (in Byzantium, this was a common profession), trainers (moreover, in the earliest sources - snake charmers, and only in later - bear trainers). At the same time, the most common craft, apparently, was still artistic and blacksmithing, whole villages of gypsy blacksmiths are mentioned.
With the collapse of the Byzantine Empire, Roma began to migrate to Europe. The first, judging by the written European sources, marginal, adventurous representatives of the people who were engaged in begging, fortune telling and petty theft arrived in Europe, which marked the beginning of a negative perception of Roma as a people among Europeans. And only after a while, artists, trainers, artisans, horse merchants began to arrive.
The earliest Russian official document mentioning a gypsy dates back to 1733 - Anna Ioannovna's decree on new taxes on the upkeep of the army:
In addition to the maintenance of these regiments, to determine the fees from the Roma, as in Little Russia they collect from them, and in the Slobodskoy regiments and in the Great Russian cities and districts assigned to the Slobodskoy regiments, and for this collection to determine a special person, since the gypsies are not written in the census. On this occasion, the report of Lieutenant-General Prince Shakhovsky explained, among other things, that it was impossible to write Roma in the census, because they do not live in courtyards.
World Roma Day - 04/08/1971.
On April 8, 1971, the first World Roma Congress was held in London. The result of the congress was the recognition of themselves as the Roma of the world as a single non-territorial nation and the adoption of national symbols: the flag and the anthem, based on the folk song “Dzhelem, Djelem”. Instead of a coat of arms, the gypsies use a number of recognizable symbols: a wagon wheel, a horseshoe, a deck of cards. These symbols are usually used to decorate Roma books, newspapers, magazines and websites, one of these symbols is usually included in the logos of events dedicated to Roma culture.
In honor of the First World Roma Congress, April 8 is considered Roma Day. Some gypsies have a custom associated with it: in the evening, at a certain time, carry a lighted candle along the street.
author Olga Fatyukhina asked a question in the section Society, Politics, Media
What is the nationality of the gypsies and got the best answer
Reply from User deleted [guru]
Gypsies are a nation. Like everyone else, she must be treated with respect. I represent your face and give reasons. Unfortunately, not all nationalities have their own country. Remember the Kurds, Assyrians, Yezidis. The same thing happens with the gypsies. Moreover, wherever a representative of this Vedic family lives, they are trying to preserve their ancient culture. You say that they do not want to work, they are selling drugs and weapons. And I will say that they are musical and melodious, love horses and know how to handle them like no one else. We must respect everyone, trying not to alter it in our own manner, but to understand.
Answer from 2 answers[guru]
Hey! Here is a selection of topics with answers to your question: what is the nationality of the gypsies?
Answer from Lev Timofeev Fedorovich[active]
gypsies this is me this is natsya and so are the ancient ancestors of the Indians
Answer from NB[guru]
Cigans (Roma, novels) are a people (more precisely, ethnic groups that have a common origin and language). Self-name - Roma (plural), some groups historically call themselves differently, for example Sinti, or have lost their former self-name in the process of assimilation and persecution.
Descendants of immigrants from India. They live in many countries of Europe, Western and South Asia, as well as in North Africa, North and South America and Australia.
The British traditionally call them Gypsies (from Egyptians - "Egyptians"), the Spaniards - Gitanos, the French - Bohémiens (Bohemians), Gitans or Tsiganes, Germans - Zigeuner, Italians - Zingari, Dutch - Heidens ("pagans"), Hungarians - Cigany or Pharao nerek ("Pharaoh's tribe"), Finns - mustalaiset ("black"), Turks - Çingerie, Çingane; in Hebrew - Tso’anim (צוענים), from the name of the biblical province of Zoan in Ancient Egypt; in Bulgarian - Tsigani. At present, ethnonyms from the self-designation “Roma” (English Roma, Czech Romové, Finnish romanit, etc.) are becoming more and more widespread in various languages.
Answer from Kolesnikova Julia[guru]
Nationality Roma, and immigrants from India. Who was in India, please confirm !! ! I had many friends there, and I know from them!
Answer from Alexey ermakov[guru]
Untermensch their nationality
Answer from Lex lexus[newbie]
Hindus they are Hindus. That's why they sell drugs.
Answer from Yoamirchik[guru]
U nix armyanskaya natsionalnost.
Answer from User deleted[guru]
And it is not clear which one. Strange. Greeks, Armenians, and maybe others. That's why the gypsies, I think that the Gypsy.
Answer from Margarita Kuptsova[active]
Gypsies, they are Gypsies in Africa!
Answer from User deleted[guru]
This is the same if you ask what is the Russian nationality. Tsigane - this is what nationality is
Answer from VALERA Ivanov[guru]
they all have now become Moldovans and are offended when they are called gypsies!
Answer from Vitaliy Yasminov[guru]
I heard two versions about the homeland of the gypsies. According to the first, the gypsies come from India from the ancient Aryans. By the way, even now the emperor of the Gypsies, Mihai I, lives in India.
According to the second version, the gypsies are the descendants of the ancient Egyptians. But nowhere in the literature did I find confirmation of either version.
But in many countries, apart from nationality, they usually have "gypsies" in their passports.
IN SEARCH OF THE GYPSE RESTAURANT
The ancestral home of the gypsies is India. Ethnographers, historians and the gypsies themselves know about this. The discovery of this scientific fact dates back to the middle of the eighteenth century. Hungarian I. Vaya, a student at Leiden University, noticed the similarity of the Gypsy language with the language of his fellow students, whose homeland was the Malabar Coast. 1
An article about these observations in a Vienna newspaper fell into the hands of the German scientist G. Grelman, who, comparing the Gypsy language with the Indian Sanskrit, put forward a hypothesis about the Indian ancestral home of the Gypsies. 2
But only a century later, thanks to the studies of the German philologist A.Pott, the hypothesis acquired the form of a proof theory, which has not lost its scientific significance until now. 3
The discovery of the Gypsy ancestral home was made on the basis of linguistic analysis, since the range of other sources - archaeological, documentary, which could be used by Gypsy scholars - is very limited. In the traditional culture of the Roma, there are also some traits that scientists associate with the Indian roots of the people.
In the literature, many other, sometimes unproven, sometimes fantastic, assumptions about the origin of the gypsies have been expressed. The homeland of the Gypsies was sought in Assyria and Persia, Zanzibar and Namibia, in Egypt and on the Danube. They were considered builders Egyptian pyramids and the inhabitants of the legendary Atlantis, who sailed on the eve of its disappearance. 4
If the question of the ancestral home of the Roma is resolved in ethnographic science, then a lot of controversial things remain in Roma history. Due to the lack of reliable historical sources, the mysteries of early Roma history have not been fully disclosed, although hypotheses and assumptions have been expressed by scientists more than once. Most controversial is the question of when and why the ancestors of the Gypsies left their ancestral home, which Indian people went to look for a new homeland.
Scientists still argue about when the ancestors of the gypsies left India. Some authors call it the 5th century, others - the 10th century. The authors of the monograph “History of the Gypsies: A New Look” believe that both sides are right: “Small Indian tribes left their homeland century after century, the ancestors of the Gypsies did not go in one camp, having a predetermined goal. Some of the Roma settled along the road, laying the foundation for the current ethnic groups. Some of them moved on with rare deliberation, the camps circled for decades in the same area, until one day, for economic or social reasons, they moved a hundred or two hundred kilometers to the west. " 5
Russian gypsies E. Druts and A. Gessler argue that the exodus of the Gypsies from India lasted for about a thousand years, and its culmination fell on the turn of the first and second millennia, and separate waves of migration continued in subsequent times. 6
Researchers associate the reasons for migration with internecine wars, constant raids of Muslim conquerors. 7
What kind of people went to a distant nomad? Ethnographers give different answers to this question. Some consider the Gypsies to be the descendants of not one, but many Indian peoples. Others, such as E. Druts and A. Gessler, note that the Gypsies are descendants of the Indian "home" caste, who once left their homeland. This caste still exists in India, its representatives lead a semi-nomadic lifestyle, are engaged in blacksmithing and other crafts, as well as singing and dancing. The caste belongs to the lower strata of Indian society. 8
N. Demetr, N. Bessonov ... do not agree with this point of view and believe that the ancestors of the Gypsies occupied a middle position in the caste hierarchy. Studying the way of gypsies, they came to the conclusion that at the courts of Indian princes there was a special social stratum, whose representatives entertained them with music and dances, and were also busy with the household, were engaged in crafts, which explains the craving of the gypsies for gold and jewelry, a nomadic image life. 9
The path followed by the Gypsies is reconstructed by scientists today as follows: “From India they moved through the territory of modern Iran, Afghanistan and Armenia. The Gypsies who settled in Central Asia, Armenia, Persia formed the basis of the ethnographic groups of the Gypsies that still exist in this region (Mugat, Karachi, Bosha, etc.). Then there was a division, some of the Gypsies moved towards Palestine and Egypt, where they remained, some headed ... to the territory of Byzantium. " 10
From field observations
The question of the origin of the Roma has always been the focus of our field research: what the people remember, how they explain their origin. It turned out that almost everyone in the camp knows about India as the homeland of their distant ancestors. Some learned about it from magazines, popular science publications, others from their parents. Even Zambila Georgievna Kulai (born in 1914), the oldest in the camp, also told us that the gypsies left India. Someone takes the fact of the Indian ancestral home on faith, agreeing with the researchers; someone knows about this, but does not believe, believing that the homeland of the Roma is somewhere closer, for example, in Moldova.
Some seriously think about their roots and even put forward their own versions of the word “gypsies”: “In India there is the Ganges river, it is also called Ghana, so the gypsies used to live there by the river. And then it went, people from Ghana - Ghana. But they began to call them not Ghans, but added the letter c and it turned out - gypsies. "
Indian films also remind Roma of their community with India: Roma understand some words. Someone speaks even more definitely: "They sing Indian songs, we understand the first verse, but we can sing along on the second verse."
Preserved in the tabor and more ancient "their" legends and legends about the origin of the gypsy people. Here are just a few of them that we managed to record.
There is a legend about how different peoples appeared in the world, why they differ from each other: “Previously, there were no different peoples on earth. And God brought people to his garden of Eden. And there were different trees, and pears, and plums, and apples. And each went to the tree that he liked. So different peoples went, who ate which fruit. The gypsy went and ate one plum for herself. So our parents went from the plum. She did not go where the apples are, where the pears are, but went where the plums are, so the gypsies went. The Tatars ate peas. When they ate peas, they said: “God helps. How much peas grow, so much so that people have health ”. The Uzbek ate an olive, black, juicy. Even now they are black, like an olive in their face. We ate Russian apples. She went and saw a beautiful apple hanging on a branch, went and ate it. And, it is true, they love Russian apples. And the Jews went where the pears were. And pears, you know, they are as long as a nose. The nose and long of the Jews, like a pear. Romanians, they are beautiful, they are not more beautiful, they are beautiful like grapes. They used to have chariots too. They drove and looked: this is an apple, this is a pear, this has passed, and where the grapes are - they stopped, took two or three branches, ate, these became beautiful, cute, each other more beautiful. And the Bulgarians ate apricots, they are also beautiful. And the gypsies went to the drain. The first girl was, she was three or four years old, she ate a plum, one, another, a third, so the gypsies are as dark as a plum. So the Moldavian and All-Union gypsies went from the plum. "
The answer to the question of why the gypsies wander, why they do not have their own land, we find in an old gypsy legend: “There is a legend that God did not give them land. God, when he divided the land, forgot about the gypsies. And one gypsy went to God with tears in his eyes and said: "Why did you, God, do this to me, you gave everyone land, but did not give me?" Then God said to this: “I will give you a mind, so that you live with your mind, cunning. And so that he could get his own piece of bread. And the whole world will be at your feet. And you will get your piece of bread with your wits and cunning, you will survive wherever you go ”.
Another gypsy legend explains why the gypsies are allowed to cheat: “God allowed the gypsies to cheat. When Jesus Christ was carried on crucifixion, then the gypsy stole a nail, the last nail with which they wanted to pierce the heart. And the gypsy stole this nail. When asked, he said: “By God, I didn’t take it!“. Took and swallowed this nail. And thus he slightly extended the life of Jesus Christ. God again told him that you will live by your cunning. From this, the cunning appeared among the gypsies. There is a legend that it was God who invented for us so that our people would guess, so that with our minds we would live, with our cunning ”. This legend in various versions is widespread not only among the Gypsies, but also among other peoples.
BYZANTINE
Historians attribute the appearance of gypsies in Byzantium to the 12th - 13th centuries. There is also an earlier date - the 11th century. In Byzantium, the Gypsies stayed long enough before moving on towards Eastern and Western Europe.
The Byzantine period of Gypsy history, according to historians, was significant enough for the ethnos. Researchers of the Gypsy ethnic history argue that the formation of the Gypsies as a people took place precisely in Byzantium, where they stayed for about three hundred years, and ended by the beginning of the 15th century. 11
The few surviving historical sources mention such activities of the Gypsies as fortune-telling and animal training (spelling snakes and driving a bear), making sieves and sieves, and blacksmithing. It was in Byzantium that the Gypsies became acquainted with Christianity. In one of the sources of the fourteenth century. we read: "These people ... adhered to the rites of the Greek Orthodox Church." 12
Christianity became the main religion of most ethnographic groups of Roma in Western and of Eastern Europe... The Greek language had a noticeable influence on the Gypsy language: dozens of words were borrowed, some forms of word formation. From the Greek word "antsinganos" came the Russian name of the people - gypsies. 13
Researchers also associate the origin of the ethnonym Roma with the Byzantine period of Roma history. 14
Some gypsy scholars believe that gypsies also learned fortune telling in Byzantium, where at that time superstitions were strong enough, belief in the possibility of predicting fate. 15
The beginning of the 15th century marked by the expansion of Muslims, as a result, the territory of the empire began to shrink, the number of the Roma population increased, which, apparently, was the reason for the "great gypsy campaign" in Western Europe, which began in 1417.
From field observations
It is rather difficult to imagine how the gypsies dispersed around the world. However, probably, each camp has preserved its own legends, which reveal the gypsy history. There are also Permian gypsies-Kelderars. Here is one of them, told by Grancho Dodovich Buco (born 1941): “My grandfather had six brothers. From one brother, the camp is located in Russia, and the rest spread throughout the world during the revolution and before the war. Before the war, there was such a case, I heard from my father. A controversial issue came out in the camp, they argued, maybe because of the daughter-in-law, they quarreled, a petty matter. And they decided to part ways for a while, thinking for a week, for a month, maybe for two weeks. And it turned out that they went very far. Some ended up in Russia, while others - abroad. After the war, the Hungarian Gypsies told us that our relatives had gone on a steamer to America. But we knew nothing about them. And only recently our Roma from Penza traveled to Argentina. It so happened that the Penza gypsies (also Kelderars) have relatives living in Argentina. Gypsies from Argentina came to Penza and said that our relatives also lived in Argentina. There my father's cousin, his children live. We each have a nickname. We are a kind of ruvoni (from the gypsy ruv - wolf). Our family has a camp in Perm and Argentina. "
THE HISTORY OF THE GYPSY AFTER THE 15TH CENTURY
The Roma who resettled in Western Europe formed the basis of the modern ethnographic groups of the Roma population (Kale, Travels, Sinti, Polish Roma) living in England, Germany, France, Poland and other countries. A special ethnographic group, the Russian Gypsies, originated from the Western European branch.
However, not all Gypsies at the beginning of the fifteenth century. left the territory of Byzantium. A significant part of them continued to live in the Greek regions, where the ethnographic groups Arlia, Rumelia, Fichira, Jambaz subsequently formed. Quite a few Roma found themselves in adjacent territories: in Serbia, Albania, Romanian and Hungarian lands. These Gypsies formed the basis of the Eastern European branch of the Gypsy people - ethnographic groups of Servas, Vlahurya, Ursars, Crimea, Chisinau residents, Lovar, Kelderars, etc. They performed with trained animals, led a semi-nomadic lifestyle. Among the gypsies were blacksmiths, tinkers, butchers, painters, shoemakers, watchmen, wool-bearers, runners, tailors. 16
Part of the gypsies, being ruled Ottoman Empire, converted to Islam.
The situation of the Roma in the Moldavian and Volosh principalities, dependent on the Ottoman Empire, was difficult. Here, from the 15th century, the Roma became a dependent population - slaves and serfs belonging to a boyar, a monastery or the state. According to the Moldovan Civil Code, until the middle of the 19th century, serfs were not allowed to marry free ones, they could only marry with the permission of their owners, or they could be sold. Only state serfs were allowed to lead a nomadic lifestyle. Since 1829, when Moldova and Wallachia came under the jurisdiction of Russia, a gradual process of abolishing slavery began, which was finally enshrined in the Constitution of 1864. 17
The Roma who lived in the territory ruled by the Habsburg empire (Hungary, Serbia, Slovakia) were also under pressure from the local authorities, who outlawed them. Since the end of the 18th century, as part of the assimilation policy of the state, the Roma were issued passports with new names, and unsuccessful attempts were made to impose a sedentary lifestyle on the Roma. However, the Roma received civil rights and the opportunity to "grow" into society.
All these events led to the so-called "migration explosion", as a result of which the Gypsies of the Eastern European branch, especially the Kelderars in the 19th century. began to leave the area of formation. Gypsy camps of Kelderars appeared in Western Europe, Poland, Russia and other countries. 18
As a result of a complex ethnic history, different ethnographic groups of the Roma people have formed, each of which is distinguished by a special dialect, religion, occupation, its own way of life (including food, utensils, housing), traditional costume, and worldview. Many ethnocultural features of a particular ethnographic group are due to the factor of interaction of the Roma with the local population.
From field observations
When conducting surveys, we were surprised at how well Permian Roma are aware of other ethnographic groups of Roma. We were told about the differences in language, everyday life, occupations, "laws". Perm Moldovan Gypsies are aware of such ethnographic groups as the Russian Gypsies Laetsi (as Moldovan Gypsies call Russian Gypsies), Crimea (Crimean Gypsies), Lovari, Vlakhuri, Shrimp, Serves, that is, almost all groups that inhabit Russia.
Moldovan Gypsies believe that in their language of Russian Gypsies there are many words borrowed from the Russian language, differs from the dialect of Moldovan Gypsies and the pronunciation of certain sounds and words. It is also noted that there are more Laets in Russia and they are settled practically all over the country: "In any region you can meet Russian Gypsies, even if a little, but there are two or three families, even in the Far North." Unlike Russian and Moldovan Gypsies, the Crimea professes Islam, therefore their way of life differs markedly from the way of life of Russian and Moldavian Gypsies. Moldovan Gypsies note that Russian Gypsies have fewer old traditions. For example, women have long abandoned the traditional costume and wear dresses. The Crimean Roma, on the contrary, strictly adhere to the old "laws".
Gypsies in Russia and in the Kama region
Ethnographic groups of Roma in different ways and at different times penetrated the territory of Russia. The question of the time of the appearance of the Roma in Russia has always caused difficulties among researchers. Boundaries Of the Russian state changed in different periods of its history. Often, Roma already lived in the annexed territories, who settled there before they became part of the Russian Empire.
Today in Russia one can find gypsies not only from the largest ethnographic groups - Russian gypsies (self-name - Russian Roma) and kelderars (kotlyars), but also gypsies, migrants from Central Asian regions and the Caucasus, Ukrainian gypsies (serves), Crimean gypsies, gypsies - Vlachs, Lovari, Chisinau residents, etc. The history of the appearance in Russia of each ethnographic group has its own characteristics, the study of which would be the subject of a separate study. We will focus only on those historical events, who brought Gypsies from the ethnographic groups Russian Roma, Crimean Gypsies and Kelderars to Russia.
Russian Gypsies - Russian Roma are one of the ethnographic groups of Gypsies of the Western European branch. They came to Russia at the end of the 17th century. In one of the sources of that time, you can read: "Gypsies are people in Poland, but from the Germans ...". 19
This is the way the Gypsies came to Russia. A lot of German and Polish words that are found in the language of Russian gypsies speaks about the places of their former residence. Already on the territory of Russia, a special ethnographic group was formed from the newly arrived gypsies - the Russian gypsies. This is one of the largest ethnographic groups of Roma in Russia. However, they are not homogeneous, but consist of several regional subgroups: Siberians, Smolensk Roma ... and others. In Russia, Russian Gypsies led a semi-nomadic lifestyle. In the summer, they made transfers, roamed, and for the winter they stayed in Russian villages, where they rented huts. Russian Gypsies are Orthodox by religion. Traditional occupations are trade and exchange of horses, begging, fortune-telling, horse-stealing. It was the Russian Gypsies at the beginning of the 19th century in Moscow who formed the basis of the Gypsy choirs so popular in Russia.
Crimean gypsies (kyrymitika roma) got their name from their place of residence - Crimea, where they moved from the Balkans. Scientists believe that in the past, the Crimean Gypsies were Christians, but, most likely already in the Balkans, they converted to Islam. The foreign cultural environment affected the culture of the Crimean Gypsies, they are fluent in the Tatar language, a lot of borrowed Tatar words are noted in their language. Blacksmithing and jewelry making became the traditional occupations of the Roma of this group. Among them were also musicians, cabbies, horse traders. Along with fortune-telling, women were engaged in the cosmetics trade. Since the annexation of Crimea, the Crimean Gypsies have been part of the Russian Empire. 20
Gypsies of the third ethnographic group - the Kelderars - appeared in Russia only in the 19th. century. The area of their formation and residence until the middle of the nineteenth century, as we noted, was the Romanian lands. The first Kelderar camps entered Russia in the 70s. XIX century from Moldova, where many Roma of this group lived. A particularly powerful wave of their resettlement occurred at the turn of the late 19th - early 20th century.
Among the Permian gypsies of this group, there are also many legends about the time of the resettlement of this or that camp to Russia. According to the stories of the oldest resident of the Gypsy camp Zambila Georgievna Kulai (born in 1914), her father's camp from Moldova came to Russia in 1923. Grancho Dodovich Butso (born 1941) recalls, from the words of his parents, that one of the camps of the clan Ruvoni came to Russia from Moldavia in the 1930s and for a long time roamed in the territory of Ukraine, Belarus and Western Russia.
The traditional occupation for men was craft - making and tinning boilers, for women - fortune telling. Today Kelderar Roma live in many cities and regions of Russia: Leningrad, Tula, Moscow, Yekaterinburg, Ufa, Izhevsk, Irkutsk, Tyumen, Penza, Kazan, etc.
An important and extremely difficult stage in the history of the Roma in Russia was the Soviet period. On the one hand, even in the pre-war period, the government was taking a number of measures aimed at the socio-economic and cultural development of the Roma population of Russia. Decrees were adopted on the priority allotment of land to the Roma, on assistance in the transition to a sedentary lifestyle, on the creation of Roma artels. Literature appeared in the Gypsy language. However, by the end of the 1930s, all these endeavors had been reversed.
On the other hand, the traditional way of providing for the Roma was destroyed, and many sources of Roma existence disappeared. Crafts, trade, fortune-telling contradicted the "Soviet way of life." Ideological pressure and impoverishment of the population did not allow the Roma to interact with the population in the same way as in pre-revolutionary Russia. The repressions of the 1930s did not bypass the Roma population, which was accused of espionage, sabotage, and counter-revolution. Crimean Gypsies shared the fate of the Crimean Tatars and were evicted from the territory of their traditional residence. 21
Despite the difficult situation, the Roma found their place in Soviet society. Until the 1970s and 1980s, Gypsy craft and trade continued to be in demand in the Soviet Union against the backdrop of a shortage of consumer goods.
Especially significant for the nomadic Gypsies of Russia was the Resolution of the Council of Ministers of the RSFSR No. 685 of October 20, 1956 "On the introduction to labor of Gypsies engaged in vagrancy." It provided for severe punishments, up to and including imprisonment for 5 years, for the nomadic lifestyle of the Roma population. As a result, almost all groups of Roma have moved to a sedentary lifestyle. 22
The peculiarities of the history of the Roma in the Soviet period are easy to see in the example of a Roma camp living in the Chapaevsky microdistrict.
It is not known when the first gypsy camp appeared in Perm. Most likely, these were representatives of the ethnographic group "Russian Gypsies", who now constitute the bulk of the Gypsy population of the Kama region. The Perm land was a place of nomadism for other groups of gypsies. The population census of the city of Perm in 1890 did not record a single Roma in the city. 23
A significant number of Roma settled in the city of Perm and the Perm region after the adoption of the aforementioned resolution of 1956. According to the 1989 census, 1,492 Roma lived in the Kama region. However, the information received does not always reflect the true situation. Thus, among Crimean Roma in their passports and other official documents, one can often find the entry “Tatar” rather than “Gypsy”, and Moldovan Roma do the same, registering themselves as Moldovans, Bessarabs, and Romanians. We can say with confidence that, in particular, in the census materials, under the Roma of the Kama region, apparently, only representatives of the ethnographic group of Russian Roma are noted. Among the three ethnographic groups of Gypsies of the Kama region, only Russian Gypsies live in the city of Perm, in the cities and districts of the region. Crimean and Moldovan Roma have diasporas only in the city of Perm.
In the city of Perm, the outskirts with wooden buildings remain the traditional places of compact residence of the Roma population. It is in such conditions that the Gypsy way of life can be preserved. Russian Gypsies live on Gaiva, Yuzhny, Zapruda, Verkhnyaya Kurye and other districts of the city. There are only a few families of Crimean Roma in Perm. Moldovan Gypsies (Kelderars / Kotlyars) live in the Chapaevsky and Yanvarsky microdistricts.
From field observations
During our stay in the gypsy camp, we got to know almost all of its inhabitants. Most often, as usual, we turned to the old-timers. The real discovery of the expedition was Zambila Georgievna Kulai, one of the oldest gypsies in Perm. We met her during our second visit to the camp, and since then we have visited her at every visit. Zambila Georgievna was born in 1914 in Moldova, from where her parents' camp migrated to Russia in the 1920s. Today, many of Zambila Georgievna's stories about nomadic life, family legends can be called gypsy history.
Zambila Georgievna is one of the few residents of the camp who remember the nomadism in gypsy carts. She is an excellent connoisseur of gypsy folklore. It was from her that we managed to write down stories about how different peoples appeared on earth, why it snows and rains, how spots appeared on the moon and many, many others. Telling once an ancient legend about the appearance of spots on the moon, she took us outside. It was already deep evening, and there was a full moon in the sky. “Do you see spots on the moon? That's where the shepherd is with his sheep. Granny Zambila does not deceive. "
More than once we have heard from Zambila Georgievna and her children a family legend about parents. Her father, Georgy, starred in the film "The Last Camp" in the 1930s. Mother Maritsa played in the film "Tabor Goes to Heaven", in a small episode. Zambila Georgievna says that she watches these films with trepidation, looks at her parents, remembers and cries: “Did you see when the movie“ The Last Camp ”is on? An old man had a bear there. And this was my father with a bear. When this movie "The Last Camp" is on, I cry. I look at my father with the bear, and my tears are flowing. And the old woman, my mother, “Tabor goes to the sky” of the movie, she goes, wonders, says: “Hey, brilliant, let me tell fortunes”. I also cry when I see my mother. "
1. Tales and songs of the Gypsies of Russia. M., 1987.C.4.
2. Druts E., Gessler A. Gypsies. M., 1990.S. 11.
3. Fairy tales and songs of the Gypsies of Russia. M., 1987.S. 4.
4. Demeter N., Bessonov N. .. History of the Gypsies: A New Look. Voronezh, 2000, p. 11-12; F. Nemtsov Gypsies. Nature and people. SPb., 1892. No. 27. P. 427.
5. Demeter N., Bessonov N. .. History of the Gypsies: A New Look. Voronezh, 2000.S. 14.
6. Fairy tales and songs of the Gypsies of Russia. M., 1987.S. 5.
7. Ibid. C.5.
8. Druts E., Gessler A. Gypsies. M., 1990.S. 14.
9. Demeter N., Bessonov N. .. History of the Gypsies: A New Look. Voronezh, 2000.S. 12.
10. Ibid. P.13.
11. Ibid. P.79.
12. Ibid. P.17.
13. Druts E., Gessler A. Gypsies. M., 1990.S. 16.
14. Demeter N., Bessonov N. .. History of the Gypsies: A New Look. Voronezh, 2000, p. 17.
15. Druts E., Gessler A. Gypsies. M., 1990.S. 18.
16. Demeter N., Bessonov N. .. History of the Gypsies: A New Look. Voronezh, 2000.S. 43.
17. Ibid. S.44-48.
18. Ibid. P.52.
19. Druts E., Gessler A. Gypsies. M., 1990.S. 24.
20. Demeter N., Bessonov N. .. History of the Gypsies: A New Look. Voronezh, 2000.S. 106-109.
21. Demeter N.G. Gypsies // Peoples of Russia. M., 1994. S. 391; Demeter N., Bessonov N. .. History of the Gypsies: A New Look. Voronezh, 2000.S. 196-209.
22. Demeter N.G. Gypsies // Peoples of Russia. M., 1994.S. 391.
23. Chagin G.N., Chernykh A.V. The peoples of the Kama region: Essays on ethnocultural development in the nineteenth - twentieth centuries. P.36.
