You need to hear your language. "The literal and figurative meaning of words in the work of FD Krivin" In the land of things "
With ambiguity, one of the meanings of the word is direct, and all the rest - portable.
Direct meaning of the word- this is its main lexical meaning. It is directly aimed at the object (immediately evokes the idea of the object, phenomenon) and is least dependent on the context. Words, denoting objects, actions, signs, quantity, most often appear in
direct meaning.
Portable meaning of the word- this is its secondary meaning, which arose on the basis of the direct. For example:
Toy, -and, f. 1. Thing serving for the game. Kids toys.
2. transfer. One who blindly acts on someone else's will, an obedient instrument of someone else's will (disapproved). To be a toy in someone's hands.
The essence of polysemy lies in the fact that some name of an object, phenomenon is transferred, is also transferred to another object, another phenomenon, and then one word is used as the name of several objects, phenomena at the same time. There are three main types of figurative meaning, depending on what attribute is used to transfer the name: 1) metaphor; 2) metonymy; 3) synecdoche.
Metaphor(from the Greek metaphora - transfer) is a transfer of a name by similarity, for example: ripe apple -eyeball(by form); human nose- the bow of the ship(by location); chocolate bar- chocolate tan(by color); bird wing- airplane wing(by function); howled the dog- the wind howled(by the nature of the sound), etc. yes
Metonymy(the Greek metonymia - renaming) is the transfer of a name from one subject to another based on their contiguity *, for example: the water is boiling- perthe kettle is boiling; porcelain dish- tasty dish; native gold- Scythian gold etc. A kind of metonymy is synecdoche.
Synecdoche(from the Greek "synekdoche" - co-understanding) is the transfer of the name of the whole to its part and vice versa, for example: thick currant- ripe currants; beautiful mouth- extra mouth(about an extra person in the family); bighead- smart person etc.
In the process of development of figurative names, the word can be enriched with new meanings as a result of narrowing or expanding the basic meaning. Over time portable values can become straight.
It is possible to determine in what meaning a word is used only in context. Wed, for example, sentences: 1) Wesat on the corner bastion, so that both sides couldsee everything (M. Lermontov). 2) In Tarakanovka, as in the most remote bear's corner, there was no place for secrets (D. Mamin-Sibiryak)
* Adjacent - located directly next to, having about the border.
In the first sentence, the word injection used in the literal sense: "the place where two sides of something converge, intersect." And in stable combinations "in a blind corner", "bearish corner" the meaning of the word will be figurative: in a remote corner- in a remote area, honeycorner - a deaf place.
In explanatory dictionaries direct meaning of the word is given first, and portable values are numbered 2, 3, 4, 5. A value that was recently recorded as portable is marked "Transfer,", for example:
Wood, th, th. 1. Made of wood, 2. transfer Immobile, indistinct. Wooden facial expression. O Wood oil a cheap variety of olive oil.
Words, phrases, phrases and sentences - all this and much more is embedded in the concept of "language". How much is hidden in it, and how little we really know about the language! Every day and even every minute we spend with him - whether we speak our thoughts out loud or read or listen to the radio ... Language, our speech is a real art, and it should be beautiful. And his beauty must be genuine. What helps in the search for true beauty
The direct and figurative meaning of words is what enriches our language, develops it and transforms it. How does this happen? Let's take a look at this endless process when, as they say, words grow from words.
First of all, you need to understand, and the figurative meaning of the word, and what main types they are divided into. Each word can have one or a number of meanings. Words with one meaning are called unambiguous words. In Russian, there are much fewer of them than words with many different meanings. Examples include words like computer, ash, satin, sleeve. A word that can be used in several meanings, including in a figurative one, is a polysemantic word, examples: a house can be used in the meaning of a building, a place for people to live, a family's way of life, etc .; the sky is the airspace above the earth, as well as the location of the visible luminaries, or divine power, conduction.
In case of ambiguity, direct and figurative meanings of the word are distinguished. The first meaning of the word, its basis - this is the direct meaning of the word. By the way, the word "direct" in this context is figurative, that is, the main meaning of the word is "something even,
without bends "- is transferred to another object or phenomenon with the meaning" literal, unambiguously expressed. " So you don't have to go far - you just need to be more attentive and observant in what words we use, when and how.
From the above example, it already becomes clear that the figurative meaning is a secondary meaning of a word that arose when the literal meaning of a word was transferred to another object. Depending on what feature of the object served as a reason for transferring meaning, such types of figurative meaning as metonymy, metaphor, synecdoche differ.
Direct and can overlap with each other on the basis of similarity - this is a metaphor. For example:
icy water - icy hands (by feature);
poisonous mushroom - poisonous character (by attribute);
star in the sky - star in hand (by location);
Chocolate Candy - Chocolate tan (based on color).
Metonymy is the selection in a phenomenon or object of some property, which by its nature can replace the rest. For example:
gold jewelry - gold in her ears;
porcelain dishes - there was porcelain on the shelves;
headache - my head went away.
And, finally, synecdoche is a type of metonymy, when one word is replaced by another on the basis of a constant, really existing ratio of part to whole and vice versa. For example:
He is a real head (meaning very smart, the head is the part of the body that contains the brain).
The whole village took its side - every inhabitant, that is, the "village" as a whole, which replaces its part.
What can be said in conclusion? Only one thing: if you know the direct and figurative meaning of the word, you can not only use certain words correctly, but also enrich your speech, and learn to beautifully convey your thoughts and feelings, and maybe one day you will come up with your own metaphor or metonymy ... Who knows?
The direct and figurative meaning of words is what enriches our language, develops it and transforms it. Words grow from words. In Russian, there are significantly fewer unambiguous words than words with many different meanings. A figurative meaning is a secondary meaning of a word that arose when the literal meaning of a word was transferred to another object. Depending on what feature of the object served as a reason for transferring meaning, such types of figurative meaning as metonymy, metaphor, synecdoche differ. The direct and figurative meaning of the word can overlap with each other on the basis of similarity - this is a metaphor.
It is used to someone who behaves awkwardly, touches something, drops, breaks, destroys something. An elephant in a china shop, due to its size and the size of an average china shop, behaves extremely awkwardly.
I didn't even notice the elephant
Occurs in Krylov's fable Curious. A visitor to the Kunstkamera tells a friend about his impressions. The friend is interested in whether he has seen an elephant. But the curious did not see the elephant, despite its size. In a figurative sense, which interests us, the phrase is used when someone does not see something important.
Ay, Pug! Know she is strong, if she barks at an elephant.
Krylov's fable, from which this phrase flew to us, is called "The Elephant and the Pug." The little dog barks at the elephant. They ask her why she needs it, because the elephant doesn't care. To which Pug replies that this is for her in order to earn a reputation for being strong and courageous. The elephant here acts as something big and even scary, and indifferent to minor troubles. In a figurative sense, they say this about someone who is aiming at something that he cannot afford.
To make mountains out of molehills
Grossly exaggerate, turning an insignificant fact into a big event.
The elephant stepped on the ear
Lack of musical ability.
Knowing the direct and figurative meaning of a word means using certain words correctly, enriching your speech, beautifully conveying your thoughts and feelings.
You need to hear your language. Know the history of the word. Thank you - god forbid. Hello - I wish you health. The same English words that fill our language today do not have this second, spiritual, meaning. Farewell - I forgive you. Happiness is complicity. The wisest word explains how to be happy. Participate, help others, and you will live a happy life! The same English words that fill our language today do not have this second, spiritual meaning.
We know the meanings of many phraseological phrases and the origin of many words, some have been forgotten. Let's remember them and designate them.
In Ancient Russia, rolls were baked in the shape of a castle with a round bow.
The townspeople often bought rolls and ate them right on the street, holding this bow or handle. For reasons of hygiene, the pen itself was not consumed, but given to the beggars or thrown to be eaten by dogs. According to one of the versions, about those who did not disdain to eat it, they said: got to the handle. And today the expression "Reach the handle"- means to completely sink, to lose human form.
"In a hurry." Once upon a time ... probably in the 16th century, all people wore under their clothes a kind of panties ... with lace and ruffles ... up to the knees ... These panties were called puffs, people slept in them. One early morning in the royal palace there was a fire, everyone ran out in puffs with ruffles up to their knees. This is how the expression "in a hurry" appeared
"Break a leg!".The word arose among hunters and was based on the superstitious idea that with a direct desire (both down and feather) the results of the hunt can be "jinxed". A feather in the language of hunters means "bird", "down" means animals. In response, so as not to "jinx it", the now traditional sounded: "To hell!" In ancient times, a hunter who went fishing received this parting word, the literal "translation" of which looks something like this: "Let your arrows fly past the target, let the snares and traps you placed remain empty, just like the trapping pit!" To which the breadwinner usually answered in the same spirit: "To hell!"
One of the characteristic features of many phraseological phrases is figurative-figurative meaning. Most often this happens with expressions that were born in free phrases in a narrow circle of people, were used in the literal sense, and then acquired a figurative, figurative meaning and entered the common language already as phraseological units. So expression "Swallow the pill" at first it had only a direct meaning: the patient swallowed a bitter pill as needed, obediently. There are similar situations in life when you have to silently endure something unpleasant or even offensive, keep silent for the good of the case.
"Intimacy".
In Russia, it was always customary to go to the bathhouse, which Europe did not accept at all, and even now they are trying to get by with a shower. And so, when one of the English merchants visited Moscow, he kept a diary and constantly added entries to it. In one of the notebooks, dating from the 16th century, he describes a trip to a Moscow bathhouse, where he went accompanied by a group of boyars, boyarina Morozova and her hay girls. Entering the bathhouse, he exclaimed: "It's incredible, they are making that like in team!" Morozova grinned and said: "Who is intimate, and who is to wash," to which all those present laughed at the stupid bastards. But the word did not disappear and went for a walk in Moscow.
"Cut it in your nose." In this expression, the word "nose" has nothing to do with the organ of smell. In this context, the "nose" is a plaque or note tag. In the distant past, illiterate people always carried such tablets with them, and with them sticks, with the help of which all kinds of notes or notches were made for memory.
"Yellow press". An American artist once published a series of frivolous drawings with humorous text in a New York newspaper. Among the drawings, a child in a yellow shirt was depicted, to whom various funny sayings were attributed. Soon, another American newspaper began printing a series of similar drawings. A dispute arose between the two newspapers over the primacy of this "yellow boy". And one editor published an article in a magazine in which he contemptuously called both rival newspapers "yellow press." Since then, this expression has become winged. 
"Nonsense". At the end of the last century, French physician Gali Mathieu treated his patients with jokes. He gained such popularity that he did not keep up with all the visits and sent his healing puns by mail. This is how the word "rubbish" arose, which at that time meant - a healing joke, a pun. The doctor immortalized his name, but now this concept has a completely different meaning.
With the help of the study of phraseological units in the meaning of "human image", it is possible to create an idea of the world outlook of a Russian person in the surrounding reality, the richness of expressive linguistic means, the emotional and mental life of the people; identify areas in which efforts should be made to develop culture and language. Stable terms are introduced into the dictionaries, which have acquired a figurative meaning and have become used in the literary language: specific gravity (chemical), center of gravity (physical), take a barrier (sport), knock out of action (military), climax (aster .), put into expense (count.), put into orbit (cosmon.), issue to the mountain (min.), go into circulation (fin.), bring to white heat (tech.), reach the ceiling (aviation.) , command a parade (military), cover with varnish (painting), minor tone (music), gain altitude (aviation), sail under the flag (someone else's) (sea .-mor.), reduce to a single denominator (mat.), adopt (military.), etc.
"Mysiya was spreading along the tree"
In "The Lay of Igor's Campaign" you can find the lines: "Boyan the prophetic, if someone wanted to write a song, Mysiya spread along the tree, like a gray wolf on the ground, a gray eagle under the clouds." Translated from the Old Russian "cape" is a squirrel. And because of an incorrect translation in some editions of the Lay, a joking expression appeared “to spread the thought along the tree”, which means to go into unnecessary details, to be distracted from the main idea.
Kazan orphan
After the capture of Kazan, Ivan the Terrible, wishing to bind the local aristocracy to himself, awarded high-ranking Tatars who voluntarily came to him. Many of them, in order to receive rich gifts, pretended to be badly affected by the war. Hence the expression
Here's to you, father and St. George's Day
Peasants before the introduction of serfdom in Russia could pass from one master to another. They were hired to work in the spring, "for Egoria", and received the payment in the fall, in "Kuzminki". During transactions, the parties often indulged in all sorts of tricks, and sometimes even deception. From here came the words "Burn" and "podkuzmit".
Freebie used to be called the bootleg. The lower part of the boot - the head - wore out much faster than the bootleg of a freebie. Enterprising "cold shoemakers" sewed a new head to the bootleg. Such boots - sewn on "for free" - were much cheaper than new ones.
In a word "a week" earlier it was designated Sunday - a non-working day, when “they don’t do it”, and then the seven-day period began to be called. In all Slavic languages, except Russian, this name has survived to this day.
The most experienced and strongest barge haule, walking in the strap first, was called a bump. It turned into expression "big boss" to denote an important person.
Previously, Friday was a free day from work, and, as a result, a bazaar day.
On Friday, when they received the goods, they promised to give the money due for it on the next market day. Since then, to refer to people who do not keep promises, they say: "He has seven Fridays a week."
Expression "after the rain on Thursday" arose due to distrust of Perun, the Slavic god of thunder and lightning, whose day was Thursday. Prayers to him often did not reach the goal, so they began to say about the unrealizable that it would happen after the rain on Thursday.
During the rise of the Moscow principality, a large tribute was collected from other cities. The cities sent petitioners to Moscow with complaints of injustice. The king sometimes severely punished complainants in order to intimidate others. Hence, according to one of the versions, the expression occurred "Moscow does not believe in tears".
In the old days, it was believed that a person's soul is placed in a depression between the collarbones, a dimple in the neck. In the same place on the chest there was a custom to keep money. Therefore, the poor man is said to have "There is nothing behind the soul."
In the old days, chunks cut off from a log - blanks for wooden dishes - were called baklushi. Their manufacture was considered easy, requiring no effort and skill. We are now using the expression "Beat your thumbs up" to indicate idleness.
In the old days, village women, after washing, “rolled” the linen with a special rolling pin. Well-rolled laundry turned out to be wrung out, ironed and clean, even if the wash was not very good. Today, the expression is used to denote the achievement of a goal in any way "Do not wash, so by rolling."
In the old days, messengers who delivered mail sewed very important papers, or "cases" under the lining of a cap or hat, so as not to attract the attention of robbers. From here comes the expression "in the bag".
In the 13th century, the monetary and weight unit in Russia was the hryvnia, which was divided into 4 parts ("rubles"). The especially weighty remainder of the ingot was called the "long ruble". Associated with these words is the expression about big and easy earnings - "Chasing a long ruble."
They carry water on the angry
It is no coincidence that in Russian folklore the heart is usually called zealous, that is, quick to anger. According to Christian teachings, it is the heart that is the seat of anger, which is considered one of the seven deadly sins. Therefore, the meaning of the proverb "They carry water to the angry" is not a warning of impending retribution, but good advice or exhortation to reason, to behave in accordance with the norms of Christian morality, that is, to cool off on your own, rather than literally pour out, extinguish your anger, pouring yourself into a spilled water. The hypothesis is supported by a variant of the proverb. They carry water to the angry, but they freeze them on ice. Thus, the proverb They carry water to the angry in its literal interpretation exists as a historical fact in the Museum "The World of St. Petersburg Water". Unfriendly, angry water carriers were fined: they were charged with delivering water for free as punishment for their rudeness and incontinence.
The best works of fiction and journalistic literature owe much to phraseology, these "pearls, nuggets and gems of the native language."
The overwhelming majority of phraseological units - from the usual "carelessly" to a more complex structure like "to share the skin of an unkilled bear" - expresses certain thoughts figuratively, emotionally, while bearing the imprint of a unique national flavor. Knowledge of phraseology is a prerequisite for deep mastery of the native language. The ability to use phraseological wealth correctly characterizes the degree of mastery of speech. Phraseological turns and catchphrases are the most important means of expressiveness of speech. They enrich the language, make speech vivid, figurative, mark. For example, with only one word "hand" phraseological turns of more than fifty: hand in hand; a stone's throw; be close at hand; wear on hands; keep in hand; grabbed with both hands; skillful fingers; turn up under the arm, etc.
