Russian fortified cities of the 16th century. Fortress on the notch line The most protected fortress of the 18th century
Fortresses of the bastion type of the 16th-19th centuries
Part 1
Foreword
Without going especially into the mists of time and into details, we note that for a long time the fortresses represented 
a system of high stone or wooden walls supported by towers. Visual examples of such fortresses are, for example, the Moscow and Novgorod Kremlins. The castles of Medieval Europe were built according to similar schemes.
However, at first the appearance itself, and then the development of artillery, the development of methods and methods of warfare led to the fact that by about the second half XV centuries, such fortresses ceased to meet the tasks of defense and turned out to be too vulnerable. This led to the emergence of new systems of fortifications. So in 1527, the German engineer A. Dürer proposed the so-called. a system of rondels or bastilles, i.e. a special form of military structures connected by walls (curtains). Gradually bastia developed to the top XVI century in the bastions.
Here we will dwell on them in more detail. We only note that the development of artillery and the associated transition to bastion-type fortresses had a very significant impact on the domestic political situation in European countries. The old feudal castles and fortresses could no longer withstand the new means of armed struggle, and bastion-type fortresses were very expensive. Only very large feudal lords (kings) could afford to build fortresses that could withstand the attacks of warlike neighbors. The king now became not the eldest among equals as before, but the autocratic ruler of the country. This led to the loss of independence by small and medium-sized feudal lords (dukes, counts, barons). Previously high-profile titles 
who spoke of their independence, now became only evidence of their noble origin.
Of course, many medieval castles and fortresses were not necessarily rebuilt into bastion-type fortifications. They remained for a long time where, according to the conditions of the terrain, it was impossible to bring up artillery and carry out a gradual attack. For example, a castle on top of a mountain or on an island in a wetland.
Many castles have been preserved simply as the residence of one or another aristocratic family, while not having any significance as a defensive structure.
End of preface.
So.
A bastion-type fortress was a fairly large closed fortification structure, consisting of a certain number of bastions interconnected by curtains (walls). There are no high towers in such fortresses. In addition, the system included ditches and ravelins (triangular-shaped structures that covered curtains, which were the most vulnerable places in the fortress).
The figure on the left shows a fragment of a bastion-type fortress designed in 1599 by the Italian military engineer Francesco de Marchi. which can be considered typical. One way or another, but in all the fortresses of the bastion type, we find signs of the de Marchi project.
The figure shows:
1. Bastions.
2. Curtain.
3. Moat
4. Ravelin.
5. Covered path.
6. Glacis.
Here it is necessary to clarify that the glacis is an earthen embankment about 2 meters high and which has a steep slope from the side of the fortress and is very gentle towards the field. Glacis goes into the field at a distance of several to several tens of meters. The surface of the glacis is completely even and smooth. There is no place for enemy soldiers to hide here.
The sheltered path is the gap between the steep slope of the glacis and the edge of the ditch. Its width is about 5-15 meters. In a sheltered path are the arrows of the defenders, and sometimes small-caliber cannons. Hiding behind a steep slope of the glacis, the arrows are the first to open fire on the approaching enemy. Usually, if the enemy has reached the glacis and there is a risk that he will capture the glacis (as it was then called - "crowning the glacis"), then the arrows of the defenders on the covered path descend into the ditch and go inside the fortress. Usually through entrances specially arranged in curtains.
Ravelin is similar in structure to a bastion, but much simpler. It also contains 
arrows, but its main purpose is to prevent enemy artillery from destroying the curtain with its walls, since the curtain is perpendicular to the direction of attacking guns, and the walls of the ravelin are at an angle and can reflect the cannonballs.
If you draw a cut through the ravelin and the curtain, you get this picture (see the figure on the right):
1.Glacis.
2. Covered path.
3. Platform for a gun on a covered path.
4. and 6. Ditch.
5. Ravelin in section.
7. Curtain.
8. Bastion.
The main defensive structures of the fortresses of the bastion type were, of course, the bastions. There were quite a few bastion projects and it is impossible to describe them all in an article. Let's just focus on one or two types.
The structure of the bastion and the names of its elements are clearly visible from the figure on the left. At the point of convergence of the faces, the figure shows a guardhouse.
The guns mounted on the fronts and the musketeers placed on the fronts are designed to fire at the enemy advancing from the field. On the flanks there are musketeers and sometimes one or two cannons for firing along the curtains in order to destroy the enemy who has descended into the ditch, as well as to protect the neighboring bastion.
It should be noted that muskets were the main fire weapon of the bastions. It was believed that at ranges up to 200 meters, musket fire was more effective than cannon fire. The fact is that the cannons could only fire cannonballs from the bastion, since the musketeers were also located ahead in a covered path. The fire of cannons with grapeshot would also hit their own shooters in a covered path. And the striking capabilities of a cannonball are little more than a musket bullet. I mean shooting at enemy infantry in the field.
As mentioned above, the designs of the bastions were quite different.
There was a construction of a bastion that did not have a gorge. He leaned on the curtain immediately with his flanks, which were not perpendicular to their faces, but adjoined them at some obtuse angle.
The figure on the right shows a bastion of this type. The arrows show the direction of firing from the neighboring bastion. It is clearly seen that the neighboring bastion keeps the entire ditch under fire up to the beginning of the left front of the bastion. Thus, adjacent bastions cover the faces of their neighbors and the curtain wall between them.
From the author. I would like to note that the predecessors of the bastions, which were called rondels or bastions, had a semicircular shape and, in fact, were the same medieval towers, only, as it were, recessed into the wall and of a lower height (equal or almost equal to the height of the wall). Their main drawback was that each gun could fire only in its own sector. Those. it was impossible to concentrate the fire of several guns on one target.
Of course, in each specific case, the design of the fortress could differ from, let's say, the "standard". This area, the structures previously created here, the tasks assigned to the fortress and a number of other factors were taken into account. In Europe, it is impossible to find even two completely identical fortresses.
Note that small fortresses were called forts or citadels.
Let us give an example of such a small fortress. This is Fort Puymaure near the town of Gap in southern France, built by the engineers Ercole Negro and Jean Sarrazine in 1580.
Here we see an ordinary bastion (1) connected by a curtain (2) to a bastion (3). The curtain has an entrance gate covered with ravelin (4).
Bastion (3) has only two faces and and only one right flank. Left face it adjoins the bastion (5).
The bastion (1) with its right face through the curtain (7) adjoins the semi-bastion (6), which, with its elongated right flank (which gives reason to call it not a bastion, but a semi-bastion) connects to the semi-bastion (8).
The bastion (5) is connected to the semi-bastion (8) by a long, broken curtain wall (4), since this side of the fort is closely adjacent to the mountains and it is not necessary to expect an attack in this direction.
In the courtyard of the fort there are barracks, officers' houses, storehouses for gunpowder, nuclei, food and other property.
Of course, the fort is surrounded by a moat and has a covered path (9).
From the author. On the question of dry ditches, and ditches filled with water. It seems to many lovers of the history of fortification that a moat with water is an indispensable element of a fortress, that, they say, water is a reliable obstacle. Yes, there are many fortresses with "wet" moats. However, this is always dictated by the conditions of the area. For example, in Holland, where the groundwater level is very high, the terrain is flat and very poor in high places, and part of the territory generally lies below sea level, fortresses, as a rule, have moats with water,
But in most cases, European fortresses were located on dominant heights, into the ditches of which water would have to be pumped, which is impractical, and for the most part impossible. And if we take into account that the attackers never broke into the fortress, descending into the moat, and from there climbing the shaft along the stairs (as they like to show in battle films), since this is simply suicidal, then water in general turns out to be a completely unnecessary element.
In addition, stagnant water in the ditches was considered a harmful circumstance, since it undermined the earthen ramparts, seeped into underground structures, created conditions unfavorable for the health of the garrison (raw, unhealthy air, mosquitoes and other insects. Therefore, during the construction of fortresses, drainage was usually provided in the ditches to drain rain and ground water.
There were quite a lot of bastion designs, and each design had certain advantages and disadvantages. Over time, the design of the bastions improved and improved.
The founders of the bastion fortress system are Italian engineers who proposed this system in the second half of the 15th century. By the end of the 16th century, the Italian school began to lose its influence. In other European countries, engineers appeared who, taking the Italian system as a basis, began to offer their projects, which were more in line with changing ideas about defense and offensive and 
national mentality.
The father of the bastion fortification of France is considered Jean Errard(1554-1610), who developed one of the first types of French bastions and wrote a long treatise on bastion fortifications.
In the figure on the right: the Errada bastion arr. 1594. The bastion is characterized by the fact that the faces are located at an angle of 90 degrees to each other, and the flanks are strongly wrapped inward. The bastion provided quite satisfactory placement of shooters for concentrated shooting in the field, but the flanks bent inward provided only shelling of the ditch along the curtain and only partially the front of the neighboring bastion. In fact, enemy soldiers who managed to get into the ditch were almost completely safe. They could only be destroyed with the help of hand grenades (small explosive cores thrown from the walls by hand). The main disadvantage was that 
the bastion had a dead zone along the outgoing corner, and the neighboring bastions could not cover this zone with their fire.
The diagram on the left shows the dead zones in blue.
From the author. However, for the end of the 16th century, this shortcoming was not particularly critical, since the methods of gradual attack had not yet been developed and the attackers stormed the fortress across an open field, having previously made one or more gaps in the fortress walls.
Errard in his system emphasized musket fire rather than artillery. Obviously, based on the fact that during this period guns were in short supply and there could not be many of them in the fortress. Based on this, the length of the curtain should not exceed 240 meters (the maximum range of a musket shot). He also proposed to protect the curtains with ravelins and to have a covered path and a glacis in front of the moat.
The Errada bastion system has been improved Antoine De Ville(Antoine De Ville) (1596-1656) during the reign of King Louis XIII. In 1628, he wrote a great work on his system of bastion fortification, which became the basis for the construction of bastion fortifications in XVII century.
First of all, his system strictly correlated the size and geometry of fortifications with the destructive capabilities of firearms and cannons of that time.
Pictured left: a typical fort of the de Ville system.
The faces of the bastion do not converge at a straight line, but rather at an obtuse angle and end with curves called orillons (5). The flanks (6) adjoin the faces almost at a right angle. In addition, they became two-story, which provides a two-tier flanking fire. At the same time, the orillons (5) cover the flanks (6) from enemy fire. Glacis (1) has become a mandatory element of the system. Gun platforms (12) appeared on the sheltered path (2). The counterscarp wall must be dressed with stone and stone steps (8) are equipped from it for the descent of archers going inside the fortress. The ditch (3) received a ditch (drainage ditch) (11) to drain rainwater from the ditch. (3) .
The numbers 9 indicate the ramps leading from the bastion to the courtyard of the koepost (10), the number 7 is one of the curtains. The curtains themselves are earthen, but the front wall is clad in stone.
In general, the de Ville bastion system is shown in the diagram on the right:
Ravelins (fortifications are somewhat similar to bastions, but are much smaller and are not enclosed by walls) are now an indispensable element of the bastion front. Their main task is to cover curtains. In addition, being brought forward, they make it difficult for attackers to approach the bastions.
The red arrows show the directors of fire. It is quite obvious that such a system of bastion flanks provides not only flanking fire along the curtain, but also covering the fronts of the bastions with fire. From the bastions, the ditch in front of the ravelin is shot through.
Another outstanding military engineer was Blaise Francis de Pagan(Blaise François de Pagan) (1604-1665). He proposed a deep ditch that gave the ramparts a height of approximately 8 meters to counter enemy use of ladders. Other important proposals of Pagan were external fortifications: a counterguard and a reduit-type ravelin (a kind of fortification). Outer fortifications could also be connected to form a complete and unbroken line of fortification.
However, his projects and proposals were hardly used anywhere in practice. Therefore, we will not dwell on its bastion system in detail. We only note that de Pagan suggested pouring cavaliers (elevated platforms) inside the bastions and ravelins, which actually made the bastions two-story, in front of the bastions to arrange something like deployed ravelins, called counterguards.
Of course, these proposals significantly increased the defensive capabilities of the fortresses, but more than doubled their cost and required significantly larger garrisons. this is obviously why Pagan's proposals were not implemented anywhere.
In general, the most famous military engineer of France, who had the greatest influence on the construction of the fortresses of the bastion system, was Sebastian Le Prestre de Vauban(Sebastien Le Prestre de Vauban) (1643-1707). His influence spread literally to all fortification in Europe during the XVII-XVIII and until the beginning of the XIX century. century, although it is not necessary to consider him the author of the bastion system. He only brought to perfection the bastion systems that previously existed before him.
On the whole, the designs of the bastion fortresses reach the limit of their perfection approximately in the second half of the 17th century.
Traditionally, military engineers see in the serf work of Vauban three so-called. "systems" of fortifications, although in reality Vauban never developed or theorized them. He simply every time approached the construction of a new fortress or the restructuring of an existing one creatively, based on the conditions of the terrain, the proposed tasks of defense and the combat capabilities of a potential enemy. These three Vauban systems are seen by followers due to the fact that each time Vauban used the most appropriate set of elements of fortifications for a particular fortress.
Simply put, he used the systems of bastion fortifications and their elements created by his predecessors, combining several systems at the same time in one fortress in order to obtain the most suitable results.
So, let's consider the elements of the bastion fortress, which his followers refer to the so-called. "the first system of the bastion front of de Vauban. Such bastion fronts can be found in several fortresses built by Vauban.
Vauban's first system
This first Vauban system is a synthesis of de Ville and de Pagan systems. Consider a fragment of the fortress built by Vauban, and attributed by his followers to the "first system of Vauban".
Here we see that the right bastion (highlighted in red) has a cavalier (a platform inside the bastion, making it two-story). This is clearly a bastion of de Pagan's style.
The left bastion (highlighted in green) bears the hallmarks of the de Ville system.
The curtain, which has an entrance gate, is covered with a tenal, or as it was also called a counterguard and additionally a ravelin.
The sheltered path has platforms for placing cannons in the kinks, which was also invented before Vauban.
What exactly is Wauban here? First of all, the enlarged ravelin. Now it is a more powerful defensive structure, better protecting the curtain wall than the ravelins of previous systems. The faces and flanks of the ravelin are better covered by the fire of the bastions. the rear of the ravelin is protected by tenali fire. The tenal itself is covered by fire from the flanks of the bastions. The sheltered path is divided into segments by means of traverses (short perpendicular earthen ramparts). This protects the shooters on the covered path from enfilade (longitudinal) enemy fire.
According to this or approximately this scheme, de Vauban built the citadels of Lille, Bayonne, the fortresses of the cities of Saint-Martin-de-Rue, Bleu, Mondus, Mont-Louis. Elements of this scheme are still visible in a number of fortresses.
From the author. Once again I want to emphasize that it is impossible to find two completely identical fortresses built according to a standard project, as entire cities are being built today. The builders each time had to adapt to the terrain, the availability of building materials, the protection of the fortress by natural obstacles (river, swamp, mountains, forest), the size of a possible garrison, artillery, and use previously erected fortifications.
Signs and characteristic elements of this or that scheme, system can only be guessed.
And for all the advantages of this scheme, it suffered from a common drawback inherent in all previous systems. It consisted in the fact that the fortress fence (bastions with curtains) was likened to a dam protecting the city from flooding. It was enough for the enemy to take one bastion, as the adjacent bastions lost their protection from the flanks, fell under the fire of the enemy, leading from the captured bastion, and soon also turned out to be captured.
Vauban, in general, knew this organic flaw inherent in the old systems, and when storming enemy fortresses, he usually led a gradual attack on one or two bastions, and only simulated an attack on the rest, misleading the enemy about the direction of the main attack. Thus, he created an advantage in numbers personnel and artillery in the right place at the right time, and quickly succeeded.
From the author. This is Suvorov's "Fight not by numbers, but by skill." Unfortunately, this postulate of the great commander is misunderstood by many. They think that victory can be achieved through the excellent training of soldiers, when "one fighter is worth ten", and the commanders are all great tacticians and bravely go into battle ahead of their "eagles" against outnumbered enemies and dashingly smash them using their courage and excellent fighting qualities.
Alas, the cadre army, consisting of officers of pre-war training and soldiers who have completed a full three-year training, melts in the first months in any war. in both armies. Then you have to fight with those who managed to scrape together in the rear and who went through a compressed training course. Maximum 9 months. Well, gunners a little longer.
By the way, why does no one think - why the Luftwaffe, staffed in 1941 entirely by aces, who shot down five to ten Soviet aircraft in one sortie (according to the writings of the same Zefirov, Kurovsky) quickly lost air supremacy by the winter of 1941-42, and by in an air battle over the Kuban, did Soviet pilots fight them on an equal footing? And then did Goering's pilots become "whipping boys" and endure one defeat after another? Why was the Luftwaffe unable to organize fighter cover for the air bridge to Stalingrad?
Yes, simply because the real aces (professional pilots) were killed in the first months, and then the level of training of both pilots became equal, and everything began to be decided by the advantage in the number of aircraft in the air. At the same time, the Soviet industry produced as many machines as needed, and the German industry as much as it could.
Vauban's second system.
In this scheme, Vauban divided the defenses into two echelons. The first or advanced echelon, called the enceinte de combat (battle line), was, in addition to the usual glacis and a sheltered path, bastions that were not interconnected by curtains. The first echelon is highlighted in blue in the figure. Between the bastions there are tenals, in front of which there are ravelins.
The gaps between bastions and tenals are very narrow. The red arrows show the directors of fire to cover the faces of the bastions.
The second echelon, called the enceinte de sureté (security line) highlighted in lilac in the figure, was a continuous curtain with strong stone caponiers located behind the bastions. The curtain and caponiers are higher than the structures of the first echelon, which makes it possible to keep these structures under fire, if they 
captured by the enemy.
Thus, the capture by the enemy of any bastion, or even two or three, did not mean the fall of the entire line of defense. The enemy still had to storm the curtain wall.
Protected artillery was located in the caponiers, which made it possible to fire at both the structures lying in front and to fire along the curtain. The directrixes of caponier fire are shown by blue arrows.
In the figure on the right: section of the caponier. The cannon casemate with an embrasure and smoke exhausts are clearly visible. 
canals, as well as a corridor.
In the figure on the left: a general view of the caponier.
From the author. It seems that after a careful reading of this article, readers who have the opportunity to visit Europe and inspect the old fortresses will do this with much more interest, because they will understand what kind of structures they are and what they served for, and not wander senselessly in ditches , climb the bastions, thinking about wasted time. Indeed, from the level of human growth it is difficult to understand something, and it is usually impossible to rise above the fortress.
With all its merits, this second Vauban scheme had a very high cost and did not find wide application. Researchers attribute only the fortresses of Oleron, Besancon, Landau and Belfort to this system.
Vauban's third system.
Actually, the third system was only an improved and enhanced second system.
The curtain wall received a stepped outline (highlighted in red), which improved the conditions for shelling the second (rear) moat, and the ravelin in front of the tenal received a small redoubt behind it. This made it difficult for the enemy to act if they managed to capture the ravelin.
The only fortress created according to the third, incredibly expensive Vauban system was the Neuf-Brizach fortress, built in 1698.
From the author. The author of these lines, together with his co-author Yury Martynenko, had a chance to visit this amazingly beautiful town in June 2016. From the fortress, a fence with bastions and curtain walls has been completely preserved. Inside, the fortress auxiliary buildings (guardrooms, gunpowder and food stores, etc. have long been replaced by residential ones. The entire fortress is a little more than 1 kilometer in diameter.
A number of researchers do not consider this the third Vauban system at all, since the only and very small fortress was built in this way. Not even a fortress, but a large fort.
Vauban himself never theorized his projects and did not divide them according to schemes. He simply adapted the geometry of the fortifications to the specifics of a given area and a given fortress. Therefore, it is difficult and even impossible to distribute all 33 newly built fortresses and more than 300 rebuilt ones according to the above schemes.
In the author's photo (June 2016): on the left is what is circled in blue in the figure above. We see a curtain, its break with an embrasure for shelling the moat, and in the distance a bastion. Part of the ravelin is visible on the right. This is the fortress of Neuf-Brizah in France
December 2016
Sources and literature
1.J.-D. G. G. Lepage Vauban and the French Military Under Louis XIV. Publishers North Carolina 2009.
2. P. Griffith, P. Dennis. The Vauban Fortifications of France. Osprey Publishing. New-York. 2006.
3.
V.V. Yakovlev. Fortress history. AST. Polygon. St. Petersburg. Moscow. 2000
4. I. Remezov. A book on the attack and defense of fortresses, published through M. de Vauban. Saint Petersburg 1744
5. Personal photo archive of Yu.G. Veremeev.
6. Personal photo archive of Martynenko Yu.I.
The center of any ancient Russian city was a small fortress, at different times called detinets, krom and, finally, the kremlin. Usually it was erected on a hill - on a hill or a steep bank of a river. The prince lived in the Kremlin with his retinue, as well as representatives of the higher clergy and city administration. A settlement grew around, inhabited by artisans and merchants, also surrounded by an external fortress wall. Traces of this ancient urban landscape in some places have survived to this day. We made a trip to some of the most iconic places.
Kolomna was founded in the middle of the XII century. At first, the city fortifications were wooden. The stone Kremlin was built in the second quarter of the 16th century by order of Vasily III to protect the southern borders of the Moscow principality. It is believed that it was designed by the Italian architect Aleviz Fryazin, and the Moscow Kremlin itself was taken as a model. Gradually, the borders of Muscovy expanded, the Kremlin lost its military significance. In the XVIII-XIX centuries it was gradually destroyed and repeatedly rebuilt. Fragments of the fortress wall of the 16th-17th centuries with towers and gates have survived to this day. On the cathedral square of the Kremlin there is the Assumption Cathedral, the Tikhvin Cathedral and the hipped bell tower. In the Novo-Golutvin Holy Trinity Monastery, adjacent to the square, Catherine II stopped. It is believed that it was here that she first tasted the local delicacy - Kolomna marshmallow. Dmitry Donskoy got married in a small Resurrection Church. Today, most of the Kremlin is occupied by private residential areas of the XIX-XX centuries.
The first fortifications on the territory of Kazan appeared in the 10th century. The modern appearance of the Kremlin was formed after the conquest of the city by Ivan the Terrible. The white-stone fortifications and buildings mainly date from the second half of the 16th-17th centuries. However, construction continued until the end of the twentieth century. The Kremlin includes a complex of defensive structures, the Annunciation Cathedral, the Transfiguration Monastery, the governor's (khan's) palace with the palace church and the Syuyumbike tower, government offices, a cannon yard, a cadet school and the Kul-Sharif mosque.
The city was founded in 1221 on a high bank at the confluence of the Oka and the Volga. The stone Kremlin was erected at the beginning of the 16th century. The fortress, unique in military and technical terms, withstood many sieges, and was never captured by the enemy. The mighty wall connecting thirteen towers has been perfectly preserved to this day. Today, thematic museum expositions are organized in separate towers. Also on the territory of the Kremlin are the Cathedral of the Archangel Michael with the ashes of Kozma Minin, the palace of the military governor, the house of the vice-governor, the cadet corps, the buildings of the garrison barracks and military memorials.
Pskov, first mentioned in 902, is rightfully considered one of the oldest Russian cities. After joining the Moscow principality, it was the most important defensive center on the northwestern borders. The first stone fortifications appeared in the middle of the 13th century. In the XV-XVI centuries they were reinforced with towers. As a result, the Pskov fortress became one of the best Russian fortresses. It consisted of several defensive rings. Three have survived to this day. Actually Krom was erected at the mouth of the Pskov and Velikaya rivers. On the territory of the Kremlin is the Trinity Cathedral with a majestic bell tower.
The city arose, presumably, in the second half of the 13th century as the winter headquarters of the Mongol khans. The stone Kremlin was erected in the last quarter of the 16th century, after the conquest of Astrakhan by the troops of Ivan the Terrible. Fragments of fortress walls and towers have survived to this day. Also, the historical and architectural ensemble of the Kremlin includes the majestic Assumption Cathedral, the complex of buildings of the Trinity Monastery, the house of the senior cathedral clergy, the Prechistenskaya bell tower, an artillery yard with a torture tower, officers' rooms.
The foundation of Pereyaslavl Ryazansky (the city has been called Ryazan since 1778) is attributed to the end of the 11th century. Three centuries later, the city became the capital of the Ryazan principality. Until the beginning of the 16th century, the princely court was located on the territory of the Kremlin, then the residence of the bishop. However, until the 18th century, the Kremlin continued to function as a fortress that protected the southern borders of Russia from the raids of the Crimean Tatars. The Kremlin ensemble in its present form was formed during the XV-XVIII centuries. Among the architectural monuments are the Assumption Cathedral with a multi-tiered bell tower, the Archangel, Spaso-Preobrazhensky and Nativity Cathedrals, the cozy Church of the Holy Spirit, Oleg's Palace (the largest civil building of the Kremlin) with a carved facade and a white stone porch, the Singing Building, the walls and towers of the Spassky Monastery and various outbuildings.
Rostov was founded in 862. In pre-Mongol Russia, this city was considered as significant as Novgorod or Kyiv. No wonder he was called the Great. Here was the residence of the archbishop, and then the metropolitan. Actually, what is today called the Kremlin is a complex of buildings that includes the Metropolitan's Palace, the Assumption Cathedral and the famous Rostov belfry. In the 17th century, the buildings were surrounded by a stone fortress wall with loopholes, wide windows and rich decoration.
Tobolsk was founded in 1587. The only stone Kremlin in Siberia is located here. It differs from other structures of this kind in that it was built in an already existing city and was intended not for defense, but to house the administration. The fortress wall began to be erected only at the end of the 17th century, but at the end of the 18th century it was already partially dismantled. However, towers with fragments of fortifications have survived to this day. The modern appearance of the Kremlin was formed mainly in the XVIII-XIX centuries. Sophia-Uspensky and Intercession Cathedrals, the governor's palace, Gostiny Dvor, the Order Chamber, the prison castle and the provincial printing house are located on its territory.
Uglich on the right bank of the Volga was first mentioned in 1148. Since the 14th century, it has been part of the Moscow principality. The ensemble of the Uglich Kremlin was formed during the XV-XIX centuries. It includes the chambers of specific princes (a unique monument of civil architecture of the 15th century), the Church of Tsarevich Dmitry on Blood, the majestic Transfiguration Cathedral with a multi-tiered bell tower, the mayor's house and the Epiphany Winter Cathedral. A fragment of the moat has been preserved from the defensive fortifications.
Veliky Novgorod is one of the oldest cities in our country, the center of the birth of Russian statehood. The official date of foundation is 859. The first mention of the Novgorod Kremlin dates back to 1044. Fragments of the fortress walls of the citadel of the 13th century and nine towers built in the 15th century have survived to this day. On the territory of the Kremlin there is the Cathedral of Hagia Sophia - one of the oldest in Russia, the belfry, the Faceted Chamber, the Church of Andrei Stratilat, the Likhudov Corps and other buildings of the 11th-19th centuries. There is also a monument to the Millennium of Russia.
The Volok settlement on Lam was first mentioned in 1135. Thus, Volokolamsk claims to be the oldest city in the Moscow region. Detinets arose on a high hill in the 12th century. A century later, the city was completely burned down several times. Later rebuilt. The Kremlin was wooden and only partially built in stone. The remains of the ramparts and ditches of the XIV-XVI centuries have survived to this day. On the territory of the Kremlin today are the Resurrection and St. Nicholas Cathedrals and a five-tiered bell tower.
The city of Gdov was first mentioned in chronicles dating back to 1322. The stone Kremlin was erected in the second half of the 14th-15th centuries. It occupied an exceptionally important fortification position on the shores of Lake Peipus and covered the approaches to Pskov from the north. Fragments of the fortress walls (on the southern and eastern sides) and earthen hills on the site of the destroyed towers have survived to this day. The Kremlin also houses the Dmitrievsky Cathedral.
The exact date of foundation of Vologda is unknown. The first mention refers to 1147. The construction of the stone Kremlin began in the second half of the 16th century under Ivan the Terrible. However, the fortifications were only partially erected. Later stone fragments were supplemented with wooden fortifications. By the first quarter of the 19th century, the fortress had completely fallen into disrepair and was destroyed. Of the ancient walls, only the southwestern tower and the remains of the ramparts have survived. Today, the name "Kremlin" is assigned to the Bishop's Palace, surrounded by a mighty wall. The Kremlin ensemble includes St. Sophia and Resurrection Cathedrals, government cells, various buildings and chambers.
The first mention of Tula dates back to 1146. It is believed that the settlement (probably in the form of a prison) was originally of a military nature, intended for the garrison of the Ryazan prince, and later was of great strategic importance for the defense of the southern borders of the young Muscovite state. The Tula Kremlin has never submitted to the enemy. Stone fortifications were erected in the first decades of the 16th century by order of Vasily III. Then, over the course of two centuries, they were completed and rebuilt. Today, the historical and architectural complex combines buildings of the 16th-20th centuries and includes powerful fortress walls connecting nine towers, the Holy Assumption and Epiphany Cathedrals, shopping arcades and the building of the first city power plant. The towers house thematic museum expositions.
The first buildings in the bend of the Kamenka River appeared in the 10th century. A full-fledged wooden fortress with earthen ramparts arose about a century later. In fact, the Suzdal Kremlin remained so until the beginning of the 18th century, when a strong fire destroyed all the wooden buildings. The shafts are still preserved. In addition to them, the Kremlin complex includes the Nativity Cathedral of the XIII-XVI centuries and the Bishops' Chambers of the XV-XVIII centuries. In the western part of the Kremlin today there is also a wooden St. Nicholas Church built in 1766. It was transported in 1960 from the village of Glotova, and installed on the site of the lost Church of All Saints.
An urban settlement on the Osetr River arose in the 11th century. The stone Kremlin, as in other southern Russian cities, was founded in the reign of Vasily III. In subsequent years, he was repeatedly raided by the Crimean Tatars, but successfully defended himself. When the boundaries of the Moscow principality expanded, the fortress lost its military significance. The Zaraisk Kremlin is almost completely preserved. A powerful wall connects eight towers. Inside are St. Nicholas and St. John the Baptist Cathedrals, as well as various buildings of the XVI-XX centuries.
The settlement of Porkhov at the confluence of Shelon and Dubenka was founded by the will of Alexander Nevsky in 1239 as part of the defensive system of the Novgorod land. The stone fortress in the form of a pentagon dates back to the end of the 14th century. It retained its military significance until 1764. The walls (currently restored) and three towers have survived to this day. Inside the Kremlin is St. Nicholas Church built in 1412.
The Alexander Kremlin (Aleksandrovskaya Sloboda) is the oldest suburban residence of the Moscow sovereigns. The stone fortress with a luxurious palace and cathedral was erected at the beginning of the 16th century and immediately became the place of regular stay of the sovereign's court. Under Ivan the Terrible in 1564-1581, the capital of Russia was actually located here. The historical and architectural ensemble of the Alexander Kremlin today includes the Trinity Cathedral, Crucifixion, Sretenskaya, Pokrovskaya and Assumption churches, hospital and private buildings.
Post selection
Let's see what we have in line in . Here is a thread from darkwinq : " Castles and fortresses of Russia. (in the northern part, St. Petersburg and the surrounding area) there are a lot of them ... "
Agree, a very extensive topic, only in the Kaliningrad region there are a lot of castles and fortresses, such non-specific topics for the order table are not quite convenient. LJ post frames are physically limited to a rather small volume. There are many forts near St. Petersburg, some of which I described under the FORTS tag. It is not entirely clear whether the author intended to mention them or not. What format should I choose to submit this material? We will consider something interesting, perhaps not even limited to the northern part of Russia. If I miss something worthy of attention, you will add me. And if something in this short story interests you, indicate it in the next order table and we will consider it in more detail.
So let's start:
Pskov Kremlin
The Pskov fortress was the best in Russia in the 16th century. The territory of 215 hectares was protected by 4 belts of stone fortifications with a length of 9 km. The power of the fortress walls was strengthened by 40 towers. Communications were provided by 14 gates, wall, tower and underground passages. An overview of the area from the north was given by the Naugolnaya Varlaam tower, from the south - by Pokrovskaya. The water gates were controlled from the High and Flat towers at the Lower lattices, from the Kosmodemyanskaya and Nikolskaya towers at the Upper lattices. The attacks were stopped by artillery fire. Undermining was determined by special wells - rumors.
The Pskov fortress consisted of five rings of fortress walls. The first wall, which included Pershi (Persy), protected the Trinity Cathedral and Veche Square of Pskov. Otherwise, this ring is called Krom or Detinets. To date, the name Krom includes the territory that was closed by the second fortress wall - Dovmontov (named after Prince Dovmont). The third fortress wall was erected by the Pskovites in 1309 and was named after the posadnik Boris. Almost nothing has survived from this wall; it ran along the line of modern Profsoyuznaya Street and rounded off to Krom at the Church of Peter and Paul from Buy. The townspeople themselves gradually began to disassemble the wall of the posadnik Boris already in 1375, when they built the fourth wall of the Roundabout City. The last fifth wall closed the so-called Field (Polonishche) and part of the Pskov River inside the fortress, which made the city almost impregnable. The Pskovites, who shut themselves up in the fortress, were not threatened by either thirst, or hunger, or epidemics - the Pskov River provided the townspeople with fresh water and fish.
After Moscow and Novgorod in the 16th century, Pskov was the third city in Russia. There were 40 parish churches and 40 monasteries in it and in the district. There was a settlement outside the fortress. About 30 thousand people lived in the city and in the suburbs. There were 40 trading rows at the Big Market of the Round City. In addition, there were fish rows at the mouth of the Pskov - in Rybniki and meat rows in the northern and southern parts of the city - in Zapskovye and Polonishche. There were 1,700 outlets in total, including 190 bakeries. The main means of protection for the city were the fortress walls, initially made of wood and earth, built on ramparts, later replaced by stone ones.
The walls and towers were built of limestone using lime mortar. The secret was that the lime itself was extinguished for many years in special pits, and a small amount of sand was added to the finished solution. In modern construction, the binder solution is cement, which appeared in the 19th century. Often two parallel walls were built, and the space between them was filled with construction debris, and in the section the wall turned out to be three-layered. This method was called "backfilling".
In addition, the walls were plastered, in today's language, plastered. The coating technique was called "under the mitten". This was necessary, first of all, for the greater strength of the walls, which did not collapse so quickly in the humid and windy Pskov climate. Thanks to the light limestone mortar with which the walls were plastered, the city looked solemn and elegant.
Old Ladoga fortress
STAROLADOGSKAYA FORTRESS (the village of Staraya Ladoga, on the banks of the Volkhov River at the confluence of the Ladoga River). She covered the Novgorod lands from attacks from the north, from Sweden. According to chronicle data, the first trees. fortifications appeared in 862 under Prince. Rurik. The first cam. castle of the prince Oleg refers to approximately 900. The remains of the walls and the rectangular watchtower are made of limestone slabs without mortar. Destroyed, presumably, during the attack of the Vikings in 997. The second cam. the fortress (1114) was founded by the Ladoga posadnik Pavel under the prince. Mstislav Vladimirovich. Save base of south walls on the crest of the rampart and east. a wall along the bank of the Volkhov (under the butt of the 15th century) with a combat platform and a trading hatch for lifting cargo. In the courtyard of the fortress is c. George the Victorious Great Martyr (XII century). In the pre-fire period, the fortress remained impregnable for the attacks of the Emi, Swedes and Germans. In 1445, under the Novgorod archbishop.
Euphemia carried out its reconstruction. The third cam. the fortress was rebuilt under Ivan III in the 1490s, possibly under the hands of. foreign fortifiers. In two years, approx. 20 thousand cubic meters m stone. The walls and towers are made of kr. boulders on lime mortar and lined with masonry of hewn limestone slabs. From the south side, the builders left the rampart with a wall of the 12th century. and ditch. The thickness of the walls at the sole is 7 m, the height is 7.2-12 m. The walls have rhythmically placed loopholes of the sole fight with cannon chambers. Five three-tier towers (height 16-19 m, width base 16-24.5 m) are placed along the defense perimeter. The tiers had a system of loopholes for conducting fan (frontal and flanking) shelling of the area.
The entrances to the towers were in the second tiers, coinciding with the surface of the courtyard. The platforms of the fighting passages of the walls were connected through the third tiers of the towers. The entrance through the first tier of the rectangular Gate Tower was L-shaped in plan; In the first tier of the semicircular Secret Tower (not preserved) there was a well. Klimentovskaya, Strelochnaya and Raskatnaya towers were round in plan.
There were up to 70 cannon and 45 rifle embrasures in the walls and towers, however, according to the inventories of the 17th century. the armament of Ladoga consisted of only 9 guns, squeaked and "mattresses" that fired shot. In the XVI century. the fortress escaped attacks, but during the Time of Troubles it was captured by a detachment of Swedes. mercenaries. After the Swede During the occupations of 1610-11 and 1612-17, dilapidated sections of masonry during repairs were replaced with taras (chopped wooden structures filled with earth). In the XVIII century. lost military. meaning. The fortress was explored in 1884-85 N.E. Brandenburg, in 1893 V.V. Suslov, in 1938, 1949, 1958 expedition of V.I. Ravdonikas (S.N. Orlov, G.F. Korzukhina), in 1972-75 A.N. Kirpichnikov, in 1979-83 N.K. Stetsenko. In the 1970s, restorations were carried out. work under the direction of A.E. Ekka. Since 1971, the Staraya Ladoga Historical, Architectural and Archaeological Museum-Reserve has been operating.
Fortress "Oreshek"
If you don't remember, we've already discussed The Nut in great detail. Remember...
Fortress Koporye
The Koporye fortress is located on the northwestern tip of the Izhora plateau, 13 kilometers from the Gulf of Finland. This place dominates the coastal lowland, and in good weather it can be seen from the Gulf of Finland. This claim is, in fact, difficult to verify. Every time I arrived in Koporye, the weather did not allow me to see the sea, but the view to the north from the fortress wall is still very beautiful. The fortress does not stand on the crest of a range of hills, but on the edge, above the very cliff. Therefore, if you drive up to it from the south, then it becomes visible only at close range. The aforementioned lowland is covered with dense forest, stretching as far as the eye can see, while the hills, on the contrary, are fields and arable land. Around the once formidable outpost of Russia in the north-west, the village of the same name is spread, at the foot of the ridge there is a railway, and everything is the same as 700 years ago (during the foundation of the fortification), the somewhat shallow river Koporka, which gave the fortress its name, runs.
In the 40s of the 13th century, in the places we are describing, the struggle between the German knights and the Russian states, primarily Novgorod, intensified. The Germans were heading east and north, while the Novgorodians, on the contrary, wanted to strengthen their western borders. According to the chronicles, in 1240 the knights built a fortified point on the mountain, but the very next year Alexander Nevsky destroyed the buildings and drove their owners away. In 1279, Alexander's son Dmitry founded first a wooden and then a stone fortress. But the Novgorodians, grateful for their care, expelled the prince and, apparently for greater persuasiveness, destroyed his fortress, despite the fact that it was located in an "enemy" direction. Realizing their short-sightedness, already in 1297 they began to build their own fortress, parts of which are still visible today, despite later reconstructions. In 1384, about 40 kilometers to the south-west, another fortress was built - Yamgorod, as a result of which the importance of Koporye fell (Yamgorod occupied an important position near the Narva-Novgorod road).
In 1520-1525 the fortress was rebuilt, but by Moscow masters. This takes into account the development of artillery. The further history of the fortress is also "happy". In 1617 the fortress was handed over to the Swedes (according to the Stolbovsky Treaty), and in 1703, under Peter, without a fight, it returned to Russian rule. Such a "non-military" fate of the fortress predetermined its high safety.
What can be seen in the fortress today? Two towers - North and South - guard the only entrance, where a stone bridge leads high above the ground. The distance between the towers is only fifteen meters. When I first came to Koporye in 1994, the entrance was very difficult. The bridge was not completely restored, and just before the entrance it was necessary to wade along the logs lying at a height of several meters. This, by the way, also corresponds to the ancient descriptions, which state that the bridge ended in a failure, which was closed by the lowering door of the drawbridge (an element not very common in Russian architecture). Today the bridge has been brought up to the wall and the entrance to the fortress is free. The southern and southeastern walls of Koporye wind in an arc along the very edge of the hill above a very steep cliff. Fragments of an ancient wall (1297) have been preserved here, while other walls are newer. You can get to the wall from the corner tower, but walking on it is really scary. In some places it is only two bricks thick. The height of these walls reaches 7.5 meters, and the thickness is up to 2. The magnitude of the cliff (up to 30 meters) should be added to the indicated height. In a word, it is better not to look down.
The north side is closed by a new wall (16th century) and guarded by two towers (excluding those that defend the entrance). The towers have five tiers of loopholes, and the wall is five meters wide. This side of the fortress was considered more vulnerable, and therefore the fortifications here are more powerful. Restoration work is underway on the towers, the same applies to the wall, in which inclusions of masonry dating back to the twentieth century are visible. The fortress had two secret passages designed to provide the besieged with water (see diagram). One of them was built in the 13th century and is considered the oldest of the known similar structures, the other - during the modernization of the fortress in the 16th century.
The inner courtyards of the fortress leave the feeling that under the mounds overgrown with grass there is still a lot of interesting things. Roughly in the middle rises the small Church of the Transfiguration, also built in the 16th century. And finally, I recommend climbing the Naugolnaya Tower, from where a grandiose view of the green massif of the forest extending beyond the horizon opens up.
Nizhny Novgorod Kremlin
As the chronicle testifies, in 1221 the Grand Duke of Vladimir Yuri Vsevolodovich Nizhny Novgorod was founded, which was protected by wooden and earthen fortifications - deep ditches and high ramparts that surrounded the city and its suburbs.
The first attempt to replace a wooden fortress with a stone Kremlin dates back to 1374, to the era Nizhny Novgorod-Suzdal Grand Duchy(1341 -1392). At this time the prince Dmitry Konstantinovich founded the Kremlin, but its construction was limited to only one tower, known as Dmitrovskaya tower, which has not come down to us (the modern tower was built later).
Under Ivan III, Nizhny Novgorod played the role of a guard city, having a permanent army and serving as a military gathering place during Moscow's actions against Kazan. In order to strengthen the defense of the city, work on the fortress walls begins again. The construction of the stone Nizhny Novgorod Kremlin began in 1500 in the coastal part of the city Ivanovskaya tower, but the main work began in 1508 and in a short time - by 1515 - the grandiose construction was completed. The main work on the construction of the Kremlin was carried out under the guidance of an architect sent from Moscow Pietro Francesco(Pyotr Fryazin). The destruction of the old defensive structures - oak walls - was facilitated by a huge fire in 1513.
The two-kilometer wall was reinforced by 13 towers (one of them, Zachatskaya, near the banks of the Volga, has not been preserved). "Stone City" had a permanent garrison and a solid artillery armament. The new Volga fortress was created by the Muscovite state as the main stronghold against Kazan Khanate and for her military service withstood repeated sieges and attacks. And not once in all this time has the enemy been able to take possession of it.
With the fall of Kazan, the Nizhny Novgorod Kremlin lost its military significance, and later it housed the authorities of the city, principality and province.
During Great Patriotic War the roofs of the Tainitskaya, North and Clock towers were dismantled and anti-aircraft machine guns were installed on the upper platforms.
January 30, 1949 issued an order of the Council of Ministers of the RSFSR on the restoration of the Nizhny Novgorod Kremlin
Smolensk Kremlin
The Smolensk fortress wall is now represented by surviving wall fragments and several towers. Despite the later mention of the construction of these structures, scientists suggest that the city was fortified already in the initial period of its existence. This is evidenced by the introductory part of The Tale of Bygone Years.
The walls were built so skillfully that they became a reliable defense to the city. Smolensk is called the "key-city", the road to Moscow. The Smolensk fortress played an important role not only for the Smolensk region, but for the whole of Russia. This wall has endured many sieges and wars.
On September 13, 1609, seven years after the completion of the construction of the fortress, the Polish king Sigismund 3 approached Smolensk with a huge army and laid siege to it. For more than twenty months, the defenders of the city, all its population, selflessly held back the onslaught of a well-armed army of invaders.
In the summer of 1708, the troops of the Swedish king Charles 12 approached the southern borders of the Smolensk land, it was through Smolensk that he threatened to pass to Moscow. But Peter I arrived in the city, the most energetic measures were taken to repair the fortress and meet the enemy at the distant approaches. Having come across well-equipped fortifications, having suffered several major defeats and almost being captured, Charles 12 realized that it was impossible to break through to Moscow through Smolensk, turned south, to Ukraine, where the famous Battle of Poltava took place (1709).
The ancient city increased its military merits in the Patriotic War of 1812. On Smolensk land, two Russian armies joined - M.B. Barclay de Tolia and P.I. Bagration. This destroyed the strategic plan of Napoleon to break them apart. On August 4-5, 1812, a major battle took place near the walls of the Smolensk fortress, in which the French troops suffered heavy losses, and the Russian army was able to carry out a strategic maneuver and maintain its combat capability. When the city was abandoned, a guerrilla war unfolded in its vicinity throughout the entire Smolensk land. By this time, 38 towers remained in the fortress wall. At the end of the war, during the retreat of Napoleon, his army blew up 8 towers.
The hardest trials fell on the lot of Smolensk during the Great Patriotic War. On the far and near approaches to the ancient city, on its streets and squares, throughout the surrounding land, the largest battle of the initial period of the war thundered for two months - the battle of Smolensk, which destroyed Hitler's plans for a "blitzkrieg". When the city was under temporary occupation, the population remaining in it continued to fight the enemy. September 25, 1943 Smolensk was liberated.
The ruins of buildings, mountains of crumbled bricks, charred trees, brick chimneys on the site of former dwellings were seen by the soldiers of the Red Army when they entered the city. A new heroic feat was required to overcome devastation, to revive life in the ashes and ruins. And this feat was accomplished.
Today's Smolensk is one of the most beautiful cities in the country. In it, gray antiquity coexists with modern buildings, revived buildings delight the eye with their architectural appearance. History here reminds of itself either as an earthen defensive rampart, or as an ancient temple, or as a fortress tower... Smolensk residents are proud of their heroic past, building a new life.
Zaraisk Kremlin
The Zaraisk Kremlin is considered an architectural monument of the middle of the 16th century, although during its existence it was repeatedly repaired and reconstructed. In this regard, the Kremlin has lost to some extent its original appearance. At the same time, numerous minor changes over the centuries have created a unique look for this pearl of the architecture of Old Zaraysk.
The Kremlin was built by decree of the Sovereign and Grand Duke of Moscow Vasily III at the same time as the first stone St. Nicholas Cathedral in 1528-1531. This was preceded by a series of events set forth in the final parts of the Cycle of Stories about Nikola Zarazsky. The name of the architect who supervised the construction is unknown, but back in the 19th century it was believed that he was Aleviz Fryazin Novy. The Kremlin bears clear features of Italian influence in Russian fortress architecture and is one of three completely regular medieval fortresses in our country.
For a century and a half, he defended the borders of the Russian state. The fortress was part of a single line of fortifications that connected such large centers as Kolomna, Pereyaslavl Ryazansky, Tula and others. large detachments under the leadership of the Tatar princes.
At the beginning of the 17th century, the Zaraisk fortress fell under the blows of the Polish interventionists under the leadership of Colonel Alexander Josef Lisovsky. In memory of his victory, he ordered all the defenders of Zaraysk to be buried in one grave and a barrow was built over them, which is still preserved.
After the Poles left the city, a new governor was appointed to it. They became Prince Dmitry Mikhailovich Pozharsky. Under the influence of the prince, as well as the archpriest of the Nikolsky Kremlin Cathedral Dmitry Leontiev, Zaraysk was one of the few surrounding cities that opposed the supporters of False Dmitry II.
The territory of the Kremlin is now decorated with two stone cathedrals - Nikolsky and John the Baptist. The first one was built in 1681 by decree of Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich. Until now, the traveler can admire the magnificent view of its five domes rising above the walls, crowned with ancient gilded crosses.
The second cathedral was built at the beginning of the 20th century. on the initiative of an outstanding public figure, headman of the Kremlin cathedrals, mayor, deputy of the State Duma N.I. Yartsev and at the expense of the famous philanthropist A.A. Bakhrushin.
On the territory of the Kremlin there is also a monument to the legendary Ryazan princes Fedor, Evpraksia and their son John Postnik, whose names are associated with Zaraisk from time immemorial.
The majestic walls and towers of the Kremlin rise above the old part of the city, creating together a unique and rare view for the central regions of Russia, which opens from the left bank of the river. Sturgeon.
Largely due to this, the Kremlin has always been a visiting card and a striking feature of Zaraysk, which was certainly noted by all travelers who have been here.
Kolomna Kremlin
The Kolomna Kremlin was built in 1525-1531. at the direction of the Grand Duke of Moscow Vasily III. It took only 6 years for artisans to build "a building brought to perfection and worthy of the viewer's surprise," as the famous Syrian traveler Pavel Aleppsky estimated it 100 years later. The Kolomna brick and stone Kremlin turned out to be a reliable defender of the city.
At the beginning of the sixteenth century, following the Moscow Kremlin, the construction of which was completed in 1495, the Grand Dukes of Moscow strengthened the borders of the state - they built impregnable stone fortresses in cities of strategic importance. Such a city in the south-east was then Kolomna. In 1525, Grand Duke Vasily III issued a Decree containing the lines: "make a stone city in Kolomna." On May 25 of the same year, the builders began grandiose work, to which many residents of Kolomna and the surrounding villages were involved.
The Kremlin existed in Kolomna before. But the predecessors of the "stone shirt" under construction suffered a sad fate. The trouble is that the defensive walls being built were wooden. Kolomna, the first of the Russian cities to join Moscow (in 1301), had a difficult fate - to be a border town in those years. Horde raids repeatedly devastated Kolomna. The result of these ruinous visits of uninvited guests were fires, from which the wooden citadel also suffered.
The stone wall was built along the outer perimeter of the old wooden fortifications, which were destroyed as the work progressed.
Many believe that the Kolomna Kremlin was built under the guidance of the Italian architects Alevizov - Bolshoy and Maly - who are the author of the towers and walls of the Moscow Kremlin. This assumption is based on the great similarity of the Kremlins. And the period of construction (six years) of the Kolomna Kremlin suggests that the designers of the fortress had a lot of experience: a construction comparable in scale in the capital lasted more than ten years. In terms of area, length and thickness of the walls, the number of towers, the Kolomna and Moscow fortresses differ little from each other.
The Kremlin loses its direct purpose
In the sixteenth century, the enemies never managed to take the Kolomna Kremlin by storm. And during the Time of Troubles, the Polish interventionists and detachments of the “Tushino thief” ended up in Kolomna not as a result of the assault on the fortress, but due to the indecision and treacherous mood of the temporary workers, who were completely confused in the change of royal persons. Thus, the Kremlin of Kolomna fulfilled its purpose with dignity. But by the middle of the seventeenth century, Kolomna was losing its former military and defensive significance. The city is gradually turning into a major industrial center, the Kremlin, having lost its functional purpose, begins to collapse.
Part of the walls and some towers of the Kremlin were restored in the second half of the nineteenth century.
Vyborg Castle
The castle was founded in 1293, which preceded the founding of the city. Marshal Thorgils Knutsson is considered the founder of the castle.
Reliable information about the original appearance of the Vyborg Castle has not been preserved. In all likelihood, a thick-walled square tower of gray granite was built on the elevated rocky plateau of the island and surrounded by a defensive wall. The garrison is believed to have been housed in the tower, with living quarters on each floor. The roof was a flat area surrounded by a parapet. The tower was named after Saint Olaf. The base walls were 1.6 to 2 meters thick. The height was at least 7 meters. The castle complex itself was gradually formed on them and around them.
of the highest flourishing Vyborg Castle reached in the 40s of the XV century, during the reign of Karl Knutsson Bunde. During this period, there was a lot of construction work going on in the castle. The third floor was rebuilt and became residential - the combat floor of the main building, built on and became the fourth floor. In this building there were luxurious chambers in which the governor himself lived, kings, important persons of the civil and military departments of Sweden stayed.
During the first centuries of its existence, the castle, as an outpost of the Swedish kingdom and the Catholic Church, was repeatedly attacked by Novgorod and Muscovy. In addition, it was the site of internecine strife within the Swedish kingdom itself. Many times its towers and walls came under artillery fire. In 1706 and 1710 Vyborg And Vyborg Castle were bombarded by artillery Peter the Great. In 1710, Vyborg was taken, and thus the castle passed into the hands of the Russian military authorities.
Izborsk fortress
Izborsk fortress on Zheravya Gora is an amazing monument of Pskov defense architecture. During the construction of the fortress, to enhance its defensive qualities, the ancient fortifiers made the most of the terrain. From the north, the fortress is protected by a deep cliff, from the south - by a ravine, from the east by the Smolka River. From the western, attacking side, two lines of ditches were dug and four towers were erected. Six towers of the fortress have survived to this day: Lukovka, Talavskaya, Vyshka, Ryabinovka, Temnushka and Kolokolnaya. The fortress has the shape of an irregular triangle with two exits from the northern and southern (main) sides. The area protected by the fortress walls is 2.4 hectares, the total length of the stone walls reached 850 meters, the height was from 7.5 to 10 meters, and the average thickness was about 4 meters.
The fortress is the ancient city of Izborsk, with which many heroic pages of our country are associated. Inside the fortress there were the court of the governor, state and judicial huts, barns, cellars, the courtyard of the Pskov-Caves monastery, the huts of the townspeople, the garrison and trading shops. The so-called siege huts were also built here, in which the inhabitants of the settlement lived during the siege of the city.
Porkhov fortress
The first mention of the Porkhov fortress in the Novgorod chronicle dates back to 1239, when the Novgorod prince-governor Alexander Yaroslavovich (who is also the future Nevsky) strengthened the waterway along the Shelon from Novgorod to Pskov by building small wooden "blockposts", one of which was Porkhov. The first wood-and-earth fortifications were built on an elevated cape on the right bank of the Shelon and consisted of 2 rows of ramparts and ditches, and the height of the highest of the ramparts reached more than 4 meters with a log wall on top.
In 1346, the great Lithuanian prince Olgerd invaded Novgorod and took the fortresses of Luga and Shelon on a shield, and besieged Opoka and Porkhov. The fortress withstood its first Lithuanian siege, although the "black forest" (indemnity) of 300 rubles still had to be paid. The reason for the war was the rudeness of one Novgorod posadnik, whom the Novgorodians themselves later "beat" in Luga, so as not to loosen their tongues.
In 1387, at a distance of just over a kilometer from the old fortress, on the right high bank of the Shelon, a new stone fortress with four towers was built from local limestone. The thickness of its walls was 1.4-2 m, the height was about 7 m. The towers, 15-17 meters high, had from 4 to 6 combat tiers with wooden ceilings, protruded beyond the line of the fortress walls and could effectively flank the fences. All construction work was completed in one season.
In July 1428, Porkhov was besieged by the Lithuanians under the command of Prince Vitovt. They could not take the fortress, but during the 8 days of the siege they managed to pretty much damage it with cannons. This assault is remarkable in that it was one of the first in Russia, in which artillery was massively used.
The damage inflicted by the Lithuanians was significant, and therefore in 1430 "the Novgorodians put a stone wall against Porkhov's friend", i.e. reinforced the walls of the fortress with thick stone butts, increasing their thickness in the most threatened areas to 4.5 m.
Since that time, the fortress was no longer disturbed by enemies, because after the conquest of Novgorod in 1478 and Pskov in 1510 by Moscow, Porkhov was far from the restless western borders. It quickly lost its military significance and thanks to which its ancient fortifications have survived to our time, completely undistorted by later reconstructions and rebuildings.
Poison with the fortress arose a settlement, which continuously grew, despite the usual disasters of that time - regular fires, famine, pestilence, Polish devastation in 1581 and 1609. and the Swedish occupation of 1611-1615, during which there was an uprising of Porkhovites against foreign rule (1613).
In 1776, Porkhov became the county center of the Pskov province. In 1896 - 1897, a branch of the Dno - Pskov railway passed through it and the development of the city received a powerful impetus. The fortress gradually dilapidated and collapsed, until in 1912 restoration work began in it, during which some repairs were made to the walls and towers.
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In Russia, the word "city" called any fortified place surrounded by a fortress wall. The construction of defensive structures was vital, as it guaranteed protection from numerous external enemies.
The Moscow Kremlin
The history of the Moscow Kremlin can be conditionally divided into two stages: wooden and stone. The very word "Kremlin" in translation from Old Russian means a fortress located inside the city itself, the so-called citadel. The first wooden Kremlin was built during the reign of Ivan Kalita (1328-1341). This is not surprising, since only the rich and strong prince had the money to build temples and fortifications, and it was Ivan Kalita who found them, because he was the first ruler-entrepreneur.
In 1366-1367. during the reign of Dmitry Donskoy, the construction of a new Moscow Kremlin began - a stone one. Instead of wooden fortifications, a “city of stones” arose, which was expanded almost to the limits of the present. The Moscow Kremlin was surrounded by the first impregnable white-stone fortress in North-Eastern Russia. The fortifications were lower than modern ones, but it was they that prevented the Lithuanian prince Olgerd from capturing Moscow in 1368, 1370 and 1372, when he made his campaigns. Under Ivan III (1462-1505), the reconstruction of the Moscow Kremlin began; the fortifications of Dmitry Donskoy dilapidated and were no longer a reliable defense against the enemy. The character of the Grand Duke affected the construction: the fortifications were built slowly and thoroughly - for centuries to come. For this work, not only Russian, but also Italian architects were invited. Probably, Ivan III did this on the advice of his second wife Sophia Paleolog, who was brought up in Italy.
The construction of Moscow fortifications was completed only in 1516, already during the reign of Vasily III, the son of Ivan III and Sophia Paleolog.
Pskov Kremlin
The Kremlin or Krom, as Pskovians call it, is located on a rocky cape at the confluence of two rivers - the Great and the Pskov. The wooden walls of the Kremlin were erected in the VIII - X centuries, in the X - XIII centuries. the first stone fortifications appeared, after which the construction of new Kremlin towers began, the strengthening of the fortress walls and their growth in height. Two southern passage gates led to the Kremlin, of which only the Great (Trinity) gates have been preserved, reliably protected by the Trinity Tower and zahab. Initially, the Great Gate was 5 - 6 m below today's level. From which we can conclude about the power of Perseus (the first stone wall of the Kremlin on the south side), the height of the walls of which exceeded 20 m. Nobody lived in the Kremlin. A people's council gathered here, food supplies were stored, there were cages guarded by guard dogs - "Kromsky dogs". Theft from the Kremlin was considered a serious state crime and was punishable by death. On the territory of the Kremlin is the Trinity Cathedral - the main temple of Pskov and the Pskov land.
Dovmontov city is the second belt of defensive fortifications of Krom. The territory fortified with stone walls and towers adjoins the Pskov Kremlin from the south. It is named after Prince Dovmont (in baptism Timofey), who reigned in Pskov from 1266 to 1299. honor was placed a stone church in the southern part of the Kremlin. Despite the small territory - about one and a half hectares - in the XII-XVI centuries. Pskovians are erecting more than 20 church and civil buildings made of stone in the Dovmontov city. At the time of the veche republic (until 1510), Dovmontov was considered the center of the church and administrative administration of Pskov and the Pskov land. Unfortunately, the temples and administrative buildings of the Dovmont city have not survived to this day. One can judge about the ancient buildings only from the foundations of some medieval churches raised above the ground, the number of which, as they assume, corresponded to the number of Pskov suburbs.
Kremlin of Novgorod the Great
The Novgorod Kremlin is one of the oldest monuments of Russian military defense architecture of the 15th-17th centuries. The total area of the fortress inside the walls is 12.1 ha. A deep moat surrounds it from the north, west and south. The fortress walls, standing on the shaft, have a length of 1487 m, a height of 8 to 15 m, a thickness of 3.6 to 6.5 m. , Kokuy, Intercession, Zlatoust, Metropolitan, Fedorov and Vladimir.
The original Detinets was made of wood, but over the years it was rebuilt many times, and finally, after the annexation of Novgorod to the Moscow State in the 15th century, it became stone. By the way, the Moscow Kremlin was also rebuilt around the same period. This is probably why the walls of the Moscow and Novgorod Kremlins are similar.
Until the 18th century, the Novgorod Kremlin performed purely defensive functions in the north-west of Russia. And after the annexation of the Baltic states to Russia, it lost its defensive purpose, however, like many other fortresses of Russia.
In the Kremlin there are: the most ancient temple in Russia, St. Sophia Cathedral (1045-1050), the oldest civil building - the Vladychnaya (Faceted) Chamber (1433) and other monuments of the 15th-19th centuries.
In the center of the Kremlin there is a monument to the Millennium of Russia (1862).
Kazan fortress
No historian will name the exact date of the construction of the Kazan Kremlin. Researchers believe that the complex appeared between the 10th and 12th centuries. At first, all buildings were built of wood, and the Kremlin itself consisted of fortress walls. But every year more and more buildings appeared, and then the complex turned into a real city - this is how Kazan was born. First, the fortress was an outpost for the Bulgar princes, then for the khans of the Golden Horde. From the 16th century, it came under the control of the Russian state - it was captured by Ivan the Terrible.
At first, the troops turned the Kremlin fortifications into ruins, but it is from this moment that a new page in the history of the complex begins. Ivan the Terrible started a grand reconstruction of the Kremlin: architects and masons arrived from Pskov. For six years, the masters have changed the appearance of the building beyond recognition. Orthodox churches, bell towers and towers appeared on the territory. Instead of wooden fortifications, stone ones were erected. This citadel was famous for a long time as the most impregnable fortress of medieval Russia.
But in the 18th century, this function became unimportant - the state expanded its borders. Only during the uprising of Yemelyan Pugachev, the Kremlin was used as a fortification during the siege of Kazan. After that, the complex lost its military purpose completely. From the end of the 19th century, the fortress began to take on a modern architectural image, and today it is a symbol of reconciliation between Orthodoxy and Islam.
The main entrance to the Kremlin lies through the Spasskaya Tower - on May Day Square. Pay attention to the statue of the Dragon Zilant. This creature is considered a symbol of Kazan and the protector of the city. There are many legends about the Kazan basilisk - it is believed that the monster lives at the bottom of the lake and the hills at the mouth of the river, it happens in the surrounding forests.
Particularly stands out Spasskaya Tower - the main part of the complex. Sheinkman Street stretches from it - the former Bolshaya, which was the most basic in the Kremlin. This tower was built later than the others - in the 17th century as a symbol of the greatness of Russia. Pskov craftsmen have worked hard to create a traditional Russian bell tower with a majestic eagle on its spire. For a long time there was a church inside, and a chapel nearby. But later the building was dismantled, making a through entrance.
The Spasskaya Tower is not the only one; only eight of the original thirteen have survived. No less interesting is Taynitskaya, also built in the 17th century. A massive lower and a miniature upper tier, a magnificent view of the city from the promenade - all this deserves attention.
Nizhny Novgorod Kremlin
In 1221, at the confluence of the Oka and Volga rivers, Prince Georgy Vsevolodovich founded a border fortress, which became the main defensive structure in the war with the Volga Bulgaria. Initially, the fortifications were wooden and earthen, and the fortress had an oval shape. The main feature of the fortress was that it was built on uninhabited territory. Soon the fortress found itself in the center of the struggle between the Suzdal princes and the Mordovian tribes. However, this war could not be compared with the misfortune that would fall on Russia decades later - the country would plunge into the “Mongolian darkness”. Nizhny Novgorod will repeatedly leave Novgorod to be torn to pieces by the Tatars. The fortress will also be captured, however, this will happen in its "wooden" being. In the future, along with the growth of the city, the expansion of the fortress will also occur: stone walls and the gate Dmitrievskaya tower will be built. The stone Nizhny Novgorod fortress will never be captured by the enemy, despite the fact that he will repeatedly appear under its walls.
The Kremlin of Nizhny Novgorod is notable for the fact that of all Russian fortresses it has the largest height difference between its structures. The legend also adds glory: supposedly, somewhere in the local dungeons, the missing library of Ivan the Terrible is buried.
Astrakhan fortress
Kolomna fortress
The Kremlin was built by Italian masters for six years. Researchers believe that the construction was headed by the architect Aliviz Novy - a native of Venice or Milan, Aloisio Lamberti da Montagnana. And since 1528 Petrok Maly led the work.
16 towers were erected along the perimeter of the Kremlin; all the achievements of Western European fortification architecture of that time were used in the construction. The territory of 24 hectares was surrounded by a two-kilometer wall, the thickness of which was more than three meters, and the height of the walls was more than 20 meters.
August 15, 1531 construction was completed. The Kolomna Kremlin has become a first-class fortification, one of the most interesting buildings of its era. After that, Kolomna remained a military center for a long time: it was here in 1552 that the army of Ivan the Terrible gathered before the march on Kazan.
How many towers were originally - 16 or 17, is not exactly known. Only seven towers, including the gates, have survived to this day. By the middle of the 19th century, in some sections of the Kremlin there was no longer a single tower, only ruined walls.
The Pyatnitsky Gates, the four-sided Pogorelaya (Alekseevskaya) Tower, the Spasskaya Tower, the Simeonovskaya Tower, the Yamskaya (Troitskaya) Tower, the hexagonal Faceted Tower and the round Kolomenskaya (Marinkina) Tower, which is the tallest, have survived to this day. Marinkina she was nicknamed by the people in honor of Marina Mnishek. In the Time of Troubles, it was her fault that the impregnable fortress was taken by the Poles for the only time - Marina Mnishek fraudulently let them into the city. There is a legend that after these events, the traitor was imprisoned in the tower and died in it.
Smolensk Kremlin
A remarkable example of the achievements of military engineering at the end of the 15th century - the Smolensk fortress - was built according to the design of Fyodor Kon. A precious necklace of 38 towers, laid on the Dnieper hills - this is how this fortress is called today. It was built on the initiative of Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich, who sought to protect Smolensk from the Polish-Lithuanian invaders. The foundation stone of the fortress was laid by Boris Godunov in 1595, and by 1602 the fortress had already been completed and consecrated. Its main feature was the ability to conduct a three-level battle. In 1609, the Smolensk fortress was able to withstand a 20-month siege by the Polish king Sigismund III, in 1708 it stopped the Swedish king Charles XII, who was marching on Moscow. In 1812, the French lost many soldiers near the walls of the Smolensk fortress, in retaliation they blew up 8 fortress towers. Initially, the length of the fortress walls was six and a half kilometers. Unfortunately, sections of no more than three kilometers in length have been preserved today. Impressive sixteen-sided towers not only acted as a defensive structure, but also served as the face of the city, as they overlooked the Moscow road.
Ivangorod fortress
Ivan the Terrible ordered to build a fortress protecting the Russian borders from the Teutonic Knights in 1492. It was not by chance that the place was chosen: the fortress was erected opposite the Livonian fortress of Narva. Repeatedly Ivangorod then passed to the Swedes, then again returned to the Russians. In 1704, after the capture of Narva by Russian troops, Ivangorod capitulated and was finally returned to Russia. The fortress was badly damaged during the Great Patriotic War. On its territory there were two concentration camps for Russian prisoners of war. Before the retreat, the Germans managed to blow up six corner towers, large sections of the walls, a hiding place and buildings in the courtyard of the fortress. However, 10 towers with stone walls and the ancient Orthodox Church of Ivangorod in the Leningrad region have been well preserved to this day.
Shlisselburg Fortress (Oreshek)
Founded at the source of the Neva on Orekhovy Island, the fortress received its second name - Oreshek. The initiator of the construction was in 1323 the grandson of Alexander Nevsky Yuri Danilovich. Built of wood at the age of 30, the fortress completely burned down, after which it was rebuilt from stone. After the annexation of Novgorod to the Moscow Principality, the fortress was seriously strengthened, dismantled to the foundation and rebuilt around the perimeter of the entire island, new defensive 12-meter walls 4.5 meters thick. The old rivals of Russia, the Swedes, repeatedly tried to take possession of the fortress, and in 1611 they succeeded. For 90 years, the Swedes ruled in the fortress, which they called Noteburg. Only during the Northern War did it return to its old owners and was again renamed Shlisselburg, or "Key City". Since the 18th century, the fortress has been losing its defensive significance and has become a prison with notoriety and strict rules. For the slightest disobedience of the prisoners, execution awaited, the prisoners died of consumption and tuberculosis. For all the time no one managed to escape from the Shlisselburg fortress.
Vladivostok fortress
A unique monument of military-defensive architecture, which has no analogues in the world. The Vladivostok Fortress is the only Russian sea fortress that has been preserved since the 19th century and is included in the UNESCO list. The tsarist government, according to experts, invested very serious capital in its construction. In the 70s-90s of the 19th century, earthen batteries were built, which served as the main defense of the city. August 30, 1889 is considered the birthday of the fortress, when the naval keyser flag was raised over its walls. In 1916, on an area of over 400 sq. meters, about 130 different forts, strongholds, fortifications and coastal batteries were erected with almost one and a half thousand guns. All buildings had telephone and visual communication, as well as the necessary communications, including ventilation and electricity. Thanks to the available reserves, the fortress could withstand a two-year siege. The grandiosity of the fortress frightened the enemies so much that they never dared to attack.
Porkhov fortress
One of the few fortresses with one-sided defense that have survived in the north-west of the country. Similar structures were erected in Russia from the middle of the 14th century until the end of the 15th century. Laid the Porkhov fortress, as well as most of the entire defensive system of the Novgorod Principality, Alexander Nevsky. For a long time, the fortress protected from the raids of the Lithuanians, who passionately wanted to capture both Novgorod and Pskov. Initially, the fortification was built of wood and earth. But already at the end of the 14th century, the Lithuanians so increased the power of their attacks and their number that the Novgorodians urgently began to erect stone walls. It is curious that these walls are the first walls of a Russian fortress that can withstand blows from gunpowder weapons. In the second half of the 18th century, the fortress fell into such a state that, in order to protect the people from stones falling out of the walls, it was decided to dismantle it. The fortress was saved, oddly enough, by bureaucratic red tape. Only the "most dangerous places" were dismantled. Today, a sample of military Novgorod architecture of the XIV-XV centuries is open to tourists.
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Introduction
urban planning frontier fortress
The relevance of the topic of the course work. The layout of settlements and especially cities largely reflects the level of development of a given society. The choice of a place, adaptation to the relief and the surrounding landscape, the distribution of the most important elements of the future city (fortifications, roads, trading square, residential areas) were already in antiquity the subject of reflection and discussion. Overcoming spontaneity and introducing an element of rational calculation serves as an indicator of a high level of development.
In relation to the history of Russian cities, for a long time it was believed that for the first time rational planning according to a pre-planned plan was carried out only at the end of the 18th century. during the so-called general survey. Long-term studies of scientists, historians and philosophers in the field of the history of Russian architecture and urban planning have established that urban planning principles arose much earlier, that in the 16th-17th centuries. in Russia, carefully considered and firmly enforced rules for the construction of new cities were already being applied. Thus, the theme of the course work "Russian cities of the 16th-17th centuries" is relevant.
For research, we have chosen cities of the 16th-17th centuries. Firstly, because we have authentic documents of that time concerning the construction of cities. The fact is that it was at this time that the organized storage of written materials began, which were deposited in state institutions. Currently, they are in various archives of the USSR. Secondly, the cities themselves, built in that period, have been preserved.
In many of them, there are still not only individual buildings and ensembles of the 16th-17th centuries, but entire areas that bear the stamp of the original building, which makes it possible to imagine the original appearance of these cities. Basically, these are small and medium-sized cities in the central strip of Russia, the North and Siberia: Kargopol, Ustyug the Great, Ustyuzhna, Lalsk, Staraya Russa, Smolensk, Vyazma, Dorogobuzh, Volkhov, Gorokhovets, Ples, Vyazniki, Michurinsk (Kozlov). Tambov, Irkutsk, Tobolsk, Penza, Syzran, etc.
Cities of this type are called picturesque, irregular, free planning. However, all these names, in our opinion, do not correspond to their essence, because they were built on a legislative basis.
Since the city is a complex socio-economic, political, ideological organism, representatives of various sciences dealt with it: economists, lawyers, jurists, and most of all historians. Back in the 18th century a wide publication of documents on the history of the Russian state began.
The degree of development of the research topic. Many works of pre-revolutionary historians N.M. Karamzin, S.M. Solovyova, A.P. Prigara, I.I. Dityatina, D.I. Korsakov, A.P. Shchapova, P.N. Milyukova, N.A. Rozhkova, A.A. Kizevetter, K.V. Nevolina, N.D. Chechulin, D.A. Samokvasov and others are connected with the problem of the city. However, questions about the methods of urban planning were not considered in them. A number of studies by pre-revolutionary historians are devoted to the management of work in the construction of fortresses, security lines, the role and activities of governors in the city (the works of B.N. Chicherin, I. Andrievsky, A.I. Yakovlev), which is important for our study.
Another part of urban planning historians believes that in Russia already in the 16th century. regular town planning began to take shape. So, V.V. Kirillov believes that the Siberian cities, in particular Tobolsk, founded in the 16th century, were built according to the plan and were cities with a regular layout, as for irregular cities with a free layout, they, in his opinion, in the 16th-17th centuries. formed spontaneously.
Subject of this study- features of urban planning of Russian cities in the XVI-XVII centuries.
Object of study- Russian cities in the XVI-XVII centuries.
The purpose of the course work- to conduct a study and identify the features of the construction of Russian cities in the period of the XVI-XVII centuries. In accordance with a certain object, subject and purpose of the study, one can formulate course work tasks:
1. Consider the characteristic features and types of urban planning in Russia in the XVI-XVII centuries.
2. Identify the general provisions for the planning of new Russian cities of the 16th century
3. Determine the development of Russian urban planning in the 17th century. on the territory of the European part of the Russian state
theoretical basiscourse were the works of such researchers as: Alferova G.V., Buganov V.I., Sakharov A.N., Vityuk E.Yu., Vzdornov G.I., Vladimirov V.V., Savarenskaya T.F., Smolyar I. .M., Zagidullin I.K., Ivanov Yu.G., Ilyin M.A., Kirillov V.V., Krom M.M., Lantsov S.A., Mazaev A.G., Nosov N.E. ., Orlov A.S., Georgiev V.A., Georgiev N.G., Sivokhina T.A., Polyan P. et al.
The structure of the course work based on a combination of territorial and chronological principles. The work consists of an introduction, three chapters, a conclusion, a list of references and literature and applications.
The first chapter presents the characteristic features of Russia in the 16th-17th centuries, and also systematizes the types of cities in the Russian state of the 16th-17th centuries. The second chapter deals with the features of urban development of the border fortress cities, the Russian fortress cities of the 16th century are considered. The third chapter is devoted to the peculiarities of the construction of Russian cities in the 17th century, organizational measures for the construction of cities on fortified borders are presented.
1. Characteristic features and types of urban planning in Russia in the XVI-XVII centuries.
1.1 Characteristic features of Russia in the XVI-XVII centuries.
Russia in the XVI-XVII centuries. experienced the most important periods of its history, putting it among the largest powers in Europe. Internal political struggle of the 16th century. led to increased centralization of the state, based on the service nobility and landownership, and to the enslavement of the peasantry. The union with the church gave the state a strong ideological support and promoted the use of some of the achievements of ancient and Near Eastern societies through the Byzantine tradition. The inclusion of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates in Russia secured the existence of the country from the east and opened up opportunities for the development of new lands.
The ensuing annexation of Siberia marked the beginning of the development of this region by both the state authorities and the working population. Peasant and urban uprisings that engulfed Russia in the 17th century were the response of the working masses to those contradictory processes that were going on in the country. The “new period” of Russian history, which began in the 17th century, is associated with the formation of the all-Russian market, which united different parts of the country not only politically and administratively (which was done by the state authorities), but also economically.
One of the characteristic features of the development of Russia in the XVI-XVII centuries. there was the emergence of a large number of new cities, significant urban construction. Here we have in mind the increase in the number of cities, not only in the socio-economic sense of the term, when we mean settlements, a significant part of the inhabitants of which were engaged in commercial and industrial activities. Many fortified cities were built, which had military and defensive significance. In the second half of the XVI century. more than 50 new cities are known, for the middle of the 17th century. researchers indicate 254 cities, of which about 180 were settlements, the inhabitants of which were officially engaged in trade and crafts. In a number of cases, as shown in this book, when a new city was founded, its walls were built simultaneously with residential and public premises.
The structure of Russian cities before the 18th century, both new ones built in the 16th-17th centuries, and old ones that continued to live at that time, are characterized by features that made it possible to call them free-planning landscape cities. This system assumes that the location of the buildings under construction, their complexes, the number of storeys (height) and orientation along the natural landscape - low and high places, slopes and ravines, implies a connection with natural reservoirs, the allocation of dominant buildings visible from all points of the corresponding city district, sufficient the distance between buildings and building blocks, forming “gaps” and fire zones, etc. Construction according to a regular layout, which began in Russia with the construction of St. Petersburg and became stereotypical in the 18th-19th centuries, was largely deprived of these features. It was based on other aesthetic principles and borrowed a lot from Western European medieval cities, although in Russia it acquired national features. Western European cities were characterized by the desire to accommodate the maximum number of buildings with residential and industrial premises on the minimum area limited by city walls, which led to the construction of houses along narrow streets that formed a solid wall, to a large number of storeys of buildings, while the upper floors hung over the street.
As can be seen from the above history of the City Law in Russia, it appeared here only in the second half of the 13th century. and until that time, his establishments “On the building of new houses ...” were not known in our country. We have no data to judge whether any other urban planning norms that received written fixation were known then in Russia: until our times from the 11th-13th centuries. only a small proportion of the works came down, which does not reflect the entire composition of the books that existed in Russia at that time.
However, it would be unjustified to believe that urban planning in Ancient Russia was carried out without a system: archaeological research refutes this. The Russian free-planning system most likely arose and developed on the basis of the landscape conditions of the East European Plain, the presence of certain building materials, existing aesthetic principles, traditional norms of relations between the owners of estates, as well as the rules for erecting defensive structures that existed among the Eastern Slavs. This local system, developed and put into practice over many centuries, has, at least since the advent of translated Byzantine statutes and rites of consecration, received written form and authoritative support in legal collections recognized by the Church. XVI-XVII centuries - this is exactly the time when the construction of cities could already be carried out on the basis of existing written norms
1.2 Types of cities in the Russian state of the XVI-XVII centuries
Cities built in Russia before the 18th century were irregular and had a free planning structure. For a long time, this was explained by the fact that such cities arose spontaneously or were formed from overgrown villages and villages. This point of view was led by insufficient knowledge of the history of Russian urban planning. Russian ancient cities were denied the presence of an urban planning concept in them.
Therefore, the reconstruction of such cities was carried out without taking into account their original system and artistic patterns.
As a result, urban planning mistakes were made, which often led to the death of the expressive silhouettes of ancient cities.
The reconstruction of free-planning cities in accordance with the requirements of the regular system began to be carried out from the end of the 18th century. This process continues up to the present day, as a result of which ancient Russian architecture has suffered irreparable losses. During the reconstruction, many architectural monuments were demolished; the surviving ancient buildings often fell into the "well" of new development. Mass new construction did not take into account the spatial system of historical cities, their artistic patterns.
This was especially pronounced in large cities (Moscow, Novgorod, Kursk, Orel, Pskov, Gorky, Smolensk, etc.); medium and small ones were less distorted. In addition, the reconstruction did not take into account the natural landscape of the area. For the convenience of new construction in the old parts of the city, the city territory was leveled: ditches, ravines were filled up, rocky outcrops were smoothed out.
All this caused alarm in the general scientific community. By this time, historical science already had fundamental works on the history of cities by academicians M.N. Tikhomirova, B.A. Rybakova, L.V. Cherepnin and others. But the city planners, unfortunately, did not use their work.
Reconstruction and construction in ancient cities were carried out without a scientific, historical and architectural background.
Management of the Russian state of the XVI-XVII centuries. was based on the principles of centralized, autocratic power. It can be assumed that the same strict organization was also the basis of urban planning.
In the XVI and XVII centuries. more than 200 new cities were built; at the same time, the reconstruction of the ancient ones was carried out. Without a well-thought-out, well-organized urban planning system, it would be impossible to create such a number of cities in a short time. The emergence of new state institutions - orders and contributed to the streamlining of urban planning.
In the XVI - early XVIII century. orders were central government bodies in Russia and permanent institutions in the Russian centralized state, in contrast to the temporary and flexible form of government in the period of feudal fragmentation. Each order was in charge of the range of issues entrusted to it.
However, cases related to the construction of cities were in the archives of various orders. So in the Discharge Order, which was in charge of the personnel and service of the local troops, the largest number of cases related to the construction of cities, as well as hand-drawn drawings of the cities, was kept.
The archives of the Local Order, which was in charge of providing the troops with land, kept scribe and census books for the territory under its jurisdiction. These books are the most important documents, on the basis of which taxes were collected, patrimonial and local land ownership was accurately recorded.
Therefore, in the office work of the Local Order, hand-drawn drawings were necessarily drawn up, which have survived to this day and give a vivid idea of the land plots, cities and villages of the 16th-17th centuries.
The restructuring of the Yamskaya chase system (this restructuring was due to the fact that the growth of cities made it necessary to streamline communication between them) led to the creation of the Yamsky order. A large number of cases relating to the construction of cities are in the funds of the Posolsky order, the order of the Kazan Palace and the Siberian order.
There was also a special order of the City Affairs, first mentioned in 1577-1578. New materials with documents of the City Order were found by V.I. Buganov in the TsGADA as part of the fund of Livonian and Estonian affairs. These documents, published in 1965, reveal the activities of the City Order. The order organized a pit service in Livonian cities, provided service people with bread and other products, distributed salaries to them, repaired Livonian fortresses taken by the Russians, and erected fortifications.
By the middle of the XVII century. the number of orders reached 80. This complex, cumbersome system of administration was not able to cope with the tasks facing the emerging absolutist state.
The diversity, diversity of orders, the fuzziness of the distribution of areas of administration between them led to their elimination at the beginning of the 18th century. The longest-lived Siberian order, which was in effect until the middle of the 18th century.
All the vast material of the clerk's office work was little used in order to identify the documents contained in it related to urban planning. The study of these archives from this point of view is just beginning, but already the first steps taken in this direction make it possible to imagine the methods of building cities in the 16th-17th centuries, to establish their types.
In addition to state cities in the XVI-XVII centuries. there were still privately owned cities. An example of privately owned cities is the "muzhik city" Shestakov, built in the middle of the 16th century. on the old riverbed Vyatka. It is known that a number of privately owned cities in the XVI and XVII centuries. were built by the Stroganovs in central Russia, in the north of the European part in Siberia.
The construction of state cities was sometimes entrusted to private individuals. So, in 1645, the guest Mikhail Guryev was allowed to build a stone city on Yaik, and for this, the Yaik and Embi fisheries were given to him for a seven-year maintenance without dues. However, the son of a boyar, subordinate to the governor, was assigned to supervise the work. For privately owned cities during this period there was state supervision, and it was possible to build them only with the permission of the government. When Bogdan Yakovlevich Velsky in 1600 began to build the city of Tsarev-Borisov at his own expense, this served as a pretext for his cruel punishment by the Godunovs.
Privately owned and state cities differed from each other in the form of government. In the XVI century. the management of state cities was carried out through city clerks, chosen from among the county service people, subordinate to the governors, and in the 17th century. - through the governor, subordinate to orders. This form of city management made it possible to exercise royal power in the localities, to receive all the income that went from the urban population to the state. Privately owned cities were managed by the owner of the city or by a person subordinate to him and controlled by him. All income from such a city was received by its owner.
In addition, the cities of this period can be classified according to another feature - functional. Cities were built and developed depending on state needs. A large number of cities performed administrative functions. The so-called industrial cities were widely used, where salt production and metal processing developed. There were cities that specialized in trade. Many of them, having arisen in antiquity, acquired commercial significance only during the formation of a centralized state. Port cities stood out among the trading cities.
However, regardless of the main socio-economic purpose, all cities in the ХV1-ХVП centuries. performed a defensive function. The defense of the country was a matter of state. Therefore, the city had to organize the protection of not only the townspeople, but also the inhabitants of the whole county. The nature of their fortifications and general appearance was strictly regulated by the state.
2. General provisions for the planning of new Russian cities of the 16th century
2.1 Peculiarities of town planning of border towns-fortresses
The devastation caused by the Tatar raids, which again became more frequent from the second half of the 14th century, forced the Russian population to abandon the most fertile lands and move north of the steppe to areas more or less protected by forests and rivers. By the end of the XIV century. The main burden of the fight against the Tatars was assumed by the Ryazan principality, which was forced to set up guard posts far in the steppe to warn the population about the movements of nomads. Rare settlements of Ryazanians ended near the mouth of the river. Voronezh, then a devastated strip began, reaching the river. Medveditsa, beyond which the nomad camps of the Tatars were already located.
At the end of the 15th century, after the complete subjugation of the Ryazan principality, Moscow inherited all the concerns of the Ryazan people to protect the southeastern outskirts of the state. Initially, the Moscow government limited itself to strengthening the protection of the river bank. Oka, for which service Tatar "princes" were used, located in a number of cities along the Oka (Kashira, Serpukhov, Kasimov, etc.). Soon, however, the insufficiency of this measure became clear. In 1521, the combined forces of the Crimean and Kazan Tatars broke through to Moscow, and although they did not take the capital, they devastated its environs and took with them a huge number of prisoners. The raid of 1521 prompted the united Russian state to organize the defense system of its southern and eastern border in a new way. First of all, it was necessary to pay attention to the southern front, as the most dangerous, replete with Tatar paths, along which nomads from the steppes quickly made their way to the borders of Russia. Regiments began to be sent regularly to the "shore", and guard detachments were deployed to the south of the Oka. In the 50s of the XVI century. the locations of the troops were fortified, shafts were drawn between them, and notches were arranged in wooded places and, thus, the first line of defense was created - the so-called Tula notch line. This feature included the reconstructed fortresses of a number of old cities and three newly built cities - Volkhov, Shatsk and Dedilov.
In 1576, the border line was supplemented by a number of reconstructed cities - fortresses and several new ones. At the same time, the border significantly advanced one edge to the west (fortified cities of Pochep, Starodub, Serpeysk).
Under the protection of the fortified line, the population quickly spread to the south. For the security of the newly occupied lands from Tatar raids, it was necessary to push strongly to the south and the fortified border of the state. As a result, the government of Tsar Fedor - Boris Godunov vigorously continued the urban planning activities of Ivan IV. In March 1586, an order was given to put on the river. Fast Pine Livny, on the river. Voronezh - Voronezh. In 1592, the city of Yelets was restored, and in 1593-94. cities were built: Belgorod, later transferred to another place, Stary Oskol, Valuyki, Kromy, in 1597 Kursk was rebuilt and, finally, the last in the 16th century. was built on the river. Oskol city of Tsarevo-Borisov, the most advanced to the south.
The implementation of an extensive urban planning program and the intensive settlement of the southern outskirts connected with this secured the state from the south and significantly increased the economic and cultural significance of this most fertile region.
From the middle of the same century, a number of new cities were being built on the eastern outskirts of the Russian state.
Geographical conditions made it extremely difficult for the Russian people to fight against the nomads. The bare, uninhabited steppes, the vast length of the borders, the absence of clear and strong natural boundaries south of the Oka - all this required tremendous effort in the fight against the mobile, semi-wild nomads. Already by the beginning of the XVI century. it became clear that only passive defense in the form of a fortified border line was far from sufficient to secure the state from the devastation of its outskirts.
Only a strong centralized state could resist their onslaught. As I.V. Stalin “... the interests of defense against the invasion of the Turks, Mongols and other peoples of the East demanded the immediate formation of centralized states capable of withstanding the pressure of the invasion. And since in the east of Europe the process of the emergence of centralized states was faster than the process of folding people into nations, mixed states were formed there, consisting of several peoples that had not yet formed into a nation, but were already united in a common state.
A major step in this direction was the conquest of the Kazan Khanate, which constantly threatened the Russian state from the east. Until the beginning of the XVI century. Nizhny Novgorod, located at a distance of about 400 km from Kazan and separated from it by vast desert spaces, was the most significant point that could serve to monitor the actions of the Tatars. Therefore, in order to prevent unexpected invasions of the Tatars in the Volga region, it was very important here, as well as on the southern outskirts, to advance the fortified cities, using them for observation and defense, as well as points of concentration of the population. They were supposed to serve as shelters for messengers and merchants heading to Kazan. The first such point was the new city of Vasil-Sursk, built in 1523 on the upland side of the Volga, at the confluence of the river. Sura. The construction of this city advanced the front line of defense 150 km down the Volga. The Sura, which used to be a frontier river, is now firmly attached to the Russian state. Nevertheless, Kazan was still far away and, as a number of unsuccessful campaigns showed, the remoteness of the strongholds prevented decisive measures against the Kazan Khanate.
Retreating in 1549 from Kazan after an unsuccessful siege, Ivan IV stopped on the river. Sviyage and drew attention to the convenience of this area for the construction of a solid military base, which was supposed to "inflict crowding on the Kazan land." The place chosen for the device of the city was on a rounded high hill at the confluence of the river. Sviyaga to the Volga, just 20 km from Kazan. The elevated position of the city should have made it impregnable, especially during the spring flood. Its location at the mouth of the Sviyaga blocked access to the Volga for the local peoples who lived in the basin of this river and helped the Kazan Tatars a lot, and its proximity to Kazan made it possible to organize a first-class base for a future siege. So that the Kazan people would not interfere with the construction of the city, all parts of its fortifications and the main internal structures were prepared in the depths of the country - in the Uglitsky district. Thanks to the measures taken, the landing of the builders and the assembly of the city from the prepared parts were carried out in complete secrecy, and the city (in 1551) was built in just four weeks. The calculations of Ivan IV were fully justified. Already immediately after the construction of the city, called Sviyazhsk, the population of the upland side (Chuvash, Cheremis, Mordovians) expressed a desire to join the Russians, and Kazan agreed to recognize the king of the Russian protege Shig-Aley.
Soon, however, the hostile actions of the Tatars forced Ivan IV to undertake a new campaign to conquer Kazan. In 1552, after a long and difficult campaign, the Russian army reached its base, Sviyazhsk. Here the soldiers had the opportunity to rest and refresh themselves, because food supplies were brought along the Volga in such abundance that, in the words of Kurbsky, each participant in the campaign came here "as if in his own home." After a month and a half siege, Kazan was taken, and Sviyazhsk, thus, brilliantly fulfilled the task assigned to it.
In 1556, shortly after the capture of Kazan, it was annexed to the Russian state without a fight and Astrakhan was fortified. The consolidation of the mouth of the Volga for Russia made it finally a river of the Russian state, and the movement of the Russian people resumed in the Volga region, interrupted for a long time in the 13th century. Tatar invasion.
The Kazan nobility did not abandon their attempts to regain their dominant position. In its struggle, it relied on the top of the nationalities that were once part of the Kazan Khanate. There remained a constant threat of attacks on Russian merchant ships and caravans traveling along the Volga, on Russian peaceful settlements that grew up in the Middle Volga region, and on the possessions of Russian feudal lords.
A considerable influence on the choice of a place for the first cities of the Volga region was exerted by the desire to reduce the distance between those points along the Volga route where ships could stop - to stock up on food and replenish their service people. In the light of these circumstances, it becomes clear that in 1556 the city of Cheboksary (now the capital of the Chuvash ASSR) was established on the elevated bank of the Volga at the confluence of the Cheboksarka River, almost in the middle of the way between Nizhny Novgorod and Kazan
Later, in connection with the uprising of the Cheremis, another city was built, this time on the meadow side of the Volga, between Cheboksary and Sviyazhsk. This city, built between the mouths of two significant rivers - the Bolshaya and Malaya Kokshaga, received the name Kokshaysk (now the city of Yoshkar-Ola - the capital of the Mari ASSR) with the epithet "new city", which was applied to it for several years.
A special group is formed by new cities built to control river transport through the Kama and the Volga. So, in order to protect against the "arrival of the Nogai people" in 1557, the city of Laishev was placed on the right, elevated bank of the river. Kama, not far from its mouth. Shortly after Laishev, for the same purpose, the city of Tetyushi was built on the right side of the Volga, 40 km below the confluence of the Kama.
The town-planning policy of Ivan IV in the Volga region was continued by the government of Tsar Fedor - Boris Godunov, who built the cities of Tsivilsk, Urzhum and others.
Of particular importance for the protection of the region was the device of the city at the mouth of the river. Samara. The Samara River most of all attracted the attention of the Nogais, as the most convenient place for nomadism in the summer and for crossing. In addition, there were places on the Samara bow where the Cossacks could easily hide and from where they could unexpectedly attack the Volga caravans. In addition, at the mouth of the Samara, it was most convenient to arrange a good pier for ships. These circumstances explain the construction in 1586 of the first grassroots city of Samara (now the city of Kuibyshev). At the same time, the city of Ufa (now the capital of the Bashkir Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic) was built on the tributary of the Kama - the Belaya River - the city of Ufa, also intended, apparently, to protect against the Nogais.
Another place on the Volga, which was of great strategic importance, was undoubtedly the so-called "Perevoloka", where the Volga approaches another important water artery - the Don. "Perevoloka" could be used by the Nogais who wanted to get into the Crimea, and also as a junction of the Crimean Tatars with the Nogais for the joint robbery of the Russian outskirts. It is therefore natural that here, at the confluence of the Tsaritsa River into the Volga, a new city was built - Tsaritsyn (now the city of Stalingrad), the first reliable information about which dates back to 1589. Somewhat later "on the left bank of the Volga, also for strategic reasons, was the city of Saratov was built, 10 kilometers higher than the present Saratov, which arose already at the beginning of the 17th century. on the other side.
2.2 Russian fortified cities of the 16th century
The energetic urban planning activity of the Russian state, due to the need to protect and advance its borders, caused shifts in planning technology. Throughout the 16th century these shifts affected mainly the fortified elements of the city - kremlins, prisons.
Previously, during the period of feudal fragmentation, the fortifications of the city were usually aimed at protecting the population and its wealth, concentrated within the walls. Fortresses thus played a passive role in the defense of the country. Now new fortresses are being built, and the old frontier towns are again being fortified as strongholds for sentry and stanitsa service and for accommodating troops, who, at the first signal, rush to the enemy who appeared near the border. The center of gravity of the defense is transferred from the fortress to the field, and the fortress itself becomes only a temporary shelter for the garrison, which needs protection only from a sudden attack.
In addition, the fortresses were not the objects of attack by the nomad robbers, whose main goal was to break through in any gap between the fortified points to the territory of peaceful settlements, plunder them, take away the prisoners and quickly hide in the "wild field". The steppe nomads could not and never tried to conduct a proper siege or destroy cities. However, quite often they dug a shaft in some place, cut through gouges and in other similar ways tried to get inside the fortress.
The rounded shape of the fortress with passive defense and primitive military equipment gave a number of advantages. It provided the largest capacity for a fortified point with the smallest defensive fence line and, therefore, required a minimum number of defenders on the walls. In addition, with a rounded shape, there were no so-called "dead" angles of fire.
With the transition from passive to active defense, with the development of firearms, with the device of peals and towers for flank shelling, the rounded shape of the fortress fence loses its advantages and preference is given to the quadrangular shape of the fortification, and with a significant size of the city - polygonal (polygonal). Although the configuration of the fortress is still greatly influenced by topographic conditions, now in each case the choice of a specific configuration is already a compromise between them and a quadrangle (or polygon), and not a circle or an oval, as it was before. At the end of the XV - beginning of the XVI centuries. the shape of a rectangle (or a regular polygon) is already clearly expressed in Russian urban planning.
In 1509, Tula, which shortly before passed to the Muscovite state, was rebuilt and re-fortified as an important strategic point on the outskirts of Moscow. The former fortified place on the Tulitsa River was abandoned, and on the left bank of the river. Upa, a new fortress was laid in the form of a double oak wall with cuts and towers. The new wooden fortress in general took the form of a crescent, leaning on its
ends on the river bank. But already five years later, in 1514, following the model of the Moscow Kremlin, the construction of an internal stone fortress was started, which was completed in 1521.
If the fortress wall of 1509 was only a fortified bypass of a populated area, then the stone fortress, in its clear, geometrically correct form, quite clearly expressed the idea of a fortified container of the garrison, the idea of \u200b\u200ba structure that has its own regularity and does not depend on local conditions. However, in the internal planning of the fortress, the rectangular - rectilinear system did not receive a complete development. This can be seen on the plan of its restoration (Fig. 1, appendix 1), this can also be judged by the different position of the gate in the longitudinal walls.
The geometric method of construction is more clearly expressed in the Zaraisk fortress (built in 1531), where not only the external configuration, but, apparently, the internal layout was subject to a certain mathematical design. In any case, the location of the gate along two mutually perpendicular axes makes us assume the presence of two corresponding highways (Fig. 2, Appendix 1). Samples of regular fortresses, only slightly deviating from the mathematically correct form, we see on the plans of some other cities. So, for example, a fortress in the form of a relatively regular trapezoid is visible on the plan of the city of Mokshan (now the district center of the Penza region), built in 1535 (Fig. 3, appendix 1) district center of the Kursk region), built in 1593 (Fig. 5, Appendix 1). From the cities of the Volga region of the XVI century. the most regular shape (in the form of a rhombus) was obtained by the fortress of Samara (now the city of Kuibyshev), shown in fig. 4, appendix 1.
These few examples show that already in the first half of the 16th century. Russian town builders were familiar with the principles of "regular" fortification art. However, the construction of the fortresses of the Tula defensive line in the middle of the XVI century. carried on for the most part according to the old principle. The need to strengthen many points in the shortest possible time caused a desire to maximize the use of natural defensive resources (steep slopes of ravines, river banks, etc.) with a minimum addition of artificial structures.
As a rule, in cities built or reconstructed in the 16th century, the subordination of the form of a fortress to topographic conditions still dominated. This type of fortress also includes the fortifications of Sviyazhek, encircling a rounded “native” mountain in accordance with its relief (Fig. 6 and Fig. 7 Appendix 1).
Historical and social conditions of the XVI century. influenced the planning of the “residential” part of the new cities, i.e. for the planning of settlements and settlements.
It should be emphasized that the state, building new cities, sought to use them primarily as points of defense. The restless situation in the vicinity of cities prevented the creation of a normal agricultural base, which was necessary for their development as settlements. Cities on the outskirts of the state had to be supplied with everything necessary from the central regions.
Some of the new cities, such as Kursk and especially Voronezh, due to their favorable location, quickly acquired commercial importance, but, as a rule, during the 16th century. the new cities remained purely military settlements. This does not mean, of course, that their inhabitants were engaged only in military affairs. As you know, service people in their free time were engaged in crafts, crafts, trade, and agriculture. The military character of the settlements was reflected mainly in the very composition of the population.
In all the new cities we meet an insignificant number of so-called "residential" people - townspeople and peasants. The bulk of the “population was made up of service (i.e. military) people. But unlike the central cities, the lowest category of servicemen prevailed here - “instrument” people: Cossacks, archers, spearmen, gunners, zatinshchiks, collars, security guards, state blacksmiths, carpenters, etc. In an insignificant number among the population of new cities there were nobles and children boyar. The predominance of service people in the composition of the population of the lowest rank should undoubtedly have been reflected in the nature of land ownership.
The supply of service people with everything necessary from the center made it extremely difficult for the treasury, which sought, wherever possible, to increase the number of "local" people who received land plots instead of salaries. As the advanced positions moved south, the previously built fortresses spontaneously overgrown with settlements and settlements. If the construction of the fortress itself was the work of state bodies, then the building and settlement of the settlements in the 16th century. occurred, apparently, as a result of local initiative on lands allocated by the state.
From the surviving orders to the governors-builders of the late 16th century. it can be seen that the military people went to the newly built cities only for a certain period, after which they disbanded and were replaced by new ones.
Even much later, namely in the first half * of the 17th century, the government, carried out, did not immediately decide on the forcible resettlement of military people “with wives and children and with all their bellies” to new cities “for eternal life”. From this it is clear why in the cities built in the 16th century there is still no regular planning of residential areas. In almost all these cities, at least in the parts closest to the fortress, the street network developed according to the traditional radial system, showing a tendency, on the one hand, to the fortified center, and on the other hand, to the roads to the surroundings and neighboring villages. In some cases, a tendency to the formation of ring directions is noticeable.
Carefully considering the plans of new cities of the 16th century, one can still notice in many of them a calmer and more correct outline of quarters than in old cities, the desire for a uniform width of quarters and other signs of rational planning. The irregularities, kinks, and dead ends encountered here are the result of the gradual unregulated growth of the city, in many cases - adaptation to difficult topographic conditions. They have little in common with the bizarre capricious forms in the plans of the old cities - Vyazma, Rostov the Great, Nizhny Novgorod and others.
New cities of the 16th century almost did not know the remnants of the land chaos of the period of feudal fragmentation, which so hampered the rational development of old cities. It is also possible that the governors, who monitored the state of the fortified city, to a certain extent paid attention to the planning of the settlements that arose in new cities, as a rule, on lands free from development, to the observance of some order in the tracing of streets and roads that had military significance. The distribution of plots near the city was undoubtedly to be regulated by the governors, because the organization of the border defense covered a significant territory on both sides of the fortified line.
The foregoing is confirmed by the plans of the cities of Volkhov, first mentioned in 1556 (Fig. 8, Appendix 1), and Alatyr, the first reliable information about which dates back to 1572 (Fig. 9, Appendix 1).
In these plans, immediately from the square adjacent to the Kremlin, a slender fan of radial streets is visible. Some breaks in them do not in the least interfere with the clarity of the overall system. In both plans, groups of quarters of uniform width are noticeable, which indicates a certain desire for standardization of estates. We see a sharp change in the size of the quarters and a violation of the overall harmony of the planning system only on the outskirts of the suburbs, where the settlements developed, apparently, independently and only later merged with the cities into a common array.
In the plans of these cities there are streets, as if revealing a desire to form quadrangular quarters. A similarity of a rectangular-rectilinear layout is more definitely expressed in the fortified settlement of the city of Tsivilsk (built in 1584), where the desire is clearly visible to divide the entire, albeit very small, territory into rectangular quarters (Fig. 10, appendix 1) p. The planning of this settlement was associated, as an exception for the 16th century, with an organized settlement of a certain group of people.
3. The development of Russian urban planning in the 17th century. on the territory of the European part of the Russian state
3.1 Features of the construction of Russian cities in the XVII century
During the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich, the construction of new cities received significant development in connection with the further strengthening and expansion of state borders. New cities that have been created since that time on the territory of the European part of Russia can be divided into three groups:
Cities that were built by the government and populated by Russian "translators" and "skhodtsy" for the defense of the central part of the state and the newly occupied territories in the "wild field", i.e. in the steppe, “not belonging to any nationalities and only temporarily occupied by the nomadic Tatars.
Cities that were built and settled with the permission and with the assistance of the Moscow government by Ukrainian immigrants from the Polish-Lithuanian state (the Commonwealth). These cities had a dual purpose: firstly, as a refuge for the population who fled from the oppression of the Polish-Lithuanian pans; secondly, as points of defense of the southern and southwestern borders of the Russian state.
Cities that were built by the government to consolidate and expand their influence in the Volga region among the peoples that joined the centralized Russian state.
The first group of cities arose mainly in connection with the design of the so-called Belgorod line as an extreme border line. This feature included 27 cities, and half of them were founded in the previous reign. Of the cities located on the very Belgorod line, only Ostrogozhsk and Akhtyrka were arranged by Ukrainian immigrants and therefore should be assigned to the second group. Most of the fortresses of the Belgorod line in the XVIII century. ceased to exist as cities and therefore was not subjected to topographic surveys in the period preceding the massive urban redevelopment. Of the few city plans of this group that have come down to us, the plans of Korotoyak and Belgorod are of the greatest interest.
The city of Korotoyak was built in 1648 on the right bank of the Don at the confluence of the rivers Korotoyachki and Voronka. The fortress was a regular quadrangle (almost a square) with a perimeter of about 1000 m (Fig. 1, Appendix 2).
According to the inventory of 1648, inside the fortress there were: a cathedral, a moving out hut, a voivodship house and, which is of the greatest interest to us, siege yards for 500 people. Three settlements for 450 servicemen were located around the "city" with a distance of 64 m from it. The population consisted of immigrants who came from Voronezh, Efremov, Lebedyan, Epifan, Dankov and other places. Apparently, the resettlement was accompanied by simultaneous land management, since the plan clearly shows the desire to place estate plots in quarters of uniform width, forming an approximate rectangular-rectilinear system that covered all three settlements, i.e. the entire residential area as a whole. There is no longer a trace of the traditional network of gradual radial-circular growth around the Kremlin, but nevertheless, the fortress with its 30-yard (64 m) esplanade forms a clear city center, clearly included in the overall composition of the plan.
The main point of the Belgorod line - the city of Belgorod was founded under Tsar Fedor Ivanovich in 1593. From the "Book of the Big Drawing" we learn that Belgorod stood on the right side of the Donets, on White Mountain, and after the "Lithuanian ruin" was moved to the other side Donets. Subsequently (not later than 1665) Belgorod was again moved to the right bank, to the place where it is located at the present time.
In 1678 Belgorod was already one of the most significant cities of the Russian state. According to the description, it consisted of an inner wooden prison with a perimeter of about 649 sazhens. (1385 w) with 10 towers and an outer earthen rampart with a perimeter of 1588 sazhens (3390 m) that covered the city from the Vezelka River to the Donets River.
In the city plan of 1767 (Fig. 2, appendix 2), three main parts are visible: the central fortress of a regular quadrangular shape and two massifs of suburban buildings - eastern and western. The earthen rampart that covered the entire complex has already disappeared, but the contour of the developed territory can be used to judge its former position.
On the plan of the Belgorod fortress of the XVII century. (Fig. 3, appendix 3) its internal layout is clearly visible. A long rectangular square stretched along the entire northern longitudinal wall with various buildings rarely located on it. In the middle, a rectangular square also adjoins it, deepening into the fortress to the south. So about-
at once, we got a total T-shaped area, with a short vertical part, on which the cathedral church with a separate bell tower was located. On the eastern side of the cathedral square is a large rectangular quarter of the metropolitan courtyard, which occupies almost a quarter of the entire built-up territory of the fortress; on the western side - a smaller "residential" courtyard, fenced, according to the description of 1678, with oak logs. The rest of the territory of the fortress is divided into relatively regular rectangular quarters of various sizes, in which 76 courtyards of the military authorities and the clergy, as well as some of the Belgorod "residential" people, were placed. In contrast to the layout of the kremlin in the old cities, which bears traces of gradual development, there undoubtedly took place a regular breakdown according to a premeditated plan, subject to a certain compositional design.
The eastern part of the suburb, apparently, is of an earlier origin. It has all the features of old towns that slowly grew up according to a primitive radial system, with an extremely irregular network of streets and lanes, and with quarters of the most indefinite form. The complete opposite of it is the Streltsy settlement, located, according to the description, outside the city - between the rampart and the river Vezelka, that is, as the western settlement is located on the plan. The rectangular-rectilinear layout, although not fully expressed here, is nevertheless clearer than in all previously considered plans, and, in addition, covers the territory of a large independent region. Attention is drawn to the relatively small size of the quarters in width, which corresponds to the above description, according to which the voivodship yard had dimensions of 26X22 sazhens. (55X47 m), and the yards of tenants - 6X5 soots. (13X10.5 m).
Let us now turn to the consideration of new cities, the emergence or settlement of which was caused by the mass transfer of the Ukrainian population to the territory of the Russian state.
The resettlement of small groups from Lithuania began already from the time it conquered a number of Russian principalities. At the end of the XVI century. under the influence of serfdom and the persecution of national culture, the number of Ukrainians entering the Russian state service increases significantly. However, until 1639, Lithuanian immigrants settled in the outskirts of Russian cities and became the same subjects as Russian service people. In 1638, after an unsuccessful uprising in Ukraine, caused by the intensification of the Polish policy of cruel national oppression, about a thousand Cossacks with their families and all household property came to Belgorod at once, led by Hetman Yatsk Ostrenin. Among the arrivals were many peasants and artisans. The newcomers turned to the tsar with a request to take them under their protection and "set them up for eternal life on the Chuguevsky settlement", and they undertook to "set up the city and the prison themselves." Chuguevo settlement was located in the steppe, far ahead of the state border, grain stocks could be delivered there only with great dangers, but nevertheless the Moscow government allowed the Ukrainian emigrants to build a city for themselves, since in this way they received an advanced stronghold in the fight against ta-
containers. In addition, the considerations of the newcomers themselves were taken into account that if they were sent in batches to different cities, then on the way they would lose all their cattle and bees, and from this they would “become impoverished” p.
Soon a fortress and courtyard estates were built with the help of a government grant, and thus a new city with a population of several thousand people immediately arose. The founding of Chuguev laid the foundation for the organized settlement of a large region, which later received the name of Sloboda Ukraine.
Events in the first half of the 17th century strengthened among Ukrainians the consciousness of their national affinity with the Russian people, strengthened them in the idea that only in fraternal unity with them lies the solution of the task of national liberation facing the Ukrainian people. But until 1651, the Ukrainian Cossacks still had hopes of achieving freedom through independent struggle. After the heavy defeat that the Ukrainian army suffered near Berestechko in 1651, these hopes collapsed, and Bogdan Khmelnitsky ... “ordered the people to freely leave the cities, throwing their stuffings to the Poltava region and abroad near Great Russia, and would have settled there in cities. And from that hour they began to settle down: Sumi, Lebedin, Kharkov, Akhtirka and all the settlements even to the Don River by the Cossack people. Such a settlement, of course, had to take place in a certain order and be accompanied by a breakdown of the residential area into standard estate plots, and therefore, to a certain extent, be accompanied by a regular planning of cities.
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Typology of the planning structure of cities: compact type, dissected, dispersed, linear. The main elements of the city. The essence of urban planning principles and requirements, methods of organizing the system of streets. Negative trends in urban development.
abstract, added 12/12/2010
The role of fortification in the history of the Russian state. The main forms of planning of settlements in Belarus: crowded (unsystematic), linear (ordinary) and street. The emergence of religious complexes with a developed defensive function (monasteries).
test, added 05/10/2012
The influence of geomorphological conditions on the emergence and growth of cities. Natural conditions that change the relief of urban areas. Development of landslides and ravines, flooding of the territory. Geomorphological processes leading to the disappearance of cities.
term paper, added 06/08/2012
Artificial lighting as an integral element of urban planning in the creation of new and reconstruction of old cities. Study of the features of the construction of street lighting, the installation of supports. The study of the norms of illumination of streets, roads and squares of the city.
test, added 03/17/2013
World historical experience and the development of open urban spaces. Varieties of urban spaces of Ancient Egypt. Medieval squares: shopping, cathedral and town hall. The revival of Roman cities after the destruction and the city of Kievan Rus.
abstract, added 03/09/2012
Modern problems of urban reconstruction in modern socio-economic conditions. Ensuring the integrity of the architectural and spatial organization of districts. Preservation and renewal of the historical environment. Ways of reservation of territories.
