Spiritual knightly orders - briefly. Hospitallers Hospitaller coat of arms
The Hospitaller Order is the most famous and illustrious of spiritual knightly orders... Its full name is the Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order of St. John of Jerusalem of Rhodes and Malta. The seat of the Order, since 1834, is located in Rome on Via Condotti. The Order also owns the Palace of the Grand Masters on the Aventine Hill.
The history of the Jerusalem, Rhodes and Maltese sovereign military Order of the Hospitallers of St. John, also called the Order of the Johannites, or Hospitallers, has its roots in antiquity.
The well-known historian G. Shikluna, who worked for a long time as director of the Valletta National Library, writes that the first mention of the Hospitaller monastic brotherhood dates back to the 4th century AD. e., when Christian pilgrims rushed to the Holy Places.
The brotherhood got its name from the hospital, or hospice, founded by him in Jerusalem. The hospital in Jerusalem continued its existence even after the seizure of the Holy Places of Christianity by Muslims. The monks gave shelter to pilgrims and treated the sick.
Between 1023 and 1040, several merchants from Amalfi, a city on the southern coast of Italy, which until the end of the 16th century was one of the centers of Levantine trade, founded a new hospital, or, more likely, restored an old one, destroyed by order of the Egyptian caliph Hakim. The hospital was located in Jerusalem, not far from the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, and consisted of two separate buildings - for men and women. During his reign, the Church of Mary Latin was built, in which the Benedictine monks performed services. The day of commemoration of John the Baptist in the church calendar has become the most solemn holiday of the Johannites.
Brotherhood and crusades
The importance of the Hospitaller brotherhood increased especially during the era of the Crusades (1096-1291). When on July 15, 1099, during the first crusade, the crusaders under the leadership of Gottfried of Bouillon entered Jerusalem, they found the hospital operational. In gratitude for the help in the capture of the city, Gottfried of Bouillon generously awarded the Hospitallers. However, what exactly this assistance consisted of is not known for certain.
Only a legend has survived to this day that Gerard, the head of the monastic brotherhood, selflessly tried to help his fellow believers during the siege. Knowing that famine had begun in the camp of the besiegers, he threw freshly baked bread from the city wall onto the heads of the soldiers of Gottfried of Bouillon. Gerard was seized, he was threatened with death, from which he was miraculously delivered: in front of the judges before whom he appeared, the bread turned into stones. Many knights have entered the fraternity; it soon took over the protection of the pilgrims on their travels to the Holy Places. Hospitallers not only built hospitals, but also fortified fortresses along the roads of the pilgrims.
Brotherhood to become an order
The head of the Hospitaller brotherhood (in the days of the first crusade he was called rector), Brother Gerard was a native of Provence or Amalfi. Apparently, Gerard possessed not only a remarkable piety, which allowed the Hospitallers to rank him among the saints, but was, as often happened with the saints, an efficient organizer. Through his efforts, the brotherhood was transformed into a monastic order. When its members came to the Church of the Holy Sepulcher and, in the presence of the Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem, pronounced three monastic vows - obedience, piety and non-covetousness, they could hardly assume that the new Order was destined to outlive all the other medieval knightly orders and survive until the end of the 20th century.
Order Of Malta
Posted by Melphys K.
Posted by Melphys K.
Order of the Hospitallers (John)
(Alliance de Chevalerie des Hospitaliers de Saint Jean de Jerusalem)
(Brief Historical Sketch)
Part 1.
This Order is perhaps the oldest known twelve monastic and knightly Orders of the Middle Ages.
Of this dozen, the most noticeable trace in the history of the Middle Ages in general, and in particular in the history of the Crusades, were left by three - the Hospitallers, the Templars and the Teutons. The Order of the Knights Templar ceased to exist in the first half of the XIV century, the other two still exist, although now they do not play any noticeable political and military-political role. They degenerated into charitable public organizations, i.e. returned to the state from which they began.
This Order is known under a number of names and, moreover, its names have changed over time.
In Russia, it is known under the following names:
*Hospitable House of Jerusalem Hospital;
* Order of St. John of Alexandria;
* Order of St. John the Baptist;
* Order of St. John of Jerusalem;
* Order of St. John;
*Order of Malta;
* Order of the Hospitallers;
* Order of the Johannites.
The name is known in French:
* Alliance de Chevalerie des Hospitaliers de Saint Jean de Jerusalem- Knightly Hospital Union of St. Jean of Jerusalem.
The names are known in English:
*Religious Military Order of the Roman Catholic Church-Religious Military Order of the Roman Catholic Church;
* Order of Saint John-Order of Saint John;
* Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order of Malta-Sovereign Military Hospital Order of Malta;
* Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order of Saint John of Jerusalem, of Rhodes and of Malta- Independent Military Hospital Order of St. John of Jerusalem of Rhodes and Malta;
* The Chivalric Alliance of Hospitallers of Saint John of Jerusalem- Knight's Hospital Union of St. John of Jerusalem;
* The Order of St. John of Jerusalem-Order of St. John of Jerusalem;
* The Order of the Knights of Malta-Order of the Knights of Malta;
* Sovereign Military Order-Sovereign Military Order.
The abbreviation is also known S.M.H.O.M. - S overeign M ilitary H ospitaller O rder of M alta.
The name Sovereign Military Order of Saint John of Jerusalem, of Rhodes and Malta (Sovereign Order of Saint John of Jerusalem, Rhodes and Malta) was incorporated into the title of the Order in 1936. The word Hospitaller was adopted in the 19th century and added to the pre-existing name. The word Sovereign was added after the loss of Malta in 1800 to reflect an autonomous extra-territorial principle; the words Military and of Malta do not reflect the modern meaning, but reflect its historical and knightly traditions.
The leaders of the Order were called:
* until the summer of 1099 -Rector;
* summer 1099 - 1489 - Founder and Director only Gerard, subsequent ones - Magistery;
* 1489 -1805 - Grand Magistery;
* 1805-28.3.1879 - Lieutenant Magistery;
* 28.3.1879-present time -Grand Master (Grand Magistery);
From the author. In our literature, it is more customary to call the leaders of the Orders "Grandmaster" or "Grand Master" instead of "Grand Master". This is no longer a philological dispute and has no fundamental significance.
The order was led at different times (the list is incomplete):
* 1070 (1080?, 1099?) -1120 - Gerard Beatified;
* 1120-1160 - Raymond du Puy;
*? - 1217-? -Garen de Montagu;
*? -1309 -? - Fulk de Villaret
*? - 1441-? -de Lastic (de Lastic);
*? -1476-? -Helion Villeneuve
*? - 1481 - Pierre d "Aubusson (Pierre d" Aubusson);
* 1481 -1534 -Philippe Villiers l "Isle Adam (Philippe Villiers de Lisle Adam);
* 1534-? Juan de Jomenes;
* 1557-1568 - Jean Parisot de la Valette;
* 1568-1572 -Pietro del Monte;
* 1572-1582 -Jean de la Cassiere (Jean de la Cassiere);
*? - 1603 - Alof de Vignacourt;
*? - 1657 -Lascaris (Laskaris);
* 1657-? -Martin de Redin (Martin de Redin);
*? - 1685-? -Carafa;
* 1697-1720 -Raymund de Rocaful;
? -? -Pinto de Fonseca (Pinto de Fonseca);
*? - 1797 - Emmanuel de Rohan (Emmanuel de Rohan);
* 1797-1798 Ferdinand von Hompesch
* 1798-1801 -Pavel Petrovich Romanov (Holstein-Gottorp);
* 1803-1805 - Giovanni-Battista Tommasi (Giovanni Battista Tomassi);
* 15.6.1805-17.6.1805 -Innico-Maria Guevara-Suardo (Innico-Maria Guevara-Sardo);
* 17.6.1805-5.12.1805 - Giuseppe Caracciolo (Giuseppe Carazziolo)
* 5.12.1805-1814 -Innico-Maria Guevara-Suardo (Innico-Maria Guevara-Sardo);
* 1814-1821 -Andrea di Giovanni e Centelles (Andrea di Giovanni and Centelles);
* 1821-1834 -Antonio Busca a Milanese (Antonio Busca and Milanese);
* 1834-1846 -Carlo Candida (Carlo Candida);
* 1846-1865 -Philip von Colloredo (Phillip von Colloredo);
* 1865-1872 -Alessandro Borgia (Alexander Borgia);
* 1872-1905 - Giovanni-Battista Ceschi a Santa Croce (Giovanni-Battista Cechi and Santa Croce);
* 1905-1931 -Galeazzo von Thun und Hohenstein (Galeazzo von Thun und von Hohenstein);
* 1907-1931 - in fact, for the illness of Galeazzo, the Order was ruled by the Grandmaster's lieutenant - Pio Franchi de "Cavalieri (Pio Franchi de" Cavalieri);
* 1931-1951 -Ludovico Chigi Albani della Rovere (Ludovico Chigi Albani della Rovere);
* 1951-1955 -Antonio Hercolani-Fava-Simonetti (Antonio Gerciolani -Fava-Simonetti). (He had the title of lieutenant grandmaster);
* 1955-1962 -Ernesto Paterno Castello di Carcaci (Ernesto Paterno Castello di Karachi); (He had the title of lieutenant grandmaster);
* 1962-1988 -Angelo Mojana di Cologna (Angelo Mojana di Colona);
* 1988 - present - Andrew Bertie.
The time of the reign of Grandmaster Didier de Saint-Jaille (XIV-XV centuries) is unknown.
The Hospitaller's hallmark is the white eight-pointed cross, also known as the Maltese cross, on a black cloak. Later, from about the middle of the 12th century, a white eight-pointed cross is worn on the chest on a red supervest (a cloth vest that repeats the cut of a metal cuirass and is worn over or instead of a cuirass).
In the picture on the right, an officer of the Cavalry Regiment of the Russian Army in 1800 in a red supervest with a white Maltese cross ("the guard attached to the Grand Master"). Russian Emperor Paul I in 1798-1801 was the Grand Master of the Order of Malta.
By the early Middle Ages, Jerusalem had become a major pilgrimage site for Christians, although the hardships faced by travelers through a country of perpetual confusion, divided by wars and quarreling local leaders, combined with a long voyage across a sea filled with pirates and marauders, made this undertaking extremely dangerous.
And in the Holy Land there were almost no Christian organizations capable of providing lodging, medical care, food for the pilgrims, who, moreover, were often captured by local residents in order to obtain a ransom.
Different historical sources give different dates regarding the exact time of the birth of the Order. According to some sources, in 1070 (25 years before the First Crusade) the noble knight Gerard (Gerard?) Founded a sacred brotherhood at the already existing Hospice House in Jerusalem, which took care of Christian pilgrims. According to another version, this happened in 1080 and the founder was not a knight ..
The historian Guy Stair Sainty, today's official historiographer of the Teutonic Order, claims that most historians agree that a certain Gerard Beatified (Gerard the Blessed) hails from the city of Martigues that in the French province of Provence at the time of the capture of Jerusalem by the crusaders on July 15, 1099 was already the Rector (Rector) or the Master of the Hospital in Jerusalem.
From the author. The term "hospital", which is understood today by everyone as a military hospital or a hospital for the wounded in war, and is understood only as a purely medical institution, in those days meant a much broader concept. The Latin word "gospital" is translated as "guest". We can say that the Hospital of that time is a hotel or shelter, where the traveler can receive the whole range of services that he needs (accommodation, food, treatment, rest, protection, security, religious requirements), and to a large extent free of charge.
During the reign of Gerard, the Hospital was a purely peaceful organization. The number of beds in the hospital reached 2 thousand. The methods of the then advanced Arab medicine were used. He created the first Statutes of the Hospital, which was simply amazing for that time, characterized by the absence of any rules and regulations.
The clipping of the Jerusalem plan shows the Hospital in red.
The hospital was located near the Church of Saint John the Baptist and close to the Church of the Holy Sepulcher and the Abbey of Santa Maria Latina.
The hospital was organized in two departments - one for men dedicated to Saint John, the other (for women) dedicated to Mary Magdalen and both departments were originally under the authority of the Abbot of Santa Maria Latina.
Assistance was provided to the wounded and sick of all faiths, which brought the Hospital a lot of income from grateful patients and allowed the Hospital to become independent from the Benedictine Abbot, soon after the city was taken by the Crusaders. With independence, the Hospital abandoned the worship of Saint Benedict in favor of Saint Augustine.
In 1107, the then Christian king of Jerusalem, Baldwin I, formally established the monastic Brotherhood and secured the land on which the Hospital was located.
The picture shows a panorama of modern Jerusalem with a view of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher and the place where the Hospital was located.
Under Gerard's leadership, the brothers formed themselves into a religious brotherhood, taking solemn vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience.
To symbolize their rejection of everything worldly, they chose a uniform of simple clothing and a white cross, which later became eight-pointed as a symbol of the eight beatitudes.
With the Bull Postulatio Voluntatis of February 5, 1113, Pope Pascal II approved their charter, with the exception of mentioning any military modes of operation.
This bull reads:
"To our Venerable Son Gerard, Founder and Director of the Hospital of Jerusalem, and all his legitimate followers and successors ....
You asked us that the Hospital, which You founded in the city of Jerusalem, near the church of St. John the Baptist, should be strengthened by the authority of the Holy See and strengthened by the protection of the Apostle Saint Peter, .. .......
We agree to your requests with paternal mercy, and we confirm by the authority of this existing decree, this House of God, this Hospital, obeys the Apostolic Eye, and is protected by Saint Peter ...
that you are the actual administrator and director of this hospital, and we wish that, in the event of your death, no one can be placed at the head of it by trick or intrigue, and that respected brothers can choose at the will of God .......,
we confirm forever, and for you and your heirs ...
all advantages, privileges and property which it now has in Asia and Europe and which may be acquired in the future are exempt from any taxes. "
In subsequent years, under the auspices of the Brotherhood, hospitals for pilgrims were established in Europe, mainly in the port cities of Saint-Gilles, Asti, Pisa, Bari, Otranto ), Taranto and Messina. In these hospitals, pilgrims could prepare for the pilgrimage, wait for the ship and prepare for the long and dangerous journey across the Mediterranean Sea, as well as rest after the pilgrimage before returning home.
Gerard died in 1120 and the day of his death is still listed in the calendar of the Order of Malta.
But even before Gerard's death, a group of crusader knights, led by a certain Raymond du Puy, from Provence, joined the Brotherhood. (who later became the second head of the Hospital after Gerard)
It is not entirely known when the Brotherhood began to engage in the function of military protection of the Holy Sepulcher and to fight the infidels wherever they find it. Roughly believed to be between 1126 and 1140.
The first military task carried out by the new brother knights was the physical protection of the pilgrims on their way from Jaffa to Jerusalem from the bandits constantly harassing them. Very quickly, the task grew to the obligation to cleanse the surroundings of robbers and, in general, of infidels.
From this time until the fall of Malta, Masters or Grand Masters (from 1489) were both Religious Superiors and Military Commanders of the knights.
Thus, between 1126 and 1140, the Brotherhood increasingly became a military-religious organization, although the functions of charity for the weak and sick pilgrims remained.
During the same period, the name of the organization "Brotherhood" (Brotherhood) was replaced by "Order" (("Ordo" (Order)), as was already accepted in the military-religious communities in Europe.
There is no exact information about the origin of the first Knights Hospitallers. It is quite obvious that the overwhelming majority of them were French, tk. the bulk of the crusaders of the First Crusade were from France and Raymond de Puy was also French. However, most of the Order's hospitals in Europe were located in southern Italy, and most of the donations came from Spain. Therefore, there is every reason to believe that there were many Italians and Spaniards among the Knights Hospitallers.
In 1137, Pope Innocent II approved a rule according to which a brother who had previously entered the Order had no right to independently remove his vow. This required the consent of all other brothers.
Those who entered the order took the three usual monastic vows - celibacy, poverty and obedience.
Initially, no proof of noble birth was required to become a Knight Hospitaller. The very presence of expensive weapons, protective armor, and a war horse already indicated nobility. Often, knights who were not part of the brotherhood were involved temporarily to carry out military tasks. However, by 1206, members of the Order were already divided into classes, to the first of which only knights belonged. The management team could only be elected from among them. The second class included the order priests, the so-called "serving brethren" (sergeants), hospital staff, and the third class serving personnel. The last class did not take vows of monasticism. Knights and sergeants took part in the battle.
In addition to the brothers, a number of privileges and protection of the Order were also received by the so-called "brothers" (confratres) and "donors" (donati), i.e. those who helped the Order either by direct participation in hostilities or financially. This system did not exist in other Orders.
The Order quickly became a powerful military-monastic organization. Its military power already in 1136 prompted the king of Jerusalem to hand over the fortress of Bethgibelin to the Hospitallers, an important strategic point on the southern border, covering the port of Ashkalon. The Hospitallers at their own expense strengthened and expanded the fortress.
How to explain the emergence and very rapid development of the military-monastic Orders at the beginning of the XII century, and the Order of the Hospitallers. in particular?
The fact. that the monarchs and large feudal lords of that time were good warriors, often good military leaders, but no administrators at all. We can say that they were all just robbers in royal robes. They knew how to conquer territories and fortresses, plunder them too. But the XII century was the century of the formation of statehood. Social development required stable borders, laws, and stability of the country. And only the military-monastic Orders with their carefully developed statutes and members who learned to fulfill them, bound by a single goal, not having their own selfish interests, sealed by discipline and having in their hands a constant trained and united army could and were in fact hotbeds, embryos of emergence states.
This is what attracted to the Orders and kings, who saw their support in these organizations, and wealthy people looking for lasting protection from the arbitrariness of large feudal lords, and the Catholic Church, seeing in the Orders a means of strengthening the power of the passive throne.
The Hospitallers, being good administrators, recruited outstanding builders to work. doctors, architects, gunsmiths of that time, created a network of fortified points along the borders of the kingdom, organized a kind of border service, preventing Muslim troops from entering the country.
Between 1142 and 1144, the Hospitallers acquired five counties in the Tripoli district, a sovereign principality in the north of the kingdom. In total, by this time, about 50 fortified castles were already in the hands of the Hospitallers. including such important fortresses as Krak des Chevaliers (Crac) and Margat. The ruins of these castles still rise on the dominant heights over the valleys, recalling the times of the Crusades and the rule of Christianity over these lands. 
The picture above shows the ruins of the order castle Krak des Chevaliers.
The picture on the right shows the ruins of the Order's castle Margat.
The Knights of the Order, realizing their power, were not very scrupulous with the church authorities. They simply ousted the Abbey of Santa Maria Latina from the center of Jerusalem and occupied the buildings that had previously belonged to the abbey.
The Hospitallers took an active part in the Second Crusade, introducing elements of order and organization into the ranks of the crusaders, which helped to win a number of victories. However, the campaign ended in failure.
In a rather long half-century period between the end of the Second Crusade (1148) and the beginning of the Third Crusade (1189), the history of North Africa is rich in events of the struggle between Christians and Muslims. Everything was here - and the fierce cruelty of both, and the conclusion of alliances, and betrayal and successful storms of cities both on the one hand and on the other. In all these events, the Hospitallers take an active part In 1177, the Hospitallers, together with the Templars, participate in the Battle of Ascalon and make a significant contribution to the victory of Christians. The Muslims, led by Atabek Nuretdin, managed to organize a rebuff to the crusaders. In 1154 he captured Damascus and launched an offensive against the Kingdom of Jerusalem.
In 1187 Saladin invades the Kingdom of Jerusalem and besieges Tiberias. He takes over the city.
Within a few weeks, all the fortresses in the kingdom fell. Then came the turn of Jerusalem and Tire itself. By this time, discord between the Knights Templar and the Hospitaller, including military skirmishes and serious battles, led to the weakening of both Orders, mutual hostility and mistrust. No real defense of Jerusalem was organized and the city fell.
In 1189 the Third Crusade begins. By 1191, after a two-year siege, the Crusaders managed to capture the fortress of Saint-Jean d'Acr (Acre).
July 15, 1199, i.e. at the very beginning of the Fourth Crusade, the crusaders succeed in re-capturing Jerusalem.
In the first half to the middle of the 13th century, the Hospitallers were the main military force of Christians in Palestine and were holding back the onslaught of Muslims. They take part in the V, VI, VII Crusades. In 1244, at the end of the 6th Crusade, in the battle of Gaza, the Hospitallers were severely defeated. The master and many knights are captured.
But in 1249 the Hospitallers take part in the VII Crusade. And again failure - the loss of the Battle of Mansur, during which the master and 25 top leaders of the Order are captured.
The Crusaders are haunted by one setback after another. The Hospitallers become the rearguard of the last Crusades. They continue to hold their fortresses even when other crusaders are already leaving Palestine.
They hold the Krak des Chevaliers until 1271, and Margat until 1285. When Jerusalem fell in 1187, the Hospitallers moved their residence to Acre (Saint Jacques d'Acr). But in 1291, the last stronghold of Christianity in Palestine had to be abandoned. The wounded master of the Order of John, who covered the evacuation of the townspeople and boarding them, was the last to board the ship.
Thus ended the era of the Crusades, and with it the heyday and grandeur of the military monastic orders. The orders had to look for their niche in new historical conditions.
The Teutons will postpone their fall by switching to the Christianization of the Baltics.
The Templars will never find their place in Europe and will be defeated in 1307 by the French King Francis the Fair and Pope Clement V who feared for their power.
The Hospitallers, having settled first on the island of Cyprus, and then moving to the island of Rhodes, will prolong their active existence by naval operations in the Mediterranean against pirates.
But more on that in Part 2.
Literature
1.Guy Stair Sainty.THE SOVEREIGN MILITARY HOSPITALLER ORDER OF MALTA (Website www.chivalricorders.org/orders/smom/crusades.htm)
2.E. Lavvis, A. Rambo. The era of the crusades. Rusich. Smolensk. 2001
3.M.Tkach, N.Kakabidze. Secrets of Knightly Orders. Ripol Classic. Moscow. 2002
4. Myachin AN and others. One hundred great battles. EVENING. Moscow. 1998
What place does this papacy-supported "fragment of the Middle Ages" occupy in the modern world? Why and how did the Johannites manage, despite all the vicissitudes of fate, to survive in the age of dying capitalism and triumphant socialism? To answer such questions, you need to look into the annals of the history of the order.
Its early period is hardly recovered from the semi-legendary accounts of medieval chroniclers. Usually historians refer to the scant message of Archbishop Guillaume of Tire about a certain holy husband, Gerard, who allegedly founded the order around 1070, having built, together with several Amalfi merchants, a hospice or hospital ( hospitium- "accommodation for visitors", "refuge") on the land of the Benedictine monastery in Jerusalem. Later they erected - "at a distance of a stone thrown from the Church of the Holy Sepulcher" - another monastery, at which they established a shelter for pilgrims with a special compartment for the sick. This monastery was dedicated to the blessed John Elaymon, Alexandrian patriarch of the 7th century., from him the name "Johannites" supposedly came. At least one thing is certain: the germ of the order was a religious and charitable corporation (the seal of the order is known, which depicts a lying patient - with a lamp at his feet and a cross at his head). According to legend, the Duke of Godefroy of Bouillon, the first sovereign of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, commissioned Gerard to heal the wounded crusaders in his monastery and granted - for the maintenance of the hospital - the village of Salsala in the vicinity of Jerusalem. Gerard, for his part, allegedly asked the "defender of the Holy Sepulcher" to allocate several knights to help him. Four participants in the crusade of 1096-1099 volunteered to be "assistants". They took monastic vows (poverty, obedience and chastity) and began to wear the black cloth of the Benedictines (later replaced by crimson) with a white eight-pointed linen cross sewn on their chest. Soon the Greek saint in the name of the hospital gave way to John the Baptist: in honor of him, from now on, the association of the Johannites, half-knights, half-monks was named. She took over the patronage of the pilgrims who often visited the "holy places." Canonically, with the observance of church formalities, the Order of the Johannites was sanctioned by the bull of Pope Paschal II of February 15, 1113.
There are five main phases in the history of the order:
1) the period of the Crusades (up to 1291), when the Johannites were an integral part of the feudal leaders in the Crusader states;
2) a short "interlude" - a settlement in Cyprus after the collapse of the domination of the Franks in Palestine (1291-1310);
3) stay in Rhodes (1310-1522) - a "heroic" stage and at the same time the stage of the final formation of the order as a feudal-aristocratic community;
4) the period of its history as the Order of Malta itself (1530-1798) - the era of the highest rise and subsequent decline, culminating in the expulsion of the knights from their island possessions by Napoleon I;
5) from 1834 to the present - a period of gradual adaptation to capitalist reality and the transformation of the order, patronized by the papacy, into an instrument of reactionary clericalism.
Let us dwell briefly on major events each of these periods in the evolution of the Johannite "brotherhood".
During the Crusades, the association appears in the documents of the Roman curia under the name "Order of the Hospitaller Horsemen of St. John of Jerusalem". And that's why. Hospitals like the "mother's" hospital were built by the Johannites in many other cities of the Crusader states in the East, as well as in Byzantium and in Western European, mainly seaside, cities, from where pilgrims went to the "Holy Land" - in Bari, Otranto, Messina, Marseille, Seville. However, although the order continued to zealously carry out its charitable functions (finding ships for pilgrims, escorting them from Jaffa to Jerusalem, providing housing, providing food, caring for the sick on the way, material assistance to those released from Muslim captivity, burying the dead, etc.), all after the crusade of 1096-1099. these responsibilities have receded into the background. In the first half of the XII century. The order turns mainly into a military, knightly association, which nevertheless fully retained its monastic appearance.
This transformation was due to the general tense situation for the crusaders in the Frankish East. In the face of clashes with neighboring Muslim principalities, "rebellions" of the population of Lebanon, Syria and Palestine, the dukes and counts, who were established here, had to always be on the alert. They needed a constant, at least minimal, contingent of warriors who could simultaneously serve as "brothers of mercy." Under such circumstances, the main tasks of the order became: the defense of the Frankish states from the Saracens; expansion of the boundaries of the conquered lands - in the wars with the Arabs and Seljuks; suppression of riots of the enslaved local peasantry, protection of pilgrims from attacks by "robbers". Everywhere and everywhere to tirelessly fight the enemies of the Christian faith - this kind of deeds were imputed by the church as a paramount merit before the Almighty: salvation after death was guaranteed for those who fell in battle with the "infidels", and the hospitaler's cross with eight ends symbolized the "eight blessings" awaiting the righteous in paradise ( the white color of the cross was a sign of chastity, obligatory for the Johannites). The order eventually became the leading military detachment of the crusader states and the papal theocracy. The Roman "apostolics", seeking to use the Johannites for their own purposes, provided the order with all sorts of privileges. He was removed from the subordination of the local secular and church administration. The order was commanded by the holy throne itself, which demanded from the authorities the strict observance of the privileges granted to the Hospitallers. They even received - to the displeasure of the rest of the clergy - the right to collect tithes for their own benefit. The bishops had no right to excommunicate the Hospitallers, to subject their possession to interdict. The priests of the order were responsible for their actions only before its chapter, etc.
According to the authors of the middle of the 12th century, the order then consisted of four hundred people. This number gradually increased. The most militant elements of the feudal freemen willingly entered the monastic corporation of the "warriors of Christ". Seeing the hospitallers as reliable defenders of their newfound possessions, the feudal world of the West readily agreed to bear the material costs necessary to provide the order with military power - from sovereigns and princes, generous monetary donations poured into its treasury, as if from a cornucopia. Kings and noble lords did not skimp on land grants. Several decades after its creation, the order owned many hundreds of villages, vineyards, mills, and land. It has an extensive domain, both in the East and in the West. Tens of thousands of serfs and other feudal-dependent peasants work on the order estates. Large land complexes arose, bringing substantial incomes to the brothers-knights - the commandingdom. The managers of this real estate - the commanders had to annually deduct a part of the income received to the treasury of the order ( responsio). An administrative-territorial organization is also formed, and, accordingly, a hierarchical structure of the order: the commanders are united in balyazhs (great commanders), balyazhes - in priors or great priors. These latter are grouped into "languages" or provinces (the "language" of France, for example, where the Hospitallers had their first possessions outside Palestine - the Priory of Saint-Gilles in Provence, included Champagne and Aquitaine, etc.). The current affairs of the order are in charge of the council under the grand master, and the holy chapter rises above it, convened every three years.
The order, the entry into which promised tempting prospects - earthly prosperity and heavenly salvation guaranteed by the church - became an attractive force for the lords, and most of all for the knightly petty. From everywhere she rushes into the ranks of the Hospitallers. At first, a simple order hierarchy (three categories of hospitallers: knights, chaplains and squires) gradually becomes more complicated, a gradation of subordinate positions and titles is created: behind the head of the order, the Grand Master, on the tiers of this feudal pyramid, there are eight "pillars" ( pilier) provinces ("languages") - they occupy the main posts in the order; followed by their deputies - lieutenants, then bailies of three categories, great priors, priors, etc. gold cross on a ribbon across the neck). All this spurs ambition younger sons feudal surnames. "International" in composition, the order strictly demanded from all who entered it documentary evidence of noble origin, moreover, in several generations.
Providing essential services to the Jerusalem kingdom, which was experiencing a shortage of warriors, the Hospitallers gradually seized firm positions in the Frankish East. They settled in the fortresses along the pilgrimage roads, and they were often instructed to guard the towers of city fortifications. In most cities of the kingdom, the knight brothers had their own barracks-houses, and often land ownership. They built castles for themselves in Acre, Saida, Tortosa and Antioch. The hospitallers and powerful fortresses in strategically important places of the Crusader states were seized (a system of such fortifications stretched from Edessa to Sinai).
The most powerful strongholds of the Hospitallers were two: Krak de Chevalier, on the slope of one of the spurs of the Lebanese mountain range, dominating the nearby plain, through which the routes went from Tripoli (in the west) to the valley of the river. Orontes (in the east), and Margat (Markab), 35 km from the sea, south of Antioch. The Krak des Chevaliers, in essence, was a natural fortification, as if created by nature itself (known since 1110). It was handed over to the Hospitallers in 1142 (or in 1144) by Count Raimund II of Tripoli, and then it was rebuilt and rebuilt many times by them. The bulk of its ruins rises to this day. The fortress, encircled by double, cyclopean masonry walls (their stone blocks reached a height of half a meter and a width of a meter), along which stood tall - round and rectangular - towers with embrasures, was protected by a moat cut in the rocks, and occupied an area of two and a half hectares ... The Krak de Chevalier could accommodate a two thousandth garrison. From 1110 to 1271 this fortress was sieged by the Saracens 13 times and withstood it 12 times. Only in April 1271, after a one and a half month siege and a fierce attack, the Sultan of Mamluk Egypt, Baybars ("Panther"), managed to capture Krak de Chevalier.
Even more impressive in size was Margath, transferred to the Hospitallers in 1186 by the regent of Baudouin V, Count Raimund III of Tripoli: its area was equal to four hectares. Built of black and white rocky basalt, also with double walls, massive round towers, Margat had an underground reservoir and was able to withstand a five-year siege with a garrison of a thousand soldiers. Sultan Calaun captured this castle - the northern bastion of the Johannites - only in 1285, after his "sappers" made a deep tunnel under the main tower. These fortresses were not only means of defense and attack, but also, in the words of S. Smile, "instruments of conquest and colonization."
The Hospitallers became the mobile guard of the Crusader states. The flying detachments of the order knights were ready at the first signal to rush from their fortresses and barracks to where the need arose for their weapons. The wealth and influence of the order increased. His position in the Frankish East became all the stronger because papal Rome was far away and dependence on him in practice turned out to be illusory. The Hospitallers were essentially an autonomous corporation. Contemporaries reproached them for "pride" many times, and not without reason. The Johannites systematically misused their privileges in order to enrich themselves; it increasingly came to the fore in their daily activities. The Hospitallers in every possible way emphasized their independence from the barons and bishops. Without asking the permission of the latter, they started their own churches, thus incurring the murmur of the clergy. In spite of him, the order's chaplains performed religious rituals even in cities that were under interdict, performed funeral ceremonies over the excommunicated; the knight brothers also received excommunicated persons into their hospitals. At times, the Johannites indulged in openly insolent antics in relation to the local clergy. During the service in the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, they rang out the bells in their churches as much as they could, drowning out the sermon of the Jerusalem Patriarch, and in 1155 they even carried out an armed attack on this temple. Unable to withstand their insolence and "pride", Patriarch Fouche of Angoulême complained about the defiant behavior of the Hospitallers to the Pope. The Holy See expressed censure to the order brothers, but nevertheless refused to submit them to the ecclesiastical authorities of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. The Hospitallers got away with it. Although they sometimes caused direct damage to the Jerusalem crown, the kings had to reckon with the soldiers of the apostolic throne: the knights of St. John played a serious role in military undertakings against the Saracens, usually acting in the vanguard or covering the withdrawal of Christian troops; the number of the Hospitallers, together with the Templars, was almost equal to the number of all the military contingents of the Kingdom of Jerusalem.
In 1187, after the defeat of the crusaders by Salah ad-Din at Khattin (July 4) and the capture of Jerusalem (October 2), the surviving Hospitallers left the city, where they held out for 88 years. After the loss of Jerusalem, the Hospitallers, along with the templars, remained the only combat-ready force of the Frankish states remaining in the East. They have acquired important positions in the affairs of their administration, domestic and foreign policy. Not a single politically responsible step was taken without the knowledge and participation of the Grand Master of the Order. The formidable Krak des Chevaliers and Margates were still in the hands of the Johannites. Thanks to their expanded European dominions, the Johannites had considerable funds at their disposal. By 1244, the order had up to 19,000 estates.
Meanwhile, the cause of the Crusades was clearly declining. The Hospitallers, who connected their well-being and ambitions with them, did not seem to notice the changes. Replenishing its ranks with fresh forces, the order continued to increase its own wealth. The Johannites engaged in usurious and banking operations. Unlike the Templars, with whom they constantly competed, the Hospitallers invested their money in real estate. At the same time, the order increasingly shifted its business activities to the sea. He acquired a fleet and took over the transportation of pilgrims: for a decent reward, the pilgrims were sent from Italy and Provence to Saint-Jean d'Acre, then brought back. The order even entered into a rivalry with the Marseilles shipowners. another conflict of competitors, limited the right of the Hospitallers to build ships by a strict quota - no more than two ships annually, and they (together with the Templars) were forbidden to transport more than 1,500 pilgrims a year. and business changed its place of residence: Tire, Margat, Saint-Jean d "Acre. In the battle for this fortress, the Hospitallers fought with extreme ferocity, the Grand Master Jean de Villiers was seriously wounded. On May 18, 1291, this city, the last stronghold of the crusaders in the East, fell.
One of the reasons that the crusaders did not manage to gain a foothold in the territories that they owned for about two centuries were the unabated feuds between the Hospitallers and the Templars, generated by the greed of both. Back in 1235, Pope Gregory IX directly reproached the Order's knights that they did not defend the "Holy Land", what is their duty, but only interfere with it, indulging in empty strife over some mill. The hostility of the Hospitallers to the Templars (once the Johannites - it happened in the 40s of the 13th century - killed almost all the templars in Saint-Jean d'Acr) became the talk of the town. knights who put their own selfish interests above the interests of the "Holy Land": they "cannot tolerate each other. The reason for this is greed for earthly goods. What one order acquires is the envy of another. Each individual member of the order, according to them, has given up all property, but they want to have everything for everyone. "
Not wanting to come to terms with the loss of their possessions and former power in the "Holy Land", possessed not so much by hostility to the "infidels" as by the thirst for profit, the knights of the order did not abandon the thought of recapturing Palestine. Grand Master Jean de Villiers, with the few surviving "brothers", moved in the same year to Cyprus, to the Lusignan kingdom, where the Hospitallers had previously had their castles and estates (in Kolossi, Nicosia, etc.). Henri II Lusignan, who also bore the high-profile title of King of Jerusalem, granted them Limisso (Limassol), and Pope Clement V approved this award. The Hospitallers renewed hostilities against the Mamluks, carrying out pirate raids on the Lebanese and Syrian coasts. To remain close to the "Holy Land" and, at the first opportunity, to try to recapture it from the enemies of Christ - the Hospitallers subordinated their military activity to this goal. They focused their efforts primarily on the creation of a military fleet, without which there was nothing to even think about achieving the set goal. The order introduces the position of admiral (most often it was provided to experienced sailors from Italy). Soon the fleet of the Johannites surpassed the fleet of the Kingdom of Cyprus itself.
The stay in Cyprus turned out to be a passing episode in the history of the order. His privileges and exorbitant claims here, as in the past in Palestine, also irritated the local authorities and church hierarchs. In addition, the order became involved in local dynastic strife, which made its position extremely unstable. The Hospitallers were still obsessed with the dream of a new crusade. However, almost no one was more enthusiastic about such plans. At the top of the Kingdom of Cyprus, the order began to be treated with obvious hostility.
Grand Master Guillaume Villaret (1296-1305) makes a decision: the island of Rhodes, fertile, abounding in convenient harbors, located near the shores of Asia Minor, relatively close to Cyprus and Crete, is where the order will settle, so that, without being distracted by anything else, completely devote himself to the struggle for the cause of Christianity. Rhodes nominally belonged to the weakened Byzantium. During the preparations for war with her, Guillaume Villaret dies, the project put forward by him is being implemented by his brother and successor Fulc Villaret (1305-1319). In 1306-1308 with the assistance of the Genoese corsair Vignolo Vignoli, the Hospitallers captured Rhodes. Back in the fall of 1307, the Grand Master enlisted the support of Pope Clement V, who established the Hospitallers in their new domains. In 1310 the headquarters of the chapter was transferred here. The order began to be called now "Sovereign of Rhodes".
The Johannites held out here for more than two centuries. During this time, the organizational structure of the order was finally formed. It turned into a kind of aristocratic republic, in which the sovereignty of the Grand Master, who was elected for life (usually from French lords), was controlled and limited by the Supreme Council. officials orders: "pillars" of eight "languages" (Provence, Auvergne, France, Aragon, Castile, Italy, England, Germany), some bailly, bishop.
It has become a tradition to assign certain functions to the "pillars" of each "language": the "pillar" of France - the great hospitaller was considered the first in the hierarchy after the great master; "pillar" of Auvergne - the grand marshal commanded the foot troops; the "pillar" of Provence usually served as the treasurer of the order - the great preceptor; "pillar" of Aragon was the intendant in charge of the order "economy" (his titles - dralier, castellan); "pillar" of England (it was called turkopilia) commanded light cavalry; the "pillar" of Germany was responsible for the fortifications (the great bailly, or master); The "pillar" of Castile was the great chancellor - a kind of foreign minister, custodian of the order's documents (its statutes, etc.). At the same time, the ritual of the Johannites developed: meetings of the council were preceded by a solemn procession of its participants, who stood in front with the banner of the great master; before the opening of the council, everyone, in turn, according to their rank, kisses the Grand Master's hand, kneeling before him, etc.
During the Rhodes period, naval affairs were widely developed among the Johannites. They adopted the best achievements of the Rhodians, skilled in shipbuilding and navigation, and themselves began to build two-row combat dromons (galleys) with 50 rowers in each row, and learned to use "Greek fire". The order's fleet included ships that were huge at that time. In particular stood out the six-deck, sheathed with lead plates, loaded with cannons "St. Anna" - a battleship, considered the first sea "battleship" in history.
Knights of Rhodes in the XIV-XV centuries. not only repulsed all the attacks of the Muslims, but sometimes they themselves went on the offensive (the seizure of the harbor and fortress of Smyrna in October 1344). In 1365, the Johannites took part in the crusade of the Cypriot adventurer king Pierre Lusignan against Mamluk Egypt. The Crusader fleet, leaving Rhodes, where it initially concentrated, took Alexandria by storm on October 10, 1365: all enemy ships were burned in its port. The riches attracted the valiant "knights of God" no less than the exploits in the name of faith, and the sources of acquiring these riches did not bother them. At the beginning of the XIV century. the Hospitallers were unusually "lucky": after the liquidation of the Knights Templar in 1312, its property (most of the domain, money, etc.), according to the bull of Pope Clement V Ad providam, was handed over to the Knights of Rhodes (among other things they got the tower of the Templars in Paris: the Johannites opened a hospital in it; later here, in Temple, - irony of fate! - will place Louis XVI, deposed from the throne on August 10, 1792 and arrested, Louis XVI with his family, and the hospital's pharmacy will be taken to the chambers of Marie Antoinette). By accepting the inheritance of the Templars, the order significantly strengthened its economic power. During their stay in Rhodes, under the control of the knight brothers in Europe were 656 commanders. The influx of funds allowed the knights to expand their charitable practice. This was demanded by both prestigious considerations and the consequences of military affairs: at the end of the XIV and in the XV centuries. the Rhodes knights built two large hospitals. Charitable functions were placed in the statutes of the order, adopted during this period, on a par with military duties. After the defeat of the knightly army, gathered from many European countries, under Nikopol in 1396, where the Ottoman Sultan Bayazid won the victory, the Grand Master of the Johannites, generous, gave out 30 thousand ducats from the order's treasury for the ransom of Christian captives.
Since the XIV century. the order, like the rest of Europe, had a new and most dangerous enemy - the Ottomans, who were rushing to the West. On May 29, 1453 Sultan Mehmed II captured Constantinople. In 1454, he demanded that the Johannites pay a tribute of 2,000 ducats. In response, a proud refusal followed, after which the order began to build new defensive structures. The first sharp battle with the Ottomans took place in 1480. Since May, Rhodes has been unsuccessfully besieged by a huge army of the Sultan under the command of the Greek renegade Manuel Paleologos (Meshi Pasha). Neither the digging under the fortifications, nor the actions of the agents recruited by him in Rhodes, did not break the knights. On July 27, 1480, the besiegers made a general attack: 40 thousand people took part in it. The Johannites bravely withstood the onslaught from both sea and land. The fortifications of the island along its entire perimeter were defended by the warriors of all eight "languages". Grand Master Pierre d "Aubusson (1476-1503) was wounded in battle. Having lost many people and ships, Manuel Palaeologus retreated. The Order defeated the Ottomans, but it came at a high cost: Rhodes was a heap of ruins. Nobody dreamed of a crusade. campaign: it was necessary at least to preserve the island for oneself.Secondary and this time it turned out to be a fatal battle with the eastern conquerors happened 40 years later.Sultan Suleiman II Qanuni ("Legislator") sent 400 ships and a 200,000-strong army against Rhodes. The siege lasted six months. The order was preparing in advance to defend against the Ottomans. On the initiative of the Grand Masters Fabrizio del Coretto and Philip de Villiers de l "Il-Adam (1521-1534), new fortifications were erected. The Knights provided Rhodes with food supplies and weapons.
This time too, the Johannites showed undoubted courage in the battles. The onslaught of the attackers - a general attack was undertaken by the Ottomans on July 24, 1522 - the Rhodes knights opposed courage, and then, when the enemy broke into the island, they used the "scorched earth" tactic. Only 219 Johannites fought for Rhodes, the remaining seven and a half thousand defenders of the citadel of the Order's dominion were Genoese and Venetian sailors, mercenary archers from Crete, and finally, the Rhodians themselves. Suleiman II, having lost almost 90 thousand soldiers, already despaired of victory, but the forces of the defenders were running out. At the end of December, Il-Adam gave the order to blow up all the churches so that they would not be defiled by the hands of the "infidels", and through the envoys expressed his consent to surrender: the highest council of the order voted for it. Under the terms of the surrender (December 20, 1522), the Johannites were allowed to take away the banners and cannons, the surviving knights were to get out of Rhodes - they were guaranteed safety; Rhodians who did not want to stay on the island could follow the knights, others were exempt from taxes for five years. Suleiman II provided the departing ships to travel to Candia (Crete); the evacuation had to be done in 12 days.
On January 1, 1523, the Grand Master, the remnants of his knights and 4 thousand Rhodians embarked on fifty ships and departed from Rhodes. Western Europe showed indifference to the fate of the "defenders of Christianity": no one lifted a finger to support them. The heirs of the Crusaders were seen as the embodiment of a different era. Europe was preoccupied with other concerns - the Italian wars, the turbulent events of the Reformation ...
The wanderings of the "homeless" Johannites began again, lasting seven years. They seek refuge and, to the surprise of the Roman curia, want to reclaim Rhodes. To do this, they need to settle somewhere; all requests of the Grand Master - about granting the order of some island: Minorca, or Cerigo (Citéra), or Elba - are rejected. Finally, the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, in whose domains "the sun never set," Charles V agreed to welcome the order of the island of Malta: he was concerned about the protection of his European possessions from the south. On March 23, 1530, in accordance with an act signed at Castel Franco, the Order of the Johannites became the sovereign of the island, which was granted to it forever - on the rights of a free fief - with all castles, fortifications, income, rights and privileges, and with the right of supreme jurisdiction. Formally, however, the Grand Master was considered a vassal of the Kingdom of both Sicily and was obliged, as a sign of this dependence, annually, on the Feast of All Saints (November 1), to give to the Viceroy representing the suzerain - the crown of Spain, a sparrowhawk or a white hunting falcon, but on in practice, these vassal ties did not matter. A month later, Pope Clement VII approved, and a month later approved Charles V as a bull, and on October 26, 1530, Grand Master Philippe de Villiers de l'Ile-Adam, accompanied by members of the council and other chief officials of the order, took possession of the island. On the day, by decree of the Chapter convened at the same time, the order was renamed "Sovereign of Malta." It became a bulwark in the struggle of feudal-Catholic Europe against the Ottoman threat that threatened it. reached the "zenith" in his military achievements and here he came to his complete decline and collapse.
35 years after the establishment of the Johannites in Malta, the Ottomans tried to knock them out. One of the brightest pages in the history of the Order of Malta was the "Great Siege" (May 18 - September 8, 1565). During it, 8155 knights victoriously repulsed the attacks of 28 (or 48) thousand Ottomans who landed in Marsaklokka, in the southeastern part of the island. A talented military organizer of the Johannites was the Grand Master of the Order of Malta - 70-year-old Jean Parisot de la Valetta (1557-1568), who previously commanded the Order's fleet. The events of the "Great Siege" marked the apogee of the order's military glory. From that time on, he had a reputation as a mighty sea power. On Mount Sceberras, it was decided to build a new fortified capital in honor of this victory, naming it after the one who commanded the Johannites, La Valetta. Its laying took place on March 28, 1566. In memory of this day, gold and silver medals were minted with the image of the city plan with the inscription: Malta renascens("Malta resurgent") and with indication of the year and date of the bookmark. And three years later, the ships of the Knights of Malta, acting as part of the united Venetian-Spanish fleet, helped him to inflict another sensitive blow to the Ottomans: off the coast of Greece, at Lepanto, on October 7, 1571. This triumph, which meant the beginning of the end of Turkish supremacy in the Mediterranean Sea, would have been impossible without the victory won by the Johannites in Malta in 1565.
For a long time, the Order of Malta served as a "policeman" in the Mediterranean, pursuing ships of Ottoman and North African pirates. At the same time, the Johannites were more and more involved in the channel of the colonial conquests of the Western powers. In the XVII century. the order reoriented its policy to France, including, in particular, in the colonization of Canada. Increasing their own wealth "for the glory of Christianity", the Knights of Malta did not forget about their functions as "brothers of mercy": for example, in 1573 they opened a large hospital in La Valetta; at the beginning of the 18th century. he received up to 4 thousand patients a year. It was the largest hospital in Europe. Back in the 15th century, when the order was in Rhodes, the position of infirmeraria appeared in its hierarchy - something like a "chief orderly" ("nachmed"). He was appointed by the chapter (usually from the French). In Malta, this position became one of the highest in the order. The environment in which the brothers of the order lived on a barren, rocky island, exposed to winds all year round, almost devoid of drinking water, in particular forced them to constantly care about the health of the environment. Grand Master Claude Vignacourt (1601-1622) implements a series of measures to provide the population with drinking water; drainage works were carried out. As a result, previously frequent epidemics disappeared in Malta.
The wealth of the corporation of "naval police" of Europe grew, but the same wealth more and more ruined the order. The international situation in Europe was unfavorable for him - as a factor in political life, he is gradually losing its significance. From the point of view of state interests of France, whose influence over time prevailed in internal affairs of this aristocratic-knightly corporation (since its revenues came mainly from there), the state of undeclared eternal war between the Order of Malta and the Porte generally became undesirable. French absolutism followed the path of rapprochement with the Ottoman power (trade agreement of 1535, etc.). That is why the further, the more France tried to calm down the pugnacious Maltese "army of God" in order to avoid, in response to its "police" actions in the Mediterranean, complications in relations with the Ottoman Empire. The order was no longer in need of services. Meanwhile, enrichment, in fact, has become an end in itself for the Maltese guardians of Catholicism. Carried away by the pursuit of riches, they more and more openly lead a way of life that is far from the chivalrous Christian "ideal", which presupposed, at least in theory, moderation, purity of morals, and abstinence. On the contrary, the highest ranks of the order are now drowning in luxury. Many other Johannites try to imitate the example of the nobility. Cases of skimping on direct responsibilities become frequent - "monks of war" prefer idleness to exploits and self-sacrifice; the riches of the Order are squandered at the whim of the ranks of the burgeoning Order's bureaucracy (in 1742 - over 260 titled Hospitallers). The fleet is weakening: "the last of the crusaders" are mired in debt, there is not enough money for ships.
Having lost its practical "usefulness", the order became the object of envy of the Catholic monarchs, who coveted its riches, and at the same time, it increasingly compromised itself in public opinion. The reputation of the order was negatively affected by the eternal squabbles at its top, the conflicts of the "pillars", one way or another reflecting the pan-European collisions. In the conditions of growing in the XVIII century. The rivalry of the great powers in the Mediterranean Sea, the smallest naval battle won by the Maltese knights from the Ottomans, irritated the ruling circles of France and Spain, led to a further decline in the role of the order in this region - after all, it was formally considered politically neutral ...
To top it all off, in the very organization of the Order of Malta, which from time immemorial acted as a pillar of the papacy and the Catholic Church, centrifugal tendencies emerged and began to deepen, which arose in the era of the Reformation on a religious and political basis. In 1539, the knights of seven of the thirteen commanders of the Brandenburg bailiage converted to Lutheranism. An evangelical, essentially independent, branch of the Johannites was formed. Subsequently to this baliage, in which from the second half of the XVIII century. The Hohenzollerns took the reins, the Swedish, Dutch, Finnish, Swiss order nobility joined. Relations with Malta actually ceased, although according to agreements concluded in 1763-1764, the balaage with the center in Sonnenburg was recognized as part of the Order of Malta, subject to the payment of appropriate contributions to its treasury. The English "language" also experienced difficult vicissitudes, until finally in the second half of the 18th century. the Great Priority was restored - as an Anglican and in practice also outside the control of Malta branch of the order.
Thus, by the end of the 18th century. the once integral military monastic community split into three independent corporations. All this further aggravated the already precarious position of the Maltese knights. True, for the time being they could still live happily ever after, but in 1789 a revolution broke out in France. It was she who dealt a crushing blow to the order. After all, he had very significant land holdings here. When a revolutionary storm broke out, hundreds of knights hastened to leave Malta: it was necessary to save the French property of the "sovereign" and at the same time the entire old order, to defend the class interests of the nobility, the interests of Catholicism. Decrees of 1789 (abolition of tithes, confiscation of church property) deprived the Knights of Malta the main source their riches are domains. The elite of the order, which in fact was no longer a sovereign, no military force, or a religious corporation, and which, in the words of the English historian R. Luke, turned into "an institution for maintaining the idleness of the younger offspring of several privileged families", fiercely resisted the revolution. Grand Master Emmanuel de Rogan (1775-1797) in print and orally extolled the merits of the order for "Christianity", argued the illegality of the actions of the Constituent Assembly (order de sovereign, foreign state). The half-paralyzed de Rogan sent out vigorous protests to all countries, in every possible way opposed the implementation of the decree of the Constituent Assembly on the confiscation of the property of the church and church institutions, protested against the imprisonment of the royal family in the Temple belonging to the Order. The leaders of the Johannites fought with all the "crusading" fervor for the obviously doomed cause of saving feudal property. Malta became the home of the counter-revolutionary aristocracy. Relatives of noble knights come here from France, and the order does not skimp on expenses for them, although it itself is experiencing a financial catastrophe due to the sale of its former possessions in France, which have become "national property": its income fell from 1 million 632 thousand. 1788 to 400 thousand scudi in 1798. The Order was clearly on the verge of collapse.
A ray of hope for salvation flashed from a completely unexpected, seemingly, side: the Russian Emperor Paul I, frightened by the French Revolution, turned his eyes to Malta, from the day of his accession to the throne, calling on the sovereigns to oppose "the violent French Republic, threatening the whole of Europe with the complete destruction of the law, right, property and good behavior ". In these forms, he began to nurture the idea of restoring the strength of the Order of Malta as a weapon against the revolution, but ... under the auspices of autocracy. Paul I, in his youth, was fond of the history of the Order of Malta. Growing up at the court of his grandmother Elizabeth Petrovna, he knew, of course, that under her, and even earlier, under Peter I, and then under Catherine II, young noble officers from Russia were sent to Malta to study naval affairs, that Catherine II was during the war with the Ottoman Empire, she even tried to attract Malta to an alliance with Russia. In 1776, being heir to the throne, Paul I established an invalid home on Kamenny Island in St. Petersburg in honor of the order: a Maltese cross was adorned over the entrance to it. In the mid-90s of the 18th century. the elite of the Order of Malta show a clear desire for rapprochement with Russia. Baili Count Litta, a Milanese who once served as a naval adviser at the court of Catherine II and who knew well all the entrances and exits in the corridors of power of the capital of the Russian Empire, is heading here. Acting through him, the Grand Master de Rogan persistently offered Paul I to become the patron saint of the order. The clever diplomat Litta drew before the Russian autocrat a tempting prospect of turning the order he patronized into a bulwark of the fight against the hated Jacobinism. This was the time when a second coalition was being formed in Europe against republican France, and landlord-serf Russia became the center of the preparation for war and a hotbed of attraction for all reactionary forces on the continent. 7 -the thousandth corps of French emigrants, including all members of the House of Bourbons. The Russian autocrat sought to put a limit to the spread of the "revolutionary infection" and pave the way for the triumph of the principle of legitimism. Under such circumstances, Bali Litta's diplomatic game soon bore fruit.
Paul I announced his consent to come closer to Catholicism and to establish the great Russian primacy of the Order of Malta.
The efforts of the order to enlist the support of the king were further intensified when Baron Ferdinand Gompesh, the first German at the head of the order, was elected as the grand master, and his last chief in Malta. Seeing that the island is increasingly becoming an object of desires of the Western powers, primarily England, and being frightened to death by the successes of the 27-year-old General Bonaparte, who victoriously completed his Italian campaign, Gompesh begs Paul I to accept the order under his high protection. Before Paul I, it seemed to him, a real opportunity, relying on Malta, to build a barrier to Jacobinism, which had already spread in Italy, and at the same time to create for Russia a base on the Mediterranean Sea, necessary for the war with the Porte and to ensure the interests of the Russian Empire in the South Europe. It is possible that the eccentric Paul I, the "romantic emperor" who whimsically combined the "tyrant" with the "knight", was also tempted by the purely external aspect of the matter: the medieval guise of the Order of Malta, which corresponded to the addiction of the eccentric autocrat to "order", "discipline", to concepts "knightly honor", his adherence to all kinds of brilliant regalia, his penchant for religious mysticism. Be that as it may, on January 15, 1797, a convention is signed with the Order of Malta. Paul I takes the order under his patronage. In St. Petersburg, the Great Catholic Russian (Volyn) Priory was established: the Order was allowed to own in Russia lands transferred to it in the form of a donation. The first Russian knights of the Order of Malta were mostly French immigrant aristocrats - the Prince of Condé, his nephew the Duke of Enghien and other candidates for the guillotine, actively supported by Count Litta, a staunch adherent of legitimism.
The diplomatic move of Gompesh, who threw himself into the arms of the king, soon turned into a political miscalculation, for it ultimately entailed the loss of Malta by the Order. On May 19, 1798, Bonaparte's 35,000-strong expeditionary corps (300 ships) sailed from Toulon to Egypt. Realizing the strategic importance of Malta, Bonaparte could not allow a hostile force to remain in his rear, and even patronized by Russia, which was part of the anti-French coalition that was forming - the Order of Malta, even if weakened to the extreme (he had only 5 galleys and 3 frigates !). Bonaparte was well aware of the difficult situation of the order. The directory had its "fifth column" in it. The leaders of the order were torn apart by internal strife: one of the highest ranks of the order, Commander Boredon-Ransizha, a supporter of a more flexible policy, harbored a pathological hatred of the cowardly and short-sighted Gompesh. The main difficulties of the order consisted in the fact that its positions in Malta itself were greatly undermined. Back in 1775, during the reign of the great master of the Aragonese Francisco Jimenez de Tejsada (1773-1775), a rebellion broke out there against the Johannites, led by local priests. The rebellion was nipped in the bud, so that the "Maltese Vespers" did not reach the point, but the social atmosphere remained tense, despite some liberal reforms carried out by the Grand Master Emmanuel de Rogan.
The population was enthusiastic about the ideas and slogans of the French Revolution; to some extent, they even penetrated into the lower elements of the order hierarchy, who did not share the counter-revolutionary course of the aristocratic leadership. In the eyes of the Maltese, the arrogant Johannites, who shamelessly threw money to satisfy the whims of emigrants at a time when the people were starving, embodied an obsolete feudal regime. The landing of Bonaparte's corps was identified with the collapse of the feudal system in Malta. In reality, of course, this action was dictated exclusively by strategic considerations.
On June 6, 1798, Bonaparte's fleet appeared on the roadstead of Malta. Two ships, commanded by Admiral Brewey, entered Marsaclokk under the pretext of replenishing drinking water. Permission was granted, and three days later the rest of the French fleet approached Malta. The forces were too unequal. In addition, an uprising against the Johannites broke out on the island. After 36 hours, the French captured Malta without a fight. An act of surrender was signed on board the flagship Vostok. From now on, suzerainty over Malta passed to France. The knights were given the opportunity to leave or stay, the French could settle in France, where they would not be considered as emigrants. Only 260 knights remained in Malta. 53 of them thought it good to go over to Bonaparte's side - in Egypt they even form a special Maltese legion. The act of surrender guaranteed all the Johannites a pension. The property of the order in the days of these events was plundered, and the overwhelming majority of the Johannites left the island: only a few elders remained there to live out their days. For the third time in its history, the Order found itself "homeless".
The surrender of Gompesh pissed off Paul I, who took his role as "patron of the order" seriously. The tsar's anger was all the more great because, having captured Malta, the French expelled a Russian envoy from there. It was announced that any Russian ship that appeared off the coast of Malta would be sunk. Immediately the Black Sea squadron of Admiral Ushakov received the highest order to move to the Bosphorus for action against the French. Fueled by the clever intriguer Litta, from whom projects of transferring power in the order to the tsar had already proceeded (the Grand Master de "dishonored his name and his rank!"), Paul I summoned the members of the Great Russian Priority, Knights of the Grand Cross, ... John, allegedly representing various "languages" in St. Petersburg, to an extraordinary meeting. On August 26, its participants declared Gompesh deposed and turned to Paul I with a request to accept the order under their dominion. On September 21, Paul 1, by an official decree, took the order under the highest patronage. In the Manifesto issued on this occasion, he solemnly promised to sacredly preserve all the institutions of the order, protect his privileges and try with all his might to put him on the highest level at which he once was. The capital of the empire became the seat of all the "assemblies of the order".
On October 27, 1798, Paul I, in violation of the statutory norms of the order, was unanimously elected Grand Master. By order of the flighty tsar on the right wing of the Admiralty from January 1 to 12, 1799, the red flag of the Order of Malta fluttered with a white eight-pointed cross. The Maltese cross was included in the state emblem, decorating the chest of a two-headed eagle, and in the badges of the guards regiments. The same cross received the value of the Order of Merit, along with other Russian orders. At the head of the Catholic order of St. John turned out to be an Orthodox tsar of the Russian Empire! The vacant positions of the "pillars" of the eight "languages" were filled by Russians. In addition, on November 29, the Great Orthodox Priory was established, which included 88 commanderships. In the council of the Order of Malta, Paul I introduced Tsarevich Alexander and representatives of the highest nobility. All of them were granted hereditary commandership. In the absence of heirs, the proceeds from the commandery went to the treasury of the order, intended for the reconquest of Malta and the eradication of the "revolutionary infection". The emperor entrusted the de facto chief of the foreign collegium, his favorite, Count F.A.Rastopchin, to conduct the affairs of the order. The Order Chapter was given the former palace of Count Vorontsov on Sadovaya, which henceforth became the "Castle of the Knights of Malta". A personal guard of the Grand Master was established, consisting of 198 cavaliers, dressed in velvet crimson supervests with a white cross on the chest. Among other nobles, the order was commanded by the Count - Soldier A. A. Arakcheev, the commandant of St. Petersburg, about which the witty sarcasm: "It was just not enough to be promoted to troubadours." The closest courtier Pavel, his former valet, and then favorite, Count I.P. along with documents certifying the 150-year-old belonging to a noble family, also a certificate from the Spiritual consistory about the Christian denomination!).
Pope Pius VI was informed of the election of a new Grand Master. Rome recognized this act as illegal: Paul I was a "schismatic" and, moreover, he was married. The tsar, however, went ahead. He was seized with an obsession: to entrust the French knights-johannites with the reorganization of the Russian army and navy. The emigre aristocracy fully encouraged the tsar in his actions. The Count of Provencal Louis (XVIII), who lived in Mitava, received from Paul I for himself and the crown princes the "Grand Crosses" of the Order of Malta, 11 more lords were "granted" the Commander's crosses. In general, according to the apt observation of the famous Soviet historian N. Eidelman, the knightly order, bringing the warrior and the priest together, was a godsend for Paul I, an adherent of theocracy 68 / a>. Meanwhile, international events took a new turn at the beginning of 1799: the fleet of England, an ally of Russia, under the command of Admiral Nelson, blockaded Malta, which Paul I hoped to take over with the title of Grand Master, in order to consolidate the influence of autocracy in southern Europe. With England, however, there was a secret agreement that she would return Malta to the order. However, when the Governor of Malta, Vaubois, who ruled on behalf of Republican France, capitulated on September 5, 1800, the British flag was hoisted in La Valette: English rule was established in Malta, and there was no question of returning it to the order. Paul I had only the crown and the staff of the Grand Master, presented to him in November 1798, when he was elected to this post by the deputation of the Order Chapter. The tsar's rage was boundless: the Russian ambassador to London, Count Vorontsov, was immediately recalled, and the British ambassador to St. Petersburg, Lord Wordsworth, was offered to leave Russia. In the changed situation, Paul I goes to rapprochement with the "transgressor of the law of God" (Bonaparte), who, for his part, taking measures to reach an agreement with Russia, in July 1800 notified the tsar of his readiness to return Malta to the order and in recognition of his great as a master presented to Paul I a sword, which Pope Leo X once presented to one of the great masters. Paul I, having failed in the war to save the thrones, abruptly changes course; yesterday's ally - England is turning into an enemy. Having crossed out the fundamental principle of his foreign policy - the principle of legitimism, the tsar in December 1800 sent a letter to the first consul. Litta was disgraced, French emigrants were driven out ... On the night of March 11-12, 1801, Paul I was killed by conspirators. Alexander I, discerning the futility of his father's venture, hastened to get rid of the order: retaining the title of protector, he refused to become a grand master, and in 1817. abolished the hereditary commandership: the Order of Malta ceased to exist in Russia. A farce played out in St. Petersburg at the end of the 18th century, and the history of the Ioannites, full of both heroism and, to an even greater extent, acquisitiveness and squabbles, would have ended, if not for the support they received in the highest aristocratic and ecclesiastical spheres Western Europe... After three decades of wandering (Messina, Catania), the Order of Malta in 1834 found its permanent residence - this time in papal Rome. Throughout most of the 19th century. the order lived modestly in its Roman palazzo, although its delegates shone with regalia at various international congresses. The German Evangelical and Anglican branches, which had previously spun off from the order, eked out an equally imperceptible existence. Only at the end of the 19th century, in the era of imperialism, when the ruling class, according to V.I. wavering wage slavery, "the clerical reaction, turning into the service of capital, breathed new life into the Order of Malta. Having reborn, the Johannites acted, however, no longer as knights fighting with a sword or arquebus in their hands - times have changed! - but in a different guise, which partially dates back to the medieval practice of the order: charity and the sanitary-medical service of "mercy" became their area of activity. The order in all its branches has turned into a kind of "red cross", into an international clerical organization of urgent and stationary medical care, as well as all kinds of philanthropy, which, nevertheless, has a very definite class orientation: both charitable and medical activities of the order unfold in the mainstream of "crusading activity" in a modern way.
Having adapted to capitalist reality, the Order of the Johannites has largely lost its elite-aristocratic character. If in the old days "novicius" was obliged to provide documented evidence of his nobility (in eight generations - for Italians, in four - for Aragonese and Castilians, in sixteen - for Germans, etc.), now, in any case, the lower levels of the hierarchy are also filled with persons of "ignoble" origin. The "democratized" order also freed them - with the approval of the papacy - from monastic vows. The latter retained their strength only for knights of high ranks - "knights of justice" ( chevaliers de justice) and "knights on merit" ( chevaliers de devotion). This category of Johannites is still recruited from titled families now associated with big business, so that the modern elite of the order is formed by representatives of the clerical-landlord aristocracy, descendants of the feudal nobility that have lost their privileges, offspring of royal and imperial dynasties, etc.
The Johannites themselves describe their activities as a "modern crusade", but against whom? Who replaced the "infidels" today? These, of course, are the "enemies of Christian civilization," to which reactionary clericalism classifies, first and foremost, the world socialist system, the workers', communist and national liberation movements. The struggle against them, whatever its ideological shell and methods, constitutes the real content of the "crusade" of the imperialist reaction of our time. The activities of the knights of St. John, veiled by philanthropic "disinterestedness" and supposedly free from politics, "universal" motives.
The philanthropic Johnites are tirelessly baked - and this quite expressively characterizes their place in the "crusade" of the current paladins of anti-communism - about renegades thrown away by the peoples of the countries of victorious socialism. Among the 14 European associations of the Order of Malta are Hungarian, Polish and Romanian, and among the five great priories includes ... Bohemia (Czech Republic). All of them appear in the list of these divisions of the order, and each mention of them is accompanied by a note: "The members of [such and such] association [of the great priority] operate in exile and cooperate with their brethren in the countries where they are concentrated." The Romanian Association aims to help emigrants and send parcels to "confreres and their families" in Romania itself; the Polish association maintains a hotel in Rome; the Hungarian association ("in exile") is engaged in activities similar to that of the Romanian. One of the services of the Rhine-Westphalian Association is called "Christmas gifts for families expelled from Silesia".
As for the "crusade" against the workers' and democratic movement, here the most active is perhaps the German-Evangelical "satellite" of the Order of Malta, resurrected by the offspring of the Junker families and big capital of the FRG and finding refuge in Bonn after the Second World War. Small in number (the Brockhaus encyclopedia names less than 2,500 people), headed since 1958 by Prince Wilhelm-Karl Hohenzollerp ("Herrenmeister"), the order has eight large hospitals in West Germany and, in addition, has branches in a number of other countries, including Switzerland. The activities of the Swiss branch, perhaps, most clearly characterize the ideological and political orientation of the current Maltese knights. In the land of Upper Zurich, in the village of Bubicon, since 1936, the Knight's House has been functioning - a museum of the order, which is its scientific propaganda and publishing center. Every year, meetings of the Ioannites, members of the Bubicone Society, grouped around the museum, are held here, where abstracts are read on topics from the history of the Crusades and, above all, from the history of the order itself (of course, all abstracts are of apologetic content), which are then published in the Yearbook published by the Bubicon Museum. From the materials of the reports it is clear that the practical activity of the order is carried out allegedly exclusively within the framework of pure charity and abstract philanthropy: its basis, as it is emphasized in every possible way in these documents, is the principle of love for one's neighbor. A careful reading of the order's documentation shows, however, that the seemingly charitable activities of the Johannites are by no means apolitical, as the ranks of this order, supposedly standing "outside politics", would like to represent it. While rendering assistance to the “burdened and needy,” the order is nevertheless guided by the formula of its medieval charter, the meaning of which was one: the main duty of the Johannites was to inflict every kind of evil on the enemies of Christ. This formula is interpreted in our days quite unambiguously: to act in the spirit of instilling ideological intransigence towards the enemies of the Christian faith - among the "needy and wanderers", for whose well-being the order so zealously cares. And here's what is especially remarkable: he tries to spread his influence mainly in the working environment. The Johannites have, for example, a large hospital in the Ruhr, serving about 16,000 miners and chemists annually. And it is precisely here, where, according to von Arnim's pathetic definition, “we are talking about health and soul (sic! - M. 3.) miner ", there is a close connection between the practice of healing and the propagandistic influence of the order's clericalism." Nowhere, perhaps, said this chancellor of the order, "are both the tasks of the Johannites in such a direct connection as here: the fight against the infidels and the provision of merciful help to one's neighbor. "Another circumstance is striking: preaching" enmity to the unbelievers, "healers and philanthropists-John Medical and material (medicines, etc.) assistance is closely intertwined with clerical agitation, with care for the “soul of the miner.” It is noteworthy that many European associations of the “central,” that is, the Maltese proper, orders also concentrate their efforts on the treatment of “proletarian souls.” The Rhine-Westphalian Association maintains hospitals in the major centers of heavy industry in Germany: v. Joseph - in Bochum (240 beds), St. Francis - in Flensburg (for 460 beds), in the same place - an orphanage (orphanage); the Dutch Association provides patronage care through the National Catholic Association, referring to “families in greatest need”; the hospital service of the order in France takes special care of the "disadvantaged" so that they can "forget about their suffering." The French Hospitallers, among other things, were active during the May-June 1968 events in Paris, carrying out a rapid evacuation of the wounded and injured from tear gas in the Latin Quarter.
Finally, the third most important object to which the Maltese knights extend their concerns are the developing countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. The list of charitable medical institutions owned by the order there numbers dozens of names. The special service of the Johannites is, in particular, the "International Assistance of the Sovereign Magistrate of the Order of Malta to assist missions and fight against hunger, want and darkness", which deals almost exclusively with the countries of the "third world". With substantial funds, the Knights of Malta today either act as direct henchmen of Catholic missionaries - the conductors of the ideas and policies of neo-colonialism, or they carry out tasks similar in nature to missionary tasks at their own peril and risk. They do not skimp on the costs of organizing kindergartens, nurseries, summer camps, hospitals and dispensaries, nursing services, do not spare money for the training of appropriately trained personnel, subsidizing, for example, the training of students from Latin American countries. Thus, in Rome, for this purpose, two hospitaller funds were created: one - within the framework of the International University of Social Education pro Deo ("For God"), the other - at the Institute "Villa Nazareth" (for 10 students annually). There is a pediatric service for the order in Bogotá, Colombia, and there they provide "social assistance" to preschoolers from "needy families." In many countries of Africa, Asia, Latin America, the population of which suffers from serious diseases - the legacy of colonial rule, the Hospitallers are trying to win the confidence of the lower classes, taking measures against the spread of these diseases (leper colony and dispensaries, institutes in Burma, Senegal, Gabon, Madagascar, in Congo (Kinshasa), Uganda, Guatemala, etc.). However, exterminating leprosy among the "blacks", the French knights of St. John, who work, in particular, in the Paris Saint Louis Hospital, strive to capture the souls of "their workers" - after all, they are in contact with African immigrants and are not guaranteed against infection. At the same time, hundreds of "knights" facilitate ... pilgrimages of people who have lost faith in Lourdes and other holy places of Catholicism. At its own expense, the Order of Malta also provides food and medicine assistance, primarily to the population of the former French colonies: in 1973, the French service of the Order of Malta OHFOM (Oeuvres hopitalieres francaises de l "Ordre de Malte) sent 37 tons of powdered milk and other products, to South Vietnam - about 500 kg of medicines, etc. etc.
Carrying out such a varied, albeit united by the common goals of the "modern crusade", activities, all three divisions of the Order of Malta are trying to coordinate it: on April 3, 1970, the congress of the order took place in Malta, where the French knights were also represented (the president of the association is Prince Guy de Polignac), and the German Evangelical Order of the Johannites (Prince Wilhelm-Karl von Hohenzollern), and the English "venerable" Order of St. John (Lord Walkhurst).
The Maltese "sovereign", in order to strengthen its position, is diligently looking for territory where it would be possible to raise the flag of the order: he is ready to buy any island - off the coast of Latin America or in Indonesia. So far, these efforts have not been crowned with success.
The Hospitaller Order, once loyally serving the feudal class, is today in the camp of a militant clericalism that seeks in vain to halt the irresistible march of human history along the path of peace and social progress.
Notes:
See: P. Jardin. Les Chevaliers de Malte. Une perpétuelle croisade. P., 1974, c. 17.
A report recently published by the Order of Malta on its activities in our time is subtitled Ordre SMH de Malte. A modern crusade. Publication de l "Ordre de Malte. Rome. SMH is an abbreviation of the official name of the order" L Ordre Souverain et Militaire des Hospitalliers.
P. Jardin. Les Chevaliers, c. 311.
... "Espresso", 28.VI.1981.
There is an extensive scientific, semi-scientific, popularizing literature (several dozen monographs alone in English, Italian, German, French), which covers the history of the Johannites in general and its most significant episodes. As a rule, this literature has a confessional and apologetic character. This applies in particular to research carried out by the leaders of the order itself, for example, its "chief orderly" Count M. Pierdon (d. 1955), who bore the high title of baili; his book is nevertheless valuable for the rich documentary material it contains. Often in the writings of Western European historians-clericals, nationalistic motives, the romanticization of the deeds of the Maltese knights, the exaltation of the order as a "shield of Europe" against the Ottomans, etc. are clearly visible (V. Cassar Horg Olivier. The Shield of Europe. L., 1977). More realistic and deeper are the recent studies of some English medievalists (in particular, J. Riley-Smith), as well as a few general works on the history of Malta, in which the fate of the order is considered in context historical development islands in the late Middle Ages. - E. Gerada Azzopardi. Malta, an Island Republic. ,. In Russian historiography there is not a single book about the Order of Malta; in the only popularizing article known to us, only events related to the time of the reign of Paul I are touched upon, when the order found itself in the wake of the policy of the Russian autocracy (see: O. Brushlinskaya, B. Mikheleva. Knightly masquerade at the court of Paul I. - "Science and Religion" . 1973, No. 9).
Willermi Tyrensis Historia rerum in partibus transmarinis gestarum. - Rec. des Hist, des Croisades. T. 1.P., 1844, s 822-826.
M. Pierredone. Histoire politique de l "Ordre Souverain de Saint-Jean de Jerusalem. TIP, 1956, from XXII; D. Le Blevec. Aux origines des hospitalliers de Saint-Jean de Jerusalem. Gerard dit" Tenque "et Fetablissement de l" Ordre dans le Midi. - "Annales du Midi (Toulouse)". T. 89. No. 139. 1977, pp. 137-151.
J. Prawer. Histoire du royaume latin de Jerusalem. T. I. P., 1969, p. 490.
J. Delaville Le Roulx. Cartulaire general de l "Ordre des Hospitalliers de Jerusalem. T. I. P., 1894, pp. 29-30 (no. 30).
The symbolic meaning was also put into other accessories of the attire of the Johannites: a cloth cape - following the example of the clothes of John the Baptist, according to legend, woven from camel wool; the narrow sleeves of this cape - as a sign that the Johannites renounced the free worldly life, took the path of religious asceticism, etc.
J. Riley-Smith. The Knight of St. John of Jerusalem, ca 1050-1310. L, 1967, pp. 376-377.
The Itinerary of rabbi Benjamin of Tudela. Transl. and ed. by A. Asher. Vol. 1. L.- V., 1840, p. 63.
Cit. by: Documents. - P. Jardin. Les Chevaliers de Malte, p. 418.
Ibid, p. 424-425.
Ibid, p. 423.
We managed to get acquainted with some examples of this kind of apologetics: M. Beck. Die geschichtliche Bedeutung der Kreuzzuge. - "Jahrhefte der Ritterhausgesellschaft". Bubikon, 16. H. 1953, 10-28; P. G. Thielen. Der Deutsche Orden. - Ibid, 21. H., 1957, p. 15-27.
See: "Jahrhefte der Ritterhausgesellschaft". Bubikon, 14 H., 1950, p. 10.
Ibid, p. 16.
Ibid, p. 17.
P. Jardin. Les Chevaliers, p. 423.
Ibid, p. 422.
Ibid, p. 319.
Ibid, p. 318.
