For compositional or submissive. Compositional and subordinate unions presentation for a lesson in the Russian language on the topic. What are unions
V. Yu. Apresyan, O. E. Pekelis, 2012
Subordinate unions - unions used to express a subordinate syntactic connection (see articles Submission and Union). In the general classification of unions, subordinate unions are opposed to compositional ones.
1. Introduction
The classification of subordinate unions is based on semantic principles. In accordance with AG-1954. [Grammar 1954: p. 1012] in this article, the following groups of unions are distinguished:
(1) causal unions ( since, by Besides that because, because, because, because, because, because, because, because, because, because, then that);
(2) Consequence unions ( so, and then, and not that);
(3) target unions ( so that, so that, so that, then, so that);
(4) conditional conjunctions ( if, if, if, if, if, if, if, if (would, b), if, if, if, when, when);
(5) concessional unions ( though, though; for nothing; if only, if only; despite the fact that, despite the fact that; at least, at least, let, let; while, meanwhile, while; good, let it be; only truth);
(6) temporary alliances ( barely, barely, as soon as, when, only, only, only, as, after, after, from then, until, until, until, until, until, until, before, before than, just, just, just a little, just a little, just a little, before, while);
(7) comparative unions ( as, what, as if, as if, as if, as if, as if (as), as, exactly, exactly (as), than, than).
(8) explanatory unions ( what, so that, as if, how);
The composition of the groups is given according to AG-1954, with the exception of the group of concessive unions (see): its composition is somewhat broader than what is proposed in the grammar. The concessionary unions are described in this article in accordance with the works of [V. Apresyan 2006. a, b, c] and [V. Apresyan 2010].
Unions are considered in each subsection only in their basic meaning; eg union so that(see) has, in addition to the target ( He did it to help her), the optical value ( So that he was empty), which is used to express negative wishes; union though has, in addition to the concessional ( We went for a walk, even though it was very cold), and also the value of free choice ( Come even in a ball gown, even in a tracksuit), as well as many others, but they are not mentioned in this article.
2. Causal conjunctions
List of causal unions: because, because, because, because, in view of the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, for, then that.
Causal unions constitute one of the most numerous groups among subordinate unions; Wed Unions / p. 4. Statistics. Semantically, they form a very homogeneous group, with some semantic and stylistic variations.
General semantics of this group of unions X because<так как, ….> Y -'Y is the reason for X'. Syntactically, all unions of this group introduce the valence of the cause, i.e. subjugate the causal clause.
2.1. Union because
Union because the most neutral stylistically and therefore the most frequent (117.467 entries in the Main Corpus):
(1) Leaders are not afraid to expand IT services,<...> because thanks to ITSM consider themselves insured against the risk of losing IT management [N. Dubova]
(2) I rushed about the kitchen because at the same time my onion was burning and the soup ran away [O. Zuev]
Syntactically because differs in that it cannot occupy the initial position in the sentence. Wed:
(3) I rushed about the kitchen because at the same time my onion burned and the soup ran away<…>["Dasha" (2004)]
(4) *because at the same time my onions were burning and soup was running away, I was rushing about the kitchen.
This syntactic feature is explained, apparently, by the following semantic and communicative property because: this union introduces information about the causal relationship between the situations expressed by the dependent clause and the main one, as unknown to the Listener; the unknown, meanwhile, tends to coincide with the end of the utterance - with rema (see Communicative structure).
2.2. Stylistically Colored Causal Unions
2.2.1. Alliances as, insofar as, thanks to
As,insofar as, thanks to somewhat shifted towards necessity and therefore less frequent:
(5) In this case, Newton's law of gravitation is used, as the gravitational field of black holes at large distances is close to Newtonian. ["Bulletin of the Russian Academy of Sciences" (2004)]
(6) The commission charged is also sharply reduced, insofar as the cost of translations is reduced. ["Questions of Statistics" (2004)]
(7) Only thanks to we held out as a group of like-minded people, the magazine retained its face. [Science and Life (2009)]
All these conjunctions are rather slightly official and are rarely found in the Poetic Subcorpus (10 occurrences per million - as, 1 occurrence per million - insofar as, thanks to does not occur).
2.2.2. Union because of
Union because of gravitates towards a high style, which is why it is quite frequent in poetry:
(8) It was even harder for me because of I, after all, knew: he did not love the one / Who did not exist ... [Z. Gippius]
(9) I would like to find the little icon, / Because of my term is near ... [A. Akhmatova]
From synonymous union because because of differs in that it cannot express the causal connection between the proposition of the dependent clause and the epistemic modality that is included in the meaning of the main clause (see Illocutionary use of conjunctions). Wed impossibility to replace because on the because of in the appropriate context:
(10) There was nothing to hesitate: I fired, in turn, at random; surely the bullet hit him in the shoulder, because<*оттого что> suddenly he lowered his hand … [M. Yu. Lermontov. A Hero of Our Time (1839-1841)]
Because of, moreover, does not obey the prohibition on the starting position in the sentence, which is valid for because(cm. ). Wed:
(11) Because of <*because> Clara knew now his adversity, his languid smile squeezed her with sympathy. [BUT. Solzhenitsyn. In the first circle (1968)]
2.2.3. Alliances due to the fact that, due to the fact that and due to the fact that
Due to the fact that, due to the fact that and due to the fact that- book unions:
(12) I had to curtail the work due to the fact that the deposit turned out to be unsuitable for commercial exploitation. [IN. Skvortsov]
(13) Aerolites, or meteorites, - iron or stone masses falling from the world space to the Earth in the form of pieces of different sizes, melted from the surface due to the fact that they glow when they fly quickly through the atmosphere. [IN. Obruchev]
(14) I was suffocating in Moscow, in general in Russia, where, like a cancerous tumor, the national financial pyramid was growing due to the fact that the government and the population conspired to deceive themselves and each other. [IN. Skvortsov]
2.2.4. Union due to the fact that
Due to the fact that has an official connotation:
(15) He<...>presented me with two orders: one - on bringing me to justice under such and such an article of the Criminal Code and on such and such a note to it - and another - on the choice of a preventive measure (recognizance not to leave) due to the fact that for health reasons, the accused cannot participate in the investigation and trial [Yu. Dombrovsky]
2.2.5. Alliances for and then what
For and then what outdated or high style; however for, like many other obsolete unions, it is quite widespread in the modern newspaper language (30 occurrences per million in the Newspaper subcorpus).
(16) Therefore, those who do not know things must<...>tackle it: for what is said in the Scripture is said not only in order to be known, but also to be fulfilled. [Bishop Ignatius (Brianchaninov)]
(17) Developed countries will not want to let in all immigrants, for this means that you will have to part with your development, with the usual standard of living [RIA Novosti (2008)]
(18) I have never called you my sister before, then what could not be your brother, then what we were uneven, then that you were deceived in me! [F. M. Dostoevsky]
Among other causal unions for stands apart: although this union is traditionally considered subordinate, for a number of its formal properties for approaches the composition (for more details, see the article Composition).
2.3. Differences in the semantics of causal unions
Alliances thanks to,due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that and due to the fact that retain the semantic features of the prepositions from which they are derived (see the article Preposition); most of these features are described in [Levontina 1997], [Levontina 2004].
So the union thanks to indicates not only the cause, but also the desirability of the effect: He fully recovered, thanks to the fact that he was provided on time health care , but not * He died due to the fact that medical assistance was not provided on time... Wed also:
(19) My destiny has turned out well thanks to Mom had well-arranged friends and well-married female friends who were happy to help us. [L. Vertinskaya]
Alliances due to the fact that and due to the fact that indicate a direct, close connection between cause and effect, and due to the fact that- to a more indirect one:
(20) The verdict was overturned due to the fact that <due to the fact that> gross violations in the conduct of the process were revealed. - direct communication
(21) Parkinson's disease develops due to the fact that the content of the neurotransmitter dopamine begins to decrease in the brain - an indirect connection
with strangeness:
(22) Parkinson's disease develops due to the fact that <due to the fact that> dopamine neurotransmitter starts to decrease in the brain
Also, for unions due to the fact that and due to the fact that the presence of an objective connection between events is characteristic, and for a union due to the fact that - motive that prompts a person to act in a certain way.
Due to the fact that is often used metatextually to indicate logical connections in inferences and conclusions: The demand for apartments has risen again, possibly due to the fact that the supply remains low... Wed also:
(23) The constituent pairs of such elements have sufficiently close atomic weights due to the fact that are formed from one proto-nucleus ["Geoinformatics" (2003)]
3. Unions of investigation
List of alliances of investigation so that(cm. ), otherwise(cm.
3.1. Union so that the combination is so / such + that
Unlike the meaning ‘cause’, which is expressed in the Russian language by numerous unions (see), the meaning ‘consequence’ is directly “served” by a single union - so that... Union so that is the semantic conversion of the union because... So the meaning of the union is so that can be defined through the meaning of ‘reason’: X so thatY= 'X is the cause of Y':
(24) She worked conscientiously, so that the palm leaves had to be changed every half hour. [BUT. Dorofeev]
(25) Alyosha ate enough, so that was very happy. [ABOUT. Pavlov]
Syntactically union so that introduces the valence of the consequence, i.e. subordinates the subordinate clause of the investigation.
The meaning of ‘consequence’ can also be expressed by the adverb So or adjective such in the main sentence in combination with the union what in the clause:
(26) So scared what he seemed to be paralyzed, he could not take a step to the black abyss and huddled against the bench. [IN. Bykov]
(27) It was written on Gosha's face such genuine bewilderment what no one doubted his sincerity. [IN. Belousov]
3.2. Threat alliances: either way or not
Threat alliances otherwise ... and or else ... can be conditionally attributed to the union of the consequence, but in fact, their semantics are more complicated. Phrases like X, but (not) thenY assume that if condition X is not satisfied, then an undesirable situation Y will arise (i.e., failure to fulfill X-a entails unpleasant consequences Y):
(28) Move away, otherwise <but not that> will crush you; Lag behind, otherwise <but not that> I will give in the face.
Their exact statistics are difficult due to the homonymy with dividing unions. otherwise and but not that, which, however, are much more rare, as well as with the union but combined with pronoun then.
4. Target alliances
List of target alliances: in order, in order, in order, in order, in order, in order.
The meaning of 'purpose' expressed by the unions of this group has been repeatedly discussed in the linguistic literature; the classic work [Zholkovsky 1964] is devoted, in particular, to the word target; prepositions with the meaning of a goal, first of all for and for the sake, are described in the works [Levontin 1997], [Levontin 2004], [V. Apresyan 1995].
4.1. Unions in order to
Alliances so that and in order to express the same idea as a noun target and the preposition for. Their meanings combine the meanings of cause, desire and action: X toY means that the action X performed by the subject will be, in his opinion, the cause of the desired situation Y. To - one of the most frequent subordinate conjunctions (1479. per million uses in the Main Building):
(29) Mom and Dad generally slept standing, propping up each other, so that do not collapse. (A. Dorofeev)
(30) They dragged the hammer away from the stone, - so that did not interfere. (V. Bykov)
(31) Indeed, navigating the store is intuitively simple, in order to type a basket and place an order, you need to do just a few simple steps (O. Feofilova)
To can also act as an explanatory union, for these uses see.
4.2. Stylistically colored target alliances
Other target alliances - stylistically marked and, accordingly, less frequent synonyms to.
So that- colloquial or poetic version of the union so that(300. usages per million in the Main building, 546. - in the Oral, 1662. - in the Poetic):
(32) This is what I use now, so that write a thesis [LiveJournal Record (2004)]
So as to and especially then to- book synonyms of the union so that (so as to has a touch of formality and is often found in newspaper texts):
(33) Leonid Polezhaev, speaking in the Federation Council, proposed to hold a referendum, so as to to toughen criminal liability for illegal production and distribution of drugs. ["Weekly Magazine" (2003)]
(34) After all, we came then to put an end to all controversy, which has been going on completely fruitless for the past seven years. [YU. Dombrovsky]
Union so that with the same meaning is stylistically colored as outdated, tall or, most often in modern language, joking:
(35) Made the heavens far away, So that contemplate from them all your creation ... [D. S. Merezhkovsky]
(36) Well, the powder will be kept warm for ten days, so that anthrax microbes, if it turns out to be a powder of spores, have shown themselves in all, so to speak, completeness ... ["Criminal Chronicle" (2003)]
5. Conditional conjunctions
List of conditional unions: if, if, if, if, if, as soon, if (would, b), if, if, if, when, when b. All of them except whether, have a variant with then(if ... then, if (s) ... then and etc.).
5.1. Union if
The main conditional union, if a, a large literature is devoted. In some works, it is considered a semantic primitive, i.e. in a word, not decomposable into simpler semantic components; in some works, including within the framework of the Moscow Semantic School, attempts are made to interpret it. Special attention to the union if a is given in recent works [Sannikov 2008] and [Uryson 2011], each of which offers, in particular, its interpretation. However, in this article, these interpretations are not used, due to their formal complexity, as well as reliance on semantic components that are more complex in meaning than the union if a(meaning ‘probability’ in Sannikov’s interpretation, meanings ‘hypothesis’ and ‘influence’ in the interpretation of E. V. Uryson). This article adopts the point of view of the semantic primitiveness of the union if a, however, material from the works of V.Z. Sannikov and E.U. Uryson is used to explain and present its uses.
Union if a there are two main meanings - if a"Conditions" (see) and "comparative" if a(cm. ).
5.1.1. If a conditions
Bivalent union if a"conditions" ( if aX thenY) introduces the idea of such a connection between two situations X and Y, when the presence of one of them (X) makes the presence of the other (Y) very likely:
(37) If a their gang will be revealed, Oleg will automatically go to jail. [IN. Tokarev]
It is characterized by the use of a verb with a future tense. In the work [Paducheva 2004: 103–104] it is seen as the implication 'and if there is no X, then there is no Y', i.e. the condition is usually understood not only as sufficient, but also as necessary: If you call, I will come[I mean ‘but if not, then no’].
The work [Uryson 2011] provides a more detailed classification of the use of if a"conditions":
(1) if a"Hypotheses": If the summer is dry, there will be no mushrooms(it comes about one-time hypothetical situations);
(2) if “generalizations”: If we managed to get money somewhere, we immediately went for a bottle (we are talking about situations repeated many times);
(3) if a"This state of affairs": If you, Lelyshcha, ate the second lozenge, then I will take another bite of this apple(M. Zoshchenko) - we are talking about a real situation that causes some other situation.
5.1.2. Comparative if a
Much rarer and bookish use, "comparative", rhetorical if a can be illustrated by the following example:
(38) If a Masha married at the age of seventeen and gave birth to eight children, her sister Katya spent her entire life in the monastery.
In this meaning if a does not indicate the connection of situations, but reflects the Speaker's idea of them as occurring simultaneously and contrasting with each other.
5.2. Conjunctions once and for all
Union if a in the meaning of "state of affairs" (see) the union is synonymous time, which also presents situation X as a given, which, according to the Speaker, “The addressee will not deny” [Iordanskaya, Melchuk 2007: 495]:
(39) Time he was so accepted at home, time made a criminal, they don't shake hands, then he doesn't need anyone either. [D. Granin]
Wed See also the following example where time used after if a, as if fixing the hypothesis, which, being repeated, is already accepted as an axiom:
(40) Dostoevsky believed that if there is no God, then everything is allowed, and time allowed, then you can fall in spirit, despair. [D. Granin]
Soon- book synonym if a"State of affairs" and time(accurate statistics is impossible due to the homonymy with the noun time):
(41) And since Ivanovsky crossed Europe to see his relatives, then it will not be difficult for him to take another five hundred steps to his, Yagudin's, home. [BUT. Rybakov]
(42) Soon the world has become simpler, there is no room for qualified work in it. [D. Bykov]
5.3. Unions if and if
Conversational reduced union if- a synonym for the conditional if in the meaning of "hypothesis" and sometimes in the meaning of "state of affairs" (see):
(43) He gave me a power of attorney for the right to conduct business and receive money, if those will follow. [BUT. Hair]
(44) If born a slave - it means that such is your bitter fate. [G. Nikolaev]
Examples on if"Generalizations" (see) are not found in the Corpus, however, in principle, the following are possible:
(45) If money appeared, we immediately ran for a bottle.
If - obsolete synonym for conditional if a, also used in newspaper language, in all uses, with a large percentage of uses "state of affairs" (see):
(46) The guys and I will add, if will require [V. Astafiev] - if"Hypotheses"
(47) A if did not take him, then he ran away from home and came on his own [B. Ekimov] - if"Generalizations"
(48) Toma has a very good position in society, if was in the Bolshoi, and in the Small, and in the Khudozhestvenny, and besides, she was treated to free gifts [L. Ulitskaya]
(49) So, there is already a case, your honor, if came. [BUT. Panteleev]
(50) Well, well, speak, if already started. [A.N. Ostrovsky] - if"State of affairs"
5.4. Conditional unions for would: if (s), if (s), if
Union if and its variant if only(for the distribution of these options, see Subjunctive mood / p. 3.4.1) add to the value of the main conditional union if a the semantic component of the imagination, the unreality of the situation X, which in fact does not take place, which is why the situation Y arising from it does not take place (the so-called counterfactual meaning, see Subjunctive mood / p. 2.1): If you were here then we would go for a walk; If only, then mushrooms would grow in the mouth... Wed also:
(51) If you wanted Sasha and me to live a normal life, you would invest your money. [IN. Tokarev]
(52) You wouldn't even go to a restaurant then, if I didn't pay for you. [BUT. Gelasimov]
(53) If to honestly pay for the work, then all the repairmen from the depot would have fled long ago. [IN. Astafiev]
(54) If only knew right away, but would he have uttered even a word? [ABOUT. Pavlov]
(55) If only not potatoes on three backyard acres, the villagers would swell from hunger. [BUT. Azolsky]
Simultaneous to it ( while, while, while, while, while), cm. ;
Following it ( before, before, before), cm. .
The submission of temporary unions in this article is largely based on [V. Apresyan 2010].
Another semantic feature is the time that passes between situations if they are not simultaneous. On this basis, unions formed from adverbs and particles with a meaning of a small degree are opposed to all the rest, namely, unions barely, barely ... as, barely, as soon as, just, just, just, just, just, just, just, just indicate the immediate precedence of one situation to another, the absence of a time interval between the onset of the initial and subsequent situations.
The main and most frequent time union when(390.262. entries in the Main Corpus) is neutral in relation to these signs, and can introduce precedence, and succession, and simultaneity: When he came he washed the dishes[precedence], When he arrived, the dishes had already been washed.[follow], Keep the window open when working with acid.[simultaneity].
7.1. Precedence Conjunctions
The unions of this group introduce a situation that occurs before the situation introduced by the main clause.
7.1.1. Unions indicating immediate precedence: as soon as, not yet and etc.
as soon as(15 020. entries in the Main building) - the most frequent in this group:
(82) The consideration of the case took no more than thirty minutes - as soon as the court was presented with photographs of the place of the "violation", the question of the prohibited exit to the opposite side of the road disappeared by itself. ["Behind the wheel" (2003)]
His colloquial synonyms as and only are much more rare, but their statistics are impossible due to homonymy with other meanings:
(83) The false ubopists (it became clear already) threw the tied prisoner with the words, they say, as Let's figure it out - let's come and let go. [Daily News (2003)]
(84) Only lean out of this hollow - and a skiff! [M. Tambourines]
Other unions of this group - barely, barely(3 occurrences per million in the Main Building) , only, only only(7 occurrences per million in the Main Corpus), just a little(0.2. Occurrences per million) , a little, just a little(1.5. Occurrences in the Main corpus) - typical for written texts (in the Oral corpus - single occurrences in the required meaning):
(85) Barely dawn, as Valentin Kazarka appeared on the pier. [BUT. Azolsky]
(86) Barely only Nerzhin wrote this conclusion on a piece of paper, as he was arrested. [BUT. Solzhenitsyn]
(87) And only a point will appear, move, he soars and suddenly falls down like a stone! [M. Bulgakov]
(88) Just he opened the door, Tanya immediately saw him and left [Yu. Trifonov]
(89) Just a little he will lose his temper, she will immediately go to her room - and on the key. [TO. Chukovsky]
(90) A little will have a free minute - he immediately begins to sweep the carpet for a scoop, for a broom, otherwise he rinses the cups, vacuums the sofa or starts a small laundry. [YU. Trifonov]
(91) But You Didn't Know That just a little a person rejects a miracle, then he immediately rejects God, for a person seeks not so much God as miracles. [IN. Rozanov]
Statistics barely, a little and only difficult because of the homonymy with particles.
The frequency union stands apart in this group not yet(14 682. entries in the Main Corpus), which indicates that upon reaching the situation introduced by the union, the situation described in the main sentence ceases:
(92) Cover and simmer for about 30 minutes, or until chick not will become soft. [Recipes national cuisines: France (2000-2005)]
Its accurate statistics are difficult due to the homonymy with the adverb until combined with a particle not: The work has not yet been completed. Its synonyms, unions until(392. entries in the main building) and not yet(109. Entries in the Main Building) are obsolete or colloquial:
(93) This is how Lieutenant Yegor Dremov fought, until misfortune happened to him [A. N. Tolstoy]
(94) Continuing the service, Gribovsky did not know goryushka, not yet added provocation to the denunciation. [YU. Davydov]
Alliances until, as long as and for the time being in this meaning are possible, but much less common (see more about them):
(95) Wait while I will die... I'll die soon ... [Z. Prilepin]
(96) However, the mother pushed the little son towards her father, and had to endure, as long as the giant will pat his head or clasp his cheeks with his big chubby palms and present him with some greasy sweets. [BUT. Varlamov]
(97) If I sat on a math test without disturbing anyone, calmly waiting, for the time being my friend will solve the problem, then everything was attributed to this my laziness, and not stupidity. [F. Iskander]
7.1.2. Unions that do not indicate immediate precedence: after, since
Union after(10 157. occurrences in the Main Corpus) can indicate both immediate and more distant following:
(99) I watched Nikolai Lebedev's "Star" almost a year later after the film was released. [L. Anninsky] - remote follow
Since(3 222. entries in the Main Building) indicates that a certain period of time passes between the onset of the first situation and the onset of the second:
(100) Seventeen years have passed since,as he told me that. [BUT. Gelasimov] - but not * immediately since,as he told me that
Since has an additional semantic component - namely, it assumes that both situations occurred a long time ago relative to the moment of speech:
(101) Spivakov and Pletnev have known each other for a very long time, since Misha studied with Flier, with whom Volodya was friends and in his youth even lived at his house [S. Spivakova] - but not * Since he called her an hour ago, she was on pins and needles
7.2. Conjunctions with the meaning of simultaneity of situations
The most stylistically neutral and frequent union in this group is until(see about other uses until and not yet also ):
(102) Scientists, businessmen and petty thieves<...>at the request of prosecutors, judges are sent to jail for months or even years, until the investigation continues. ["Vremya MN" (2003)]
(103) Until our mad sultan / Promises us the way to the prison ... (B. Okudzhava)
Its exact statistics are impossible due to the homonymy with the adverb until: We are still working on the article..
Union as long as - obsolete or vernacular (2729 entries in the main building), union for the time being(1250. entries in the main building) – outdated or colloquial:
(104) But I, the high priest of the Jews, as long as alive, I will not give up faith and protect the people! [M. Bulgakov]
(105) As long as our president was preparing to send Federal Assembly <...>, as long as he made himself fit to say about the need for a steady further increase in the well-being of the people<...>, in the city of Volzhsky, located in the outskirts of Volgograd, events took place that made all this melodeclamation meaningless. ["Crime Chronicle" (2003)]
(106) In these few seconds, for the time being he ran to the other side, she had time to swing quite strongly. [F. Iskander]
Out-of-pocket union as(1667. entries in the Main Corpus) indicates not just the simultaneous existence of situations, but a gradual increase in the situation described in the main sentence, against the background and due to the gradual increase in the situation introduced by the union, i.e. as contains a component of causality, causality (for conjunctions of cause, see):
(107) Visual acuity improved as the outer opening of the eye narrowed. [BUT. Zaitsev]
(108) As trips were cut, connections were cut, he began to suffer. [D. Granin]
Rare union while describes the parallel unfolding of two situations:
(109) While in The Supreme Court the case of citizen AA Zhukov was being considered, many taxpayers were calculating the amounts that they might have to pay in addition for several years [“ Accounting"(2004)]
Its exact statistics are difficult due to its polysemism, and its concessional meaning (see), which does not imply obligatory simultaneity, is much more frequent:
(110) It is also indicated that Big Western Money will not come to Russia now, while under the previous system, they came or promised to come ["Tomorrow" (2003)]
7.3. Conjunctions with the meaning of follow
The conjunctions of this group introduce the situation that follows the situation introduced by the main clause. Stylistically neutral union before(8 526. entries in the Main Building) - the most frequent in this group:
(111) Before go to the consideration of specific data on the composition of the jury, we will make a number of comments general... (A. Afanasyev)
He usually introduces controlled actions, cf. weirdness ? We had time to clean everything up before it started to rain and especially in the preposition to the main sentence ?? Before it started to rain we took it all away.
Union until(2,236 entries in the Main Corpus) is also stylistically neutral and, although it can introduce purposeful actions ( Before she started singing, Rotar fans shouted: Come on Rotaru!(I. Kio)), is mainly used in the context of uncontrolled events, processes and influences:
(112) Here she died until I was born, and we lived in the same century [E. Grishkovets]
(113) But until the stone was thrown, it possessed kinetic energy[IN. Lukashik, E. Ivanova. Collection of problems in physics. 7-9. cl. (2003)]
(114) It is not uncommon for people to knock on a neighbor's door for a long time. until the smell of a decaying corpse will spread throughout the apartment. [BUT. Azolsky]
Synonym before(731. entry in the Main Corpus) - outdated or bookish synonym before:
(115) Before I managed to answer something, she burst into tears [A. I. Herzen. Thief Magpie (1846)]
(116) Before an ear may appear above the ground, something inevitable should happen to the seed under the ground: it should dissolve, as it were, disappear [Metropolitan Anthony (Bloom). "The beginning of the gospel of Jesus Christ, the Son of God." Conversations on the Gospel of Mark (1990-1992)]
8. Comparative unions
List of comparative unions: like, what, like, like, like, like, like (like), like, exactly, exactly (like), than than.
The work [Sannikov 2008] provides arguments in favor of the special status of comparative constructions and, accordingly, comparative unions.
Comparative constructions converge with compositional ones (see. Essay) on the following grounds:
(1) unlike subordinate, compositional and comparative conjunctions can attach syntactic units of a lower level than the clause:
(117) I dialed the code of Moscow and Sasha's phone number... [IN. Tokarev]
(118) Cover, as door, shut behind me ... [O. Pavlov]
(2) the members being compared, like those written, have a double syntactic status: on the one hand, there is a syntactic connection between the compared terms (comparators), on the other hand, the syntactic connection of each of the comparators with the main word is felt, i.e. comparative and subordinate ties "overlap" [Sannikov 2008: 395].
(119) <…>as grove in september, / Alcohol showered the brains [S. Yesenin]
For composed members, this is not possible: cf. Katya and Misha came vs. impossibility * And Katya Misha came.
In this article, as in traditional Russian studies, comparative unions are considered as subordinate ones.
For more information on comparative designs, see the dedicated article Comparative Designs.
8.1. Union like
Basic Comparative Union, as(statistics are impossible due to the homonymy with the temporary as, which is part of complex temporary conjunctions (see), and a very frequent explanatory as(see)), can attach members of a sentence or whole sentences:
(120) Driving in these questions, as bullets in the forehead [A. Gelasimov]
(121) All their soldiers<...>Abdulka loved and remembered as sons. [ABOUT. Pavlov]
(122) The elephant's head is empty, as the streets of the city become empty in the midday heat [A. Dorofeev]
In a comparative sense, it is semantically trivalent (although syntactically related only to the second comparator) and has the following semantics: PZ as Q 'Object P (comparison object) and object Q (comparison standard) have a common feature Z', see Comparative Constructions / Definition ...
what- an outdated poetic synonym as:
(123) And Razin Bottom Dreams: / Flowers - what carpet boards [M. Tsvetaeva]
For what not mentioning the attribute by which the comparison is made is characteristic: And she - that death, / The mouth is eaten in blood(M. Tsvetaeva) instead of And she is pale, like death. His statistics are impossible due to homonomy with one of the most frequent alliances of the Russian language - explanatory what, and also with the pronoun what in the nominative case (see).
8.2. Synonyms as with a narrower meaning: as if, as if, exactly, etc.
Most of the other comparative unions are as if as if)as if(statistics are impossible due to homonymy with an explanatory as if)as if, as if, as if (as), as if (as),(on the distribution of options with would and without would see Comparative constructions / p. 2.2), exactly(statistics are impossible due to homonymy with much more frequent adverbs and short adjectives) , exactly (would)(statistics are impossible due to homonymy with much more frequent adverbs and short adjectives), exactly how- synonyms as, only with a narrower meaning, namely, they all emphasize that the two comparators are not equivalent, but only outwardly similar. They are often used for figurative comparisons of really distant objects belonging to completely different classes; Wed:
(124) Lightweight as if <as if would, as if> fluff
(125) The numbers somehow got stuck in my head, as if a pillow studded with sewing needles. [BUT. Dorofeev]
(126) This whole tin plane was shaking as if malaria with fever. [IN. Bykov]
(127) The cloak dangled strangely on the shoulders - dull and scratched, exactly public catering aluminum dishes. [ABOUT. Pavlov]
(128) Sits, smooth Mother of god, / Yes, pearls on a string are lower [M. Tsvetaeva]
Wherein as if, as if, as if, as if, as if, as if - book unions, and exactly - folk poetry. Syntactically, they can attach both members of a sentence (see examples above) and whole sentences:
(129) He loved only himself in the world<...>voluptuous, lustful, as if one flesh continually longed for another, more beautiful. [ABOUT. Pavlov]
(130) Light high consonance accompanied by calm bass - as if in communal apartment neighbor walks behind the wall. [BUT. Slapovsky]
(131) The floorboards in the hall creak by themselves, exactly someone came and walks [V. Petsukh]
(132) And Razin dreams - ringing: / Smooth droplets of silver drips [M. Tsvetaeva]
On the choice of the union depending on the syntactic type of the comparative construction, see Comparative constructions / p. 3.2.2.
8.3. Union is like
Union similar to - book synonym for union as, which has the following syntactic restrictions: it can bind entire sentences, but not individual members of a sentence; Wed:
(133) Similar to you can ignore the stupidity beautiful woman so you might not notice the magnificence of a stupid man [F. Iskander]
(134) Similar to the shadow of a person gives an idea of his figure, and anti-Semitism gives an idea of the historical fate and path of the Jews. [IN. Grossman]
but not * I love Katya like a daughter.
Use with an adverb So also characteristic of the union as when it binds the sentences:
(135) how little girls tirelessly change dolls, So and Pavel spent hours collecting and disassembling cardboard models of a person and his individual organs [L. Ulitskaya]
8.4. Unions than and rather than
Comparative union than and its synonym rather than (what) are fundamentally different in their semantics from other comparative unions. If most comparative conjunctions convey the idea of similarity between two objects on the basis of a common feature, than and rather than convey the idea of \ u200b \ u200bdifferentiating between two objects in some way: He's smarter than she;He will have to spend more time there than he expected... The meaning of these unions can be formulated as follows: PZ than<нежели> Q'P differs from Q in terms of the degree to which it possesses the Z characteristic'. Than and rather than are used with the comparative degree of an adjective or adverb, which expresses a feature, according to the degree of which two objects differ:
(136) At that moment he was more afraid of the Elector, than those that were on the tower [V. Bykov]
(137) Both flowers smelled of nectar even more, than oregano. [IN. Kologriv]
(138) Passing a hollow, which turned out to be much more extensive, rather than Introduced to Travkin during observation, the sappers stopped. [E. Kazakevich]
(139) And after that the knight had to sew a little more and longer, rather than he assumed. [M. Bulgakov]
Union rather than usually qualifies as book, which is contradicted by corpus data - its general frequency, as well as statistics on the Oral and Newspaper corpus (in percentage terms 0.0057. in the Main corpus, 0.0024. in the Gazetny corpus, 0.0012. in the Oral corpus).
9. Explanatory Unions
List of explanatory unions: what, so that, (like) as if, how.
(140) I know what he doesn't work there anymore; He said, what she's left; I want to, so that You came; They say as if <as if> he left; He watched as hay.
This difference has syntactic and semantic implications. So, the main clause in a complex explanatory sentence is not a component (see Glossary) and therefore cannot be used in isolation; Wed incorrectness * He said, *I want to, *They say, *He watched... For other subordinate unions, this is not necessary or uncommon. Wed:
(141) I will come, if a <when> she will come; I will come, because <although> it will not be; I decided to return to Moscow in advance, so that everything was there by the time the children arrived; The rain is over so that you can go for a walk.
(142) I will come; I decided to return to Moscow in advance; The rain is over.
Semantically explanatory conjunctions are the least full of all subordinate ones.
Accurate statistics of these unions is impossible due to their homonymy with union words ( what how), pronouns ( what), pronominal adverbs ( as), target unions ( so that), comparative unions ( as, as if).
Stylistically neutral union what - the most common of all explanatory (and of all subordinate) unions. In some contexts, instead of what used so that... Controlling clauses with a union what and, less often, so that typical for many classes of verbs, including speech verbs ( say that<чтобы> ; claim that; inform that;insist that <so that> etc.), for mental predicates ( think that; understand that; know that; think that), perceptual verbs ( see that; to hear that; make sure that etc.) and many others:
(143) And you say, what your friend has already left ... [E. Grishkovets. Simultaneously (2004)]
(144) PA He speaks, so that I didn't bother her with that. [L. Ulitskaya. Casus Kukotsky (2000)]
(145) Key stubbornly insisted, what Vertinsky is an outstanding poet, as evidence of which he quoted the line: "Hallelujah, like a blue bird." [IN. P. Kataev. My diamond crown (1975-1977)]
(146) Mom is stubborn insisted that we "got it right". [BUT. Aleksin. Division of property (1979)]
Between what and so that there is a combination-semantic distribution: when a speech verb conveys not only the content of someone else's speech, but also the wish of the subject of speech, as in examples (144) and (146), what is replaced by so that... Wed impossibility of interpreting the transmission of wishes # She says I didn't bother her(the only possible interpretation is ‘She denies the fact of harassment’), # She insisted that we got her right(the only possible interpretation is ‘She claims we got her right’).
Speech verbs ( talk, chatter, weave), mental predicates with the unreliability value ( to seem, to seem) and some other classes of verbs can also manipulate clauses with book unions as if and as if indicating the unreliability of the reported:
(147) What do you tell me as if play nothing but Tchaikovsky! [FROM. Spivakov]
(148) So it seems to us, as if the stars are falling. ["Murzilka" (2003)]
(149) Rumors spread as if the next monetary reform is coming. ["Results" (2003)]
(150) It seemed as if a whole family of grasshoppers settled in an abandoned children's coffin. [YU. Dombrovsky]
For verbs of perception, it is often possible to manage a stylistically neutral conjunction as: see how; hear how; watch how etc.
For verbs with a volitive meaning, the control of a stylistically neutral union is characteristic so that: want to; require that; ask to etc .:
what can introduce facts or opinions, but not situations; Wed know that… and consider…, but not * observe that.
how introduces situations, but not facts and opinions: watch how, but not * know how[in the meaning of an explanatory union] and not * consider how.
To, as if and as if cannot enter facts (cannot * know to, *know if, *know as if).
Explanatory Unions what and as it is necessary to distinguish from union words, which, unlike unions, are members of the subordinate clause, obeying directly the verb in the subordinate clause; also, unlike unions, they carry a phrasal emphasis:
(151) I know ¯ what\ we need to do, I saw ¯ as\ they treat her.
Due to their semantic unsaturation, explanatory conjunctions can be omitted: I know (what), he has already come.
Bibliography
- Apresyan V.Yu. (a) Concession as a system-forming meaning // Problems of Linguistics, 2. 2006. P. 85–110.
- Apresyan V.Yu. (b) From although before even if
- Apresyan V.Yu. (c) Concession in language // Linguistic picture of the world and systemic lexicography. Apresyan Yu.D. (Ed.) S. 615-712. M. 2006.
- Apresyan V.Yu. For and for the sake of: Similarities and Differences // Questions of Linguistics, 3. 1995. P. 17–27.
- Apresyan V.Yu. Dictionary entries of the fields' correspondence and inconsistency with reality ’,‘ small number and degree ’,‘ yielding ’and‘ organizations ’// Prospectus Active dictionary Russian language under the general guidance of Academician Yu.D. Apresyan. M. 2010.
- Grammar 1954. - USSR Academy of Sciences. Institute of Linguistics. Grammar of Russian language. vol. 2. Syntax. Part 2. M. 1954.
- Zholkovsky A.K. Lexicon of expedient activity // Machine translation and applied linguistics, 8.M. 1964.
- Iordanskaya L.N., Melchuk I.A. Meaning and compatibility in the dictionary. M. 2007.
- Levontina I.B. Dictionary entries of words FOR, FOR, FOR, for the New explanatory dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language under the guidance of Yu.D. Apresyan. M. 1997. (1st ed.).
- Levontina I.B. Dictionary entries of words FOR, BECAUSE of the New explanatory dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language under the guidance of Yu.D. Apresyan. M. 2004. (2nd ed.).
- E.V. Paducheva Dynamic models in vocabulary semantics. M. 2004.
- Sannikov V.Z. Russian syntax in the semantic and pragmatic space. M .: Languages of Slavic cultures. 2008.
- Uryson E.V. Experience in describing the semantics of unions. M .: Languages of Slavic cultures. 2011.
- Wierzbicka A. The semantics of “logical concepts” // The Moscow Linguistic Journal, 2. 1996.
Main literature
- Apresyan V.Yu. From although before even if: to a systematic description of the concessive units in the language // Russian language in scientific coverage, 1 (11). 2006.S. 7–44.
- Apresyan Yu.D., Boguslavsky I.M., Iomdin L.L., Sannikov V.Z. Theoretical problems of Russian syntax: the interaction of grammar and vocabulary. Resp. ed. Y.D. Apresyan. Languages of Slavic cultures. M. 2010.
- Iordanskaya L.N. Semantics of the Russian union times (in comparison with some other unions) // Russian Linguistics, 12 (3).
- Latysheva A.N. On the semantics of conditional, causal and concessional unions in the Russian language // Bulletin of Moscow State University, 5, ser. 9. Philology. 1982.
- Uryson E.V. Experience in describing the semantics of unions. Languages of Slavic cultures. M. 2011.
- Uryson E.V. The IF Union and semantic primitives // Problems of linguistics, 4. 2001. P. 45–65.
- Khrakovsky V.S. Theoretical analysis of conditional constructions (semantics, calculus, typology) // Khrakovsky V.S. (Editor-in-chief) Typology of conditional constructions. SPb. 1998.S. 7–96.
- Comrie B. Subordination, coordination: Form, semantics, pragmatics // Vajda E.J. (Ed.) Subordination and Coordination Strategies in North Asian Languages. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 2008. P. 1-16.
In general, this meaning has its own, rather numerous lexical means of expression - therefore, therefore, because- however, they are adverbs, not conjunctions (compare their ability to be used with conjunctions - and therefore, and therefore, and therefore).
Syntactic unions if only and if only are complex in nature. On the one hand, they combine the properties of conjunctions and particles (compare the possibility of using in combination with other compositional conjunctions - but only, but only); on the other hand, they combine the properties of compositional and subordinate: in example (77) if only forms a dependent clause, like a typical subordinate union, and in example (78) - joins in combination with the union but an independent clause, while the dependent includes another concessionary union - let be.
/>One of the important elements of speech in Everyday life are unions. In Russian it is very difficult to communicate without them: after all, they are connecting elements in any text. With them, speech becomes more beautiful and varied.
Let's see what is meant in our language by this term. What words can be attributed to them, what are their functions.
Consider the types and categories of this part of speech, we will find out the main features. We will draw up a plan for parsing these words as a specific category of speech and will analyze it using a specific example.
Definition and functionality
Russian language is rich different kinds help words. One of these basic categories speech are alliances.
The essence of this term is as follows: they can be called words connecting various repeating elements in a passage, its segments, several different sentences.
These are peculiar linking words.
It's important to know: words of this category do not change and must not be elements (members) of the sentence!
Types of unions
The classification of such terms occurs, as a rule, in 3 directions. Let's consider each separately.
By syntactic features
These words connect fragments of compound or compound sentences. Let's take a look at each type separately.
Writing
They are also called compound. These words can be used only when linking equal fragments of a complex sentence.
Groups of words are distinguished, some of them are shown in the table.
Subordinate
They are used as follows - one fragment of a complex sentence is subordinate to another. These segments are considered subordinate clauses.
The following groups of such words are distinguished.
Sometimes the elements of the 7th subspecies can be easily confused with the explanatory and other categories of this service category of speech. To avoid confusion, follow-up questions should be asked.
By morphological characteristics
They can be divided as easily as the previous type into:
- simple (in one word) - a, u, but also others;
- compound (a few words) - not only, but also; other.
Moreover, the latter are also divided into 2 categories: double and repetitive. Most often, the second type is a subtype of the first.
The double can be attributed: if ... yes, when ... then ...; and to repetitive ones - then ... that, neither ... nor ...
By word formation
By the way they are formed, they can be divided into:
- non-derivatives - occurred independently of other categories;
- derivatives - formed from words of other categories.
There are the following types of the last kind of words:
- a combination of several words of this category of the 1st type;
- decree. word ch. sentence member + simple union;
- word of this category + generalizing link;
- history education.
Algorithm for parsing a union as part of speech
How to find and determine the nature of alliances in any text is written either in a reference book or in a textbook or collection.
An example of parsing according to the specified plan
We were preparing a scene so that perform well at the regional theatrical art competition. In order to there was a variety, we included dance, literary, play and musical numbers. Hopefully what we will perform well.
For clarity, the search terms are highlighted.
- To
- Union - connects the members of the SPP;
- Submissive, simple, derivative.
- In order to
- Union - connects the members of the SPP;
- Submissive, compound, derivative.
- Union - connects oneor. members of the SPP;
- Writing, simple, non-derivative.
- Union - connects the members of the SPP;
- Submissive, simple, non-derivative.
Conclusion
We learned what types of unions are divided into, how the compositional ones differ from the subordinate ones, what subspecies they are divided into. The result will be a table characterizing this part of speech.
§one. general characteristics unions
Union is a service part of speech that serves to connect homogeneous members of a sentence, parts of a complex sentence and individual sentences in the text. The uniqueness of the unions in the role they play. This role is an expression of the compositional and subordinate syntactic connections. Unlike prepositions, conjunctions are not associated with grammatical features of other words. Why? Because they serve for higher level syntactic links.
Conjunctions are an immutable part of speech. The union is not a member of the proposal. Conjunctions are a class that combines dissimilar words. Unions differ in education, structure, function, meaning.
§2. Union formation
Like prepositions, unions are divided into non-derivatives and derivatives according to the method of formation.
- Non-derivatives unions: and, a, but, or, like that and etc.
- Derivatives formed in different ways:
- by connecting non-derivative unions: as if, but also, since
- by combining an index word and a simple union: in order to
- conjunction of a union with a pronoun and a word with a generalized meaning: while, until
from other parts of speech: although to
§3. Union structure
By structure, unions are divided into simple and compound:
- Simple:and, a, but, or, what, so that, how, if, however, on the other hand, also, moreover, moreover, and others, consisting of one word.
- Composite: since, while, how soon, due to the fact that, due to the fact that... Compounds are divided into double and repeating: not only ..., but also ..., neither ... nor ..., then ... then ...
§four. Function (role) of unions. Digits by value
The function (role) of unions is the expression of syntactic connections: compositional and subordinate.
A compositional relationship is a relationship that expresses the equal relationship of elements.
Writing unions. Digits by value
- Connecting: and, yes (= and: cabbage soup and porridge), and ... and ..., not only ... but also, like ... and, also, also
- Separating: either, either, then ... then, not that ... not that, or ... or, either ... or
- Adverse: but, but, Yes(= but: good-looking, but poor), but, but
- Gradation *: not only, but also, not so much ... how much, not that ... but
- Explanatory *: that is, namely
- Connecting *: also, also, and, and moreover, moreover
* Traditionally, sentences with a compositional connection are considered more accessible for understanding and are introduced into training earlier than others: already in primary school... Then the guys are taught to distinguish between the meanings of unions. Therefore, the material is presented in a simplified form. So the idea is learned that creative unions there are three types: connecting, separating and opposing. In high school, children are faced with a wider range of phenomena that need to be understood and understood. For example, everyone should be able to distinguish and correctly write conjunctions. too, also and combinations the same, the same, you need to know how to punctuate sentences with different unions. And the question of what kind of unions they are does not arise. However, gradational, explanatory and connecting conjunctions are very frequent, they can get caught in test items... Therefore, I advise high school students and graduates to pay special attention to them.
A subordinate relationship is a relationship of unequal components, in which one of the components depends on the other. This is how parts of complex sentences are connected.
Submissive unions. Digits by value
- Temporary: when, while, barely, only, while, only only, slightly, just
- Causal: because, because, because, because, because, because, because, because (obsolete), because
- Conditional: if (if only, if, if - outdated.), If, if, if, how soon
- Target: to, in order, in order (obsolete), in order to, in order, in order to
- Consequences: so
- Consensus: although, despite the fact that
- Comparative: as, as if, as if, exactly, than, as if, just as, rather than (obsolete)
- Explanatory: what, how, to
Attention:
Some conjunctions are polysemantic and can, performing different functions, enter into different categories. For example, let's compare:
Tell him, so that he did not call: I will not be at home.
so that - explanatory union
To to please mom, he washed the dishes left in the sink in the morning.
so that- target union
When the teacher entered the classroom, Mishka was talking on the phone.
when- temporary union
I dont know, when he will call.
when- explanatory union
When he doesn't want to understand anything, how can you explain to him?
when- conditional union
Attention:
Many conjunctions have homonymous forms, which creates problems in their distinction and correct spelling. See the exam: "A, B, C" - everything for preparation. A18. Merged, hyphenated, separate spelling of words.
Test of strength
Check your understanding of the content of this chapter.
Final test
What are unions for?
- To link words in a sentence
- For communication of homogeneous members of the proposal, parts complex sentences and individual sentences in the text
Is there a difference between compositional and subordinate unions?
Is it true to believe that simple unions are creative, and compound ones are subordinate?
Is it true to believe that simple conjunctions are used in simple sentences, and compound ones in complex ones?
What syntactic relationship expresses the peer-to-peer relationship of elements?
- Writing
- Submissive
What syntactic relationship expresses the unequal relationship of elements, in which one depends on the other?
- Writing
- Submissive
Constructive or subordinate unions express a compositional connection?
- Writing
- Subordinate
Constructive or subordinate unions express a subordinate connection?
- Writing
- Subordinate
Are there polysemantic conjunctions in the Russian language?
Is it true that many unions have homonyms?
Derivatives or non-derivatives are unions: and, a, but, or, as - ?
- Derivatives
- Non-derivative
Subordinate unions and union words are the link between the main and dependent clauses in a complex clause (SPS). Here is a list of allied words and subordinate unions, depending on which subordinate clause in meaning they attach.
Submissive unions
Unlike unions, words of the service part of speech, they perform the role of a union and at the same time remain full members of the sentence.
I was asked who I was, first in Portuguese, then in Spanish, then in French, but I did not know any of these languages (Daniel Defoe. Robinson Crusoe).
- (Who?) I is the subject;
- (what is said about me?) who it- compound nominal predicate.
Let's list the union words - pronouns:
- Who;
- what;
- what;
- what;
- which;
- whose;
- how much (how much).
Examples of sentences with union words - pronouns
Let me ask you who has the honor to be the first? (Arthur Conan Doyle. The Dog of the Baskervilles).
Berlioz looked around sadly, not understanding what had frightened him (MN Bulgakov. The Master and Margarita).
Sometimes the master, no matter how angry he was, would calm down in her presence and talk to me graciously (A. Pushkin. Belkin's Tales).
There was no answer, except for that general answer that life gives to all the most difficult and insoluble questions (Leo Tolstoy. Anna Karenina).
But what this period was, I did not know and could not find out (Anatoly Rybakov. Children of the Arbat).
Is he doomed to death, this young man with a beautiful strong body, a young man whose voice sounds like the call of a bugle and the clang of weapons? (Jack London. Iron Heel).
And here you go, how much is still unspoiled, childish in it (Boris Pasternak. Doctor Zhivago).
But he was already in such a rage that he did not notice how futile his efforts were (Jack London. Hearts of Three).
Common words are pronominal adverbs:
- Where;
- what for;
- as;
- when;
- where to;
- from where;
- why;
- why;
- how much.
Examples of sentences with union words - adverbs
A rich collection of pistols was the only luxury of the poor hut where he lived (A. Pushkin. Belkin's Tales).
Guessed why the king called to the palace (Alexei Tolstoy. Peter the First).
It is not known how he did it, but only his nose sounded like a trumpet (N. V. Gogol. Dead Souls).
And when he opened them, he saw that everything was over, the haze dissolved, the checkered one disappeared, and at the same time a dull needle jumped out of the heart (MN Bulgakov. The Master and Margarita).
He did not understand where he was walking, spreading his legs wide, but his legs knew perfectly well where they were carrying him (Boris Pasternak. Doctor Zhivago).
Two of them were already driving forward to the place from which they were supposed to let (Lev Tolstoy. Anna Karenina).
Maud released his hand, causing his fingers to unclench slightly and the pencil fell out (Jack London. Sea Wolf).
Then he lost patience and began to grumble why he is always forced to do what he does not want (Mark Twain. The Adventures of Tom Sawyer).
Yura understood how much he owed his uncle the general properties of his character (Boris Pasternak. Doctor Zhivago).
How to distinguish conjunctions from conjunctive words
Subordinate unions are not members of the subordinate clause, but serve only to attach clauses to the main or other clauses.
For example:
It is bitter to think that life will pass without sorrow and without happiness, in the bustle of daily worries. (I. Bunin.)
Let's compare:
My father guessed what was in my soul (Daniel Defoe. Robinson Crusoe).
Allied words not only attach subordinate clauses to the main (or other subordinate clause), but also are members of subordinate clauses.
For example:
In autumn, birds fly away to places where it is always warm.
I don't know why he did it.
In these sentences, union words "Where" and "what for" are the circumstances.
Subordinate unions attach subordinate clauses to the main parts of a complex sentence. Some subordinate conjunctions are also used in the construction of a simple sentence. So the union as can be placed before the nominal part of a compound predicate: The house is like a passage or enter into the circumstance of the course of action: Dreams dissipated like smoke(Lermontov), union so that can attach the circumstance of the goal, expressed by the infinitive: Gathered to discuss an action plan. Wed: Gathered to discuss an action plan.
Subordinate unions are usually divided into semantic and asemantic. The latter include unions that attach explanatory clauses: what, how, to, if. They are usually compared with grammatical cases, since with the help of explanatory conjunctions such syntactic places are often replaced, in which there may be a grammatical case. (Hear the sound of the wind, Hear that the wind seems to be rustling; Dreaming of spring. Dreaming like spring; Remembered what happened. Remembered what happened). Like grammatical cases, explanatory conjunctions express syntactic relations predetermined (set) by the semantics of the word (or word forms) to which the subordinate clause... An explanatory union does not form the syntactic meaning of a complex sentence, but only expresses it.
However, it would be wrong to think that in terms of content, explanatory unions are empty words. Explanatory conjunctions differ among themselves by modal components of meaning. Union so that expresses the desired modality (tell him to come) like - uncertainty (I see that someone is standing) that and as related to real modality.
Semantic subordinate unions have meanings of their own. They define syntactic relations in the structure of a complex sentence.
Semantic unions are divided into groups by meaning:
1) temporary alliances when, before, after, barely ... how, as soon, barely,
2) causal because, because, because, because, the more so, because, because, because, because, because, because, because, because that;
3) conditional if, if ... then, if, if, provided that, if and etc.;
4) concessional despite the fact that, although, despite the fact that, despite the fact, with all that, no matter what;
5) consequences so, as a result;
6) goals in order to, in order to, in order to, in order to, in order to;
7) comparative: as if, as if, as if, as, as, as, as, as, as if;
8) comparative unions that coincide with subordinate unions on a formal basis, and in meaning are not opposed to creative unions if ... then, while, meanwhile, then how, as, than ... that. For example, The fathers did not visit each other, she had not yet seen Alexei, while(= a) young neighbors only talked about him(Pushkin).
Allied words
Union words (or relative pronouns) are pronominal words of various parts of speech used in the construction of a complex sentence in the role of a subordinate union. Submission, formalized by a union word, is usually called relative.
The following lexemes are used in the role of union words: who, what, what, who, what, whose, where, where, from where, when, how, why, why, why, how much.
Unlike unions, union words are members of a sentence, a semantic question can be posed to them, and, importantly, they are introduced into subordinate clauses based on syntactic connection with other components. For example, in the sentence The most amazing thing was how quickly they agreed(Fadeev) word as forms a phrase with an adverb fast, in which the value of the degree is expressed, and therefore cannot be considered a union. Similarly, the union word what - it is always or strongly controlled V. p. (Remember what you said in the morning), or I. p. Subject (It's hard to understand what's going on.)
The conjugate function of relative pronouns is based on their different properties.
1.When formalizing relative clauses, pronouns implement their interrogative semantics and are selected depending on what the question is aimed at: We were asked who is coming, what happened, when the cold weather sets in, why planes do not fly, what summer is expected etc.
Note. Lexeme when is a union if it attaches a subordinate tense.
2. If the subordinate clause refers to a noun or a relative pronoun, then in the union word its ability to be used anaphorically is realized: most often it introduces into the subordinate clause the component mentioned in the main part: tell us about the letter you received; I am who you are waiting for; we were where you go; on the birch that grows under my window, jackdaws have made a nest.
