Creator and ruler of the golden horde. All khans of the golden horde. Civilized lifestyle
Golden Horde (Ulus Jochi, Turk. Ulu Ulus- "Great State") - a medieval state in Eurasia.
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Title and boundaries
Name "Golden Horde" it was first used in 1566 in the historical and publicistic essay "Kazan History", when the unified state itself no longer existed. Until that time, in all Russian sources the word “ Horde"Was used without the adjective" Gold". Since the 19th century, the term has been firmly entrenched in historiography and is used to denote the Jochi ulus as a whole, or (depending on the context) its western part with its capital in Sarai.
In the actual Golden Horde and eastern (Arab-Persian) sources, the state did not have a single name. It was usually denoted by the term " ulus", With the addition of any epithet ( "Ulug ulus") or the name of the ruler ( "Ulus Berke"), and not necessarily acting, but also reigning earlier (" Uzbek, ruler of the countries of Berke», « ambassadors of Tokhtamyshkhan, the sovereign of the land of Uzbek"). Along with this, the old geographical term was often used in Arab-Persian sources Desht-i-Kipchak... Word " horde"In the same sources denoted the headquarters (mobile camp) of the ruler (examples of its use in the meaning of" country "begin to be found only from the 15th century). The combination " Golden Horde"(Pers. اردوی زرین, Urdu-i Zarrin) in the meaning" golden parade tent"Occurs in the description of the Arab traveler in relation to the residence of the Khan Uzbek. In Russian chronicles, the word "horde" usually meant an army. Its use as the name of the country has become constant since the turn of the XIII-XIV centuries, until that time the term "Tatars" was used as a name. In Western European sources, the names “ Comanov country», « The company" or " Tatar state», « land of the Tatars», « Tartary". The Chinese called the Mongols " Tatars"(Tar-tar).
In modern languages that are associated with the Old Tatar Horde, the Golden Horde is called: Olug yort (senior house, homeland), Olug olys (senior district, senior district), Dashti kypchak, etc. At the same time, if the capital city is called Bash Kala (main city), then the mobile headquarters is called Altyn urda (Golden Center, tent).
The Arab historian Al-Omari, who lived in the first half of the XIV century, defined the boundaries of the Horde as follows:
Story
Formation of Ulus Jochi (Golden Horde)
The division of the empire by Genghis Khan between his sons, carried out by 1224, can be considered the emergence of Ulus Jochi. After the Western campaign (1236-1242), led by the son of Jochi Batu (in the Russian chronicles Batu), the ulus expanded to the west and the Lower Volga region became its center. In 1251, a kurultai took place in the capital of the Mongol Empire, Karakorum, where Mongke, the son of Tolui, was proclaimed the great khan. Batu, "the eldest of the family" ( aka), supported Mongke, probably hoping to gain full autonomy for his ulus. Opponents of the Jochids and Toluids from the descendants of Chagatai and Ogedei were executed, and the possessions confiscated from them were divided between Mongke, Batu and other Chingizids who recognized their power.
Separation from the Mongol Empire
After the death of Mengu-Timur, a political crisis began in the country associated with the name of Nogai. Nogai, one of the descendants of Genghis Khan, held the post of beklarbek, the second most important in the state under Mengu-Timur. His personal ulus was located in the west of the Golden Horde (near the Danube). Nogai set as his goal the formation of his own state, and during the reign of Tuda-Mengu (1282-1287) and Tula-Buga (1287-1291) he managed to subjugate a huge territory along the Danube, Dniester, Uzeu (Dnieper).
With the direct support of Nogai, Tokhta (1291-1312) was planted on the Sarai throne. At first, the new ruler obeyed his patron in everything, but soon, relying on the steppe aristocracy, opposed him. The long struggle ended in 1299 with the defeat of Nogai, and the unity of the Golden Horde was restored again.
Rise of the Golden Horde
"Great Zamyatnya"
From 1359 to 1380, more than 25 khans were replaced on the Golden Horde throne, and many uluses tried to become independent. This time in Russian sources received the name "Great Zamyatnya".
Even during the life of Khan Janibek (no later than 1357), his Khan Ming-Timur was proclaimed in the Ulus of Shiban. And the assassination of Khan Berdibek (the son of Janibek) in 1359 put an end to the Batuid dynasty, which caused the emergence of various pretenders to the Sarai throne from among the eastern branches of the Jochids. Taking advantage of the instability of the central government, a number of regions of the Horde for some time after the Ulus of Shibana found their own khans.
The rights to the Horde throne of the impostor Kulpa were immediately questioned by the son-in-law and at the same time the beklyarbek of the murdered khan, Temnik Mamai. As a result, Mamai, who was Isatay's grandson, an influential emir of the times of Khan Uzbek, created an independent ulus in the western part of the Horde, right up to the right bank of the Volga. Not being Chingizid, Mamai did not have the right to the title of khan, therefore he limited himself to the post of beklarbek under the puppet khans from the Batuid clan.
Khans from Ulus Shiban, descendants of Ming-Timur, tried to gain a foothold in Sarai. They did not really succeed, the rulers changed with kaleidoscopic speed. The fate of the khans largely depended on the benevolence of the merchant elite of the Volga cities, which was not interested in a strong khan's power.
Following the example of Mamai, other descendants of the emirs also showed a desire for independence. Tengiz-Buga, also Isatai's grandson, tried to create an independent ulus in the Syrdarya. The Jochids, who rebelled against Tengiz-Bugi in 1360 and who killed him, continued his separatist policy, proclaiming a khan from their midst.
Salchen, the third grandson of the same Isatai and at the same time the grandson of Khan Janibek, captured Khadzhi-Tarkhan. Hussein-Sufi, son of Emir Nangudai and grandson of Khan Uzbek, created an independent ulus in Khorezm in 1361. In 1362, the Lithuanian prince Olgerd seized the lands in the Dnieper basin.
The turmoil in the Golden Horde ended after Chingizid Tokhtamysh, with the support of Emir Tamerlane from Maverannahr in 1377-1380, first seized the uluses on the Syr Darya, defeating the sons of Urus Khan, and then the throne in Sarai, when Mamai entered into direct conflict with the Moscow principality (defeat on Vozh (1378)). Tokhtamysh in 1380 defeated the remnants of the troops on the Kalka River collected by Mamai after the defeat in the Battle of Kulikovo.
Tokhtamysh Board
During the reign of Tokhtamysh (1380-1395), the troubles ceased and the central government again began to control the entire main territory of the Golden Horde. In 1382, the khan made a campaign against Moscow and succeeded in restoring the payment of tribute. After strengthening his position, Tokhtamysh opposed the Central Asian ruler Tamerlane, with whom he had previously maintained allied relations. As a result of a series of devastating campaigns in 1391-1396, Tamerlane defeated the troops of Tokhtamysh on the Terek, captured and destroyed the Volga cities, including Saray-Berke, plundered the cities of the Crimea, etc. The Golden Horde was struck from which it could no longer recover.
The collapse of the Golden Horde
Since the sixties of the XIV century, since the time of the Great Hush, important political changes have taken place in the life of the Golden Horde. A gradual disintegration of the state began. The rulers of the remote parts of the ulus acquired de facto independence, in particular, in 1361 the Ulus Orda-Ejena gained independence. However, until the 1390s, the Golden Horde still remained more or less a single state, but with the defeat in the war with Tamerlane and the devastation of economic centers, the process of disintegration began, accelerating from the 1420s.
In the early 1420s, the Siberian Khanate was formed, in 1428 - the Uzbek Khanate, then the Kazan (1438), Crimean (1441) Khanates, the Nogai Horde (1440s) and the Kazakh Khanate (1465) arose. After the death of Kichi-Muhammad Khan, the Golden Horde ceased to exist as a single state.
The Big Horde formally continued to be considered the main among the Jochid states. In 1480, Akhmat, the khan of the Great Horde, tried to achieve obedience from Ivan III, but this attempt failed, and Russia finally freed itself from the Tatar-Mongol yoke. At the beginning of 1481, Akhmat was killed in an attack on his headquarters by the Siberian and Nogai cavalry. Under his children, at the beginning of the 16th century, the Big Horde ceased to exist.
State structure and administrative division
According to the traditional structure of nomadic states, Ulus Jochi after 1242 split into two wings: right (western) and left (eastern). The eldest was the right wing, which was the Ulus Batu. The Mongols indicated the west in white, so Ulus Batu was called the White Horde (Ak Orda). The right wing covered the territory of western Kazakhstan, the Volga region, the North Caucasus, the Don and Dnieper steppes, and the Crimea. Its center was Saray-Batu.
The wings, in turn, were divided into uluses, which were owned by other sons of Jochi. Initially, there were about 14 such uluses. Plano Carpini, who traveled east in 1246-1247, singles out the following leaders in the Horde, indicating the nomadic places: Kuremsu on the western bank of the Dnieper, Mauci on the east, Cartan, married to his sister Batu, in the Don steppes, Batu himself on the Volga and two thousanders on the two banks of the Dzhaik (Ural River). Berke owned lands in the North Caucasus, but in 1254 Batu took these possessions for himself, ordering Berke to move east of the Volga.
At first, the ulus division was notable for its instability: possessions could be transferred to others and change their borders. At the beginning of the XIV century, Uzbek Khan carried out a major administrative-territorial reform, according to which the right wing of Ulus Jochi was divided into 4 large ulus: Saray, Khorezm, Crimea and Desht-i-Kypchak, headed by ulus emirs (ulusbeks) appointed by the khan. Beklarbek was the main ulusbek. The next most important dignitary was the vizier. The other two positions were held by especially noble or distinguished dignitaries. These four regions were divided into 70 small estates (tumens), headed by temniks.
Uluses were divided into smaller holdings, also called uluses. The latter were administrative-territorial units of various sizes, which depended on the rank of the owner (temnik, thousand's manager, centurion's manager, foreman).
The capital of the Golden Horde under Batu was the city of Sarai-Batu (near modern Astrakhan); in the first half of the XIV century, the capital was moved to Saray-Berk (founded by Khan Berke (1255-1266) near present-day Volgograd). Under Khan Uzbek, Saray-Berk was renamed into Saray Al-Jedid.
Army
The overwhelming part of the Horde army was the cavalry, who used the traditional tactics of waging combat with mobile mounted masses of archers in battle. Its core was heavily armed detachments, consisting of the nobility, the basis of which was the guard of the Horde ruler. In addition to the Golden Horde warriors, the khans recruited soldiers from among the conquered peoples into the army, as well as mercenaries from the Volga region, Crimea and the North Caucasus. The main weapon of the Horde warriors was the bow, which the Horde used with great skill. Spears were also widespread, used by the Horde during a massive spear blow that followed the first blow with arrows. Of the bladed weapons, broadswords and sabers were the most popular. Shock-crushing weapons were also widespread: maces, six-pins, embossings, hammers, flails.
Among the Horde warriors, lamellar and laminar metal shells were widespread, from the XIV century - chain mail and ring-plate armor. The most common armor was the khatangu-degel, reinforced from the inside with metal plates (kuyak). Despite this, the Horde continued to use lamellar shells. The Mongols also used armor of the brigantine type. Mirrors, necklaces, bracers and leggings became widespread. Swords were almost everywhere replaced by sabers. From the end of the XIV century, guns appear in service. The Horde soldiers also began to use field fortifications, in particular, large easel shields - chapars... In field combat, they also used some military-technical means, in particular, crossbows.
Population
The Golden Horde was inhabited by the Turkic (Kipchaks, Volga Bulgars, Khorezmians, Bashkirs, etc.), Slavic, Finno-Ugric (Mordovians, Cheremis, Votyaks, etc.), North Caucasian (Yases, Alans, Cherkasy, etc.) peoples. The small Mongol elite very quickly assimilated among the local Turkic population. By the end of the XIV - the beginning of the XV century. the nomadic population of the Golden Horde was designated by the ethnonym "Tatars".
Ethnogenesis of the Volga, Crimean, Siberian Tatars took place in the Golden Horde. The Turkic population of the eastern wing of the Golden Horde formed the basis of modern Kazakhs, Karakalpaks and Nogais.
Cities and commerce
On the lands from the Danube to the Irtysh, 110 urban centers with an oriental material culture have been archaeologically recorded, the heyday of which fell on the first half of the 14th century. The total number of the Golden Horde cities, apparently, was close to 150. The major centers of mainly caravan trade were the cities of Saray-Batu, Saray-Berke, Uvek, Bulgar, Khadzhi-Tarkhan, Beljamen, Kazan, Djuketau, Madjar, Mokhshi, Azak ( Azov), Urgench and others.
The trading colonies of the Genoese in the Crimea (captaincy of the Gothia) and at the mouth of the Don were used by the Horde for trade in cloth, fabrics and linen canvas, weapons, women's jewelry, jewelry, precious stones, spices, incense, furs, leather, honey, wax, salt, grain , forest, fish, caviar, olive oil and slaves.
Trade routes leading to both southern Europe and Central Asia, India and China began from the Crimean trading cities. Trade routes leading to Central Asia and Iran passed along the Volga. Through the Volgodonsk passage there was a connection with the Don and through it with the Azov and Black seas.
Foreign and domestic trade relations were provided by the issued money of the Golden Horde: silver dirhams, copper pools and soums.
Rulers
In the first period, the rulers of the Golden Horde recognized the supremacy of the great Kaan of the Mongol Empire.
Khans
- Mongke-Timur (1269-1282), the first khan of the Golden Horde, independent from the Mongol Empire
- There Mengu (1282-1287)
- Tula Buga (1287-1291)
- Tokhta (1291-1312)
- Uzbek Khan (1313-1341)
- Tinibek (1341-1342)
- Janibek (1342-1357)
- Berdibek (1357-1359), the last representative of the Batu clan
- Kulpa (August 1359-January 1360), impostor, posing as Janibek's son
- Nauruz Khan (January-June 1360), impostor, posing as the son of Janibek
- Khizr Khan (June 1360-August 1361), the first representative of the Horde-Ejen family
- Timur-Khoja-khan (August-September 1361)
- Ordumelik (September-October 1361), the first representative of the Tuka-Timur clan
- Kildibek (October 1361 - September 1362), impostor, posing as Janibek's son
- Murad Khan (September 1362-Autumn 1364)
- Mir Pulad (autumn 1364-September 1365), the first representative of the Shibana clan
- Aziz Sheikh (September 1365-1367)
- Abdullah Khan (1367-1368)
- Hasan Khan (1368-1369)
- Abdullah Khan (1369-1370)
- Muhammad Bulak Khan (1370-1372), under the regency of Tulunbek Khanum
- Urus Khan (1372-1374)
- Circassian Khan (1374-early 1375)
- Muhammad Bulak Khan (early 1375-June 1375)
- Urus Khan (June-July 1375)
- Muhammad Bulak Khan (July 1375-end 1375)
- Kaganbek (Aibek Khan) (late 1375-1377)
- Arabshah (Kary-khan) (1377-1380)
- Tokhtamysh (1380-1395)
- Timur Kutlug (1395-1399)
- Shadibek (1399-1407)
- Pulad Khan (1407-1411)
- Timur Khan (1411-1412)
- Jalal ad-Din-khan (1412-1413)
- Kerimberds (1413-1414)
- Chokra (1414-1416)
- Jabbar Birdie (1416-1417)
- Dervish Khan (1417-1419)
- Ulu Muhammad (1419-1423)
- Barak Khan (1423-1426)
- Ulu Muhammad (1426-1427)
- Barak Khan (1427-1428)
- Ulu Muhammad (1428-1432)
- Kichi-Muhammad (1432-1459)
Beklarbeki
see also
Notes (edit)
- DOCUMENTS-> GOLDEN HORDE-> LETTERS OF THE GOLDEN HORDE KHANS (1393-1477) -> TEXT
- A.P. Grigoriev The official language of the Golden Horde of the XIII-XIV centuries // Turkological collection 1977. M, 1981. P.81-89. "
- Tatar Encyclopedic Dictionary. - Kazan: Institute of the Tatar Encyclopedia of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tatarstan, 1999. - 703 p., Ill. ISBN 0-9530650-3-0
- Faseev F.S.Star Tatar business writing of the 18th century. / F.S. Faseev. - Kazan: Tat. book ed., 1982 .-- 171 p.
- Khisamova F.M.Functioning of the Old Tatar business writing of the 16th-17th centuries. / F. M. Khisamova. - Kazan: Kazan Publishing House. University, 1990 .-- 154 p.
- Written Languages of the World, Books 1-2 G. D McConnell, V. Yu. Mikhalchenko Academy, 2000 Pp. 452
- III International Baudouin Readings: I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay and modern problems of theoretical and applied linguistics: (Kazan, May 23-25, 2006): works and materials, Volume 2 pp. 88 and p. 91
- Introduction to the study of the Turkic languages Nikolay Alexandrovich Baskakov Vyssh. school, 1969
- Tatar Encyclopedia: K-L Mansur Khasanovich Khasanov, Mansur Khasanovich Khasanov Institute of the Tatar Encyclopedia, 2006 pp. 348
- History of the Tatar literary language: XIII-first quarter of XX century Institute of Language, Literature and Art (IYALI) named after Galimdzhan Ibragimov of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tatarstan publishing house Fiker, 2003
- http://www.mtss.ru/?page=lang_orda E. Tenishev The language of interethnic communication of the Golden Horde era
- Atlas of the history of Tatarstan and the Tatar people M .: Publishing house DIK, 1999. - 64 p .: ill., Maps. ed. R. G. Fakhrutdinova
- Historical geography of the Golden Horde in the XIII-XIV centuries.
- Golden Horde
- Pochekaev R. Yu. Legal status of Ulus Jochi in the Mongol Empire 1224-1269 (unspecified) ... - Library of the "Central Asian Historical Server". Retrieved April 17, 2010. Archived August 23, 2011.
- Cm.: Egorov V.L. Historical geography of the Golden Horde in the XIII-XIV centuries. - M.: Science, 1985.
- Sultanov T.I. How Jochi ulus became the Golden Horde.
- Men-da bei-lu (full description of the Mongol-Tatars) Per. with whale, int., comment. and adj. N. Ts. Munkueva. M., 1975, p. 48, 123-124.
- V. Tiesenhausen. Collection of materials related to the history of the Horde (p. 215), Arabic text (p. 236), Russian translation (B. Grekov and A. Yakubovsky. Golden Horde, p. 44).
The Golden Horde (Ulus Jochi) is a Mongol-Tatars state that existed in Eurasia from the 13th to the 16th century. During its dawn, the Golden Horde, nominally part of the Mongol Empire, ruled over the Russian princes and collected tribute from them (the Mongol-Tatar yoke) for several centuries.
In Russian chronicles, the Golden Horde bore different names, but most often Ulus Juchi ("Possession of Khan Juchi") and only from 1556 the state began to be called the Golden Horde.
The beginning of the era of the Golden Horde
In 1224, the Mongol Khan Genghis Khan divided the Mongol Empire between his sons, one of the parts was received by his son Jochi, then the formation of an independent state began. After him, his son, Khan Batu, became the head of the Jochi ulus. Until 1266, the Golden Horde was part of the Mongol Empire, as one of the khanates, and then became an independent state, having only a nominal dependence on the empire.
During his reign, Khan Batu made several military campaigns, as a result of which new territories were conquered, and the lower Volga region became the center of the Horde. The capital was the city of Saray-Batu, located not far from modern Astrakhan.
As a result of the campaigns of Batu and his troops, the Golden Horde conquered new territories and occupied the lands during its heyday:
- Most of modern Russia, except for the Far East, Siberia and the North;
- Ukraine;
- Kazakhstan;
- Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan.
Despite the existence of the Mongol-Tatar yoke and the power of the Mongols over Russia, the khans of the Golden Horde were not directly involved in ruling in Russia, taking only tribute from the Russian princes and making periodic punitive campaigns to strengthen their authority.
As a result of several centuries of the rule of the Golden Horde, Russia lost its independence, the economy was in decline, the lands were devastated, and the culture forever lost some types of crafts and was also in the stage of degradation. It is thanks to the long-term power of the Horde in the future that Russia has always lagged behind in development from the countries of Western Europe.
State structure and management system of the Golden Horde
The horde was a fairly typical Mongolian state, consisting of several khanates. In the 13th century, the territories of the Horde were constantly changing their borders, and the number of uluses (parts) was constantly changing, however, at the beginning of the 14th century, a territorial reform was carried out and the Golden Horde received a constant number of uluses.
At the head of each ulus was its own khan, who belonged to the ruling dynasty and was a descendant of Genghis Khan, while at the head of the state was a single khan, to whom all the rest were subordinate. Each ulus had its own manager, ulusbek, to whom lesser officials were subordinate.
The Golden Horde was a paramilitary state, so all administrative and military positions were united.
Economy and culture of the Golden Horde
Since the Golden Horde was a multinational state, the culture also absorbed a lot from different peoples. In general, the culture was based on the way of life and traditions of the nomadic Mongols. In addition, since 1312, the Horde has become an Islamic state, which is also reflected in traditions. Scientists believe that the culture of the Golden Horde was not independent and throughout the entire period of the state's existence was in a state of stagnation, using only ready-made forms introduced by other cultures, but not inventing their own.
The Horde was a military and trading state. It was trade, along with the collection of tribute and the seizure of territories, that was the basis of the economy. The khans of the Golden Horde traded in furs, jewelry, leather, timber, grain, fish, and even olive oil. Trade routes to Europe, India and China ran through the territory of the state.
End of the era of the Golden Horde
In 1357, Khan Janibek dies and the turmoil begins, caused by the struggle for power between the khans and high-ranking feudal lords. In a short period, 25 khans were replaced in the state until Khan Mamai came to power.
During this period, the Horde began to lose its political influence. In 1360, Khorezm separated, then, in 1362, Astrakhan and the lands on the Dnieper separated, and in 1380 the Mongol-Tatars were defeated by the Russians and lost their influence in Russia.
In 1380 - 1395, the turmoil subsided, and the Golden Horde began to regain the remnants of its power, but not for long. By the end of the 14th century, the state conducted a number of unsuccessful military campaigns, the khan's power weakened, and the Horde split into several independent khanates, headed by the Big Horde.
In 1480, the Horde lost Russia. At the same time, the small khanates that were part of the Horde finally separated. The Big Horde existed until the 16th century, and then also disintegrated.
The last khan of the Golden Horde was Kichi Muhammad.
Gold Horde- public education, formed in the steppe regions of Eurasia in 1224 and existed until the middle of the 15th century.
Brief chronology of the Golden Horde:
1224 - 1266 The Golden Horde is part of the Mongol Empire.
1266 - gaining complete independence from the empire.
1312 - Islam becomes the state religion of the Golden Horde.
The middle of the 15th century - disintegration into several independent state formations.
Brief description of the history of the Golden Horde:
The Golden Horde was founded by the grandson of Genghis Khan Batu Khan in 1243. The Golden Horde of its heyday (until the end of the 11th century) was a huge state that stretched its borders from west to east: from the Danube to Altai; in the south, the border was the Caucasus, in the north - the regions of Central Russia (Tula, Kaluga), where the local population was ruled with the help of the Tatar administration. The state of Batu Khan retained a clear administrative division into 4 ulus (territorial-administrative units, Khorezm, Saray, Crimea, Desht-i-Kipchak) and 70 provinces headed by “temniks”.
Economy and cities of the Golden Horde
The economic basis of the Golden Horde consisted of 100 prosperous cities, including such cities as Azov, Old Crimea, Astrakhan, and others, headed by the capital Saray, which was inhabited by about a hundred thousand people. The Horde were proud that their cities had no walls - they were protected by numerous cavalry and endless steppes. An artificial lake was built on the territory of the city, filled with water from the Volga. The water from the river, as well as in the Karakurum, was used for drinking supplies, as well as for activating various mechanisms in the palace of the Great Khan. The power of the khan was based not only on a large army, but also on a centralized and developed state apparatus, where Chinese officials worked and drew up documents in the Uighur language. The khan's closest assistants and associates were the beklyaribek (army commander and supreme judge) and the vizier (finance minister and head of government-divana).
The influence of the Golden Horde on the world political arena and its decline
The times of the domination of the Golden Horde, when a large number of Turkic-speaking peoples of the Great Steppe, under the onslaught of the Horde, lost their independence and their cultural characteristics, were deprived of their ethnopolitical institutions. The result of such a policy towards its subjects was the rapid weakening and disintegration of the Golden Horde.
The Gold Horde was formed in the Middle Ages, and it was a really powerful state. Many countries tried to maintain good relations with him. Cattle breeding became the main occupation of the Mongols, and they knew nothing about the development of agriculture. They were fascinated by the art of war, which is why they were excellent riders. It should be especially noted that the Mongols did not accept weak and cowardly people into their ranks.
In 1206, Genghis Khan became a great khan, whose real name was Temuchin. He managed to unite many tribes. Possessing a strong military potential, Genghis Khan with his army defeated the Tangut kingdom, North China, Korea and Central Asia. This is how the formation of the Golden Horde began.
It existed for about two hundred years. It was formed on the ruins and was a powerful political formation in Desht-i-Kipchak. The Gold Horde appeared after she died, she was the heir to the empires of nomadic tribes in the Middle Ages. The goal set for itself by the formation of the Golden Horde was to take possession of one (northern) branch of the Great Silk Road.
Eastern sources say that in 1230 a large detachment of 30 thousand Mongols appeared in the Caspian steppes. This was the site of the nomadic Polovtsians, they were called Kypchaks. Many thousands went to the West. On the way, the troops conquered the Volga Bulgars and Bashkirs, and then captured the Polovtsian lands.
Genghis Khan appointed Jochi to the Polovtsian lands as an ulus (region of the empire) to his eldest son, who, like his father, died in 1227. Complete victory over these lands was won by the eldest son of Genghis Khan, whose name was Batu. He and his army completely subjugated Ulus Jochi and stayed on the Lower Volga in 1242-1243.
During these years, it was divided into four portions. The Golden Horde was the first of them to be a state within a state. Each of the four had its own ulus: Kulagu (this included the territory of the Caucasus, the Persian Gulf and the territory of the Arabs); Dzhagatai (included the area of present-day Kazakhstan and Central Asia); Ogedei (it consisted of Mongolia, Eastern Siberia, Northern China and Transbaikalia) and Jochi (this is the Black Sea region and the Volga region). However, the main one was the Ugedei ulus. Mongolia was the capital of the general Mongol empire - Karakorum. All state events took place here, the leader of the kagan was the main person of the entire united empire.
Mongolian troops were distinguished by their belligerence, initially they attacked the Ryazan and Vladimir principality. Russian cities again became targets for conquest and enslavement. Only Novgorod survived. In the next two years, Mongol troops captured all of the then Russia. During the fierce hostilities, he lost half of his troops.
Russian princes were divided during the formation of the Golden Horde and therefore suffered constant defeats. Batu conquered Russian lands and imposed tribute on the local population. Alexander Nevsky was the first who managed to come to an agreement with the Horde and temporarily suspend hostilities.
In the 60s, a war took place between the ulus, which marked the collapse of the Golden Horde, which the Russian people took advantage of. In 1379, Dmitry Donskoy refused to pay tribute and killed the Mongol commanders. In response, the Mongol Khan Mamai attacked Russia. It began in which the Russian troops were victorious. Their dependence on the Horde became insignificant and the troops of the Mongols left Russia. The disintegration of the Golden Horde was completely completed.
The Tatar-Mongol yoke lasted for 240 years and ended with the victory of the Russian people, however, the formation of the Golden Horde can hardly be overestimated. Thanks to the Tatar-Mongol yoke, the Russian principalities began to unite against a common enemy, which strengthened and made the Russian state even more powerful. Historians estimate the formation of the Golden Horde as an important stage for the development of Russia.
On the territory of Central Asia, modern Kazakhstan, Siberia and Eastern Europe in the 13-15 centuries. The name "Golden Horde", derived from the name of the ceremonial khan's tent, as a designation of the state first appeared in Russian writings in the 2nd half of the 16th century.
The Golden Horde began to form in 1224 as part of the Mongol Empire, when Genghis Khan allocated to his eldest son Jochi (the ancestor of the Jochid dynasty) ulus - the conquered lands in eastern Deshti-Kipchak and Khorezm. After the death of Jochi (1227), Ulus Jochi was headed by his children Ordu-Ichen and Batu, who significantly expanded its territory as a result of the Mongol-Tatar invasion of the states of Eastern Europe in the 1230s and 40s. The Golden Horde became an independent state during the reign of Khan Mengu-Timur (1266-82) during the collapse of the Mongol Empire. By the 14th century, it occupied lands from the Ob in the east to the Volga region, steppe territories from the Volga to the Danube in the west, lands from the Syr Darya and the lower reaches of the Amu Darya in the south to Vyatka in the north. Bordered on the state of the Hulaguids, the Chagatai ulus, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Byzantine Empire.
The Russian lands found themselves under the Mongol-Tatar yoke, but the question of whether they should be considered part of the Golden Horde remains unclear. Russian princes received khans 'labels for reign, paid the Horde exit, participated in some of the Horde khans' wars, etc. While observing loyalty to the khans, Russian princes ruled without the intervention of the Horde authorities, but otherwise their principalities were subject to punitive campaigns by the khans of the Golden Horde (see Horde raids 13-15 centuries).
The Golden Horde was divided into two "wings" (provinces), delimited by the Yaik River (now the Urals) - the western, where the descendants of Batu ruled, and the eastern, led by khans from the Ordu-Ichen clan. Within the "wings" there were uluses of numerous younger brothers Batu and Ordu-Ichen. The khans of the eastern "wing" recognized the superiority of the western khans, but they practically did not interfere in the affairs of the eastern possessions. The administrative center (place of work of the khan's chancellery) in the western "wing" of the Golden Horde was first the Bolgar (Bulgar), then Saray, and in the eastern "wing" - Sygnak. In historiography, it is generally accepted that under Khan Uzbek (1313-41) the second capital of the western "wing" - New Saray (now there is an opinion that this is one of the designations of a single metropolitan agglomeration of Saray) arose. Until the middle of the 14th century, official documents of the Golden Horde were written in Mongolian, then in Turkic.
The majority of the population of the Golden Horde was made up of Turkic nomadic tribes (mainly descendants of the Kipchaks), which were designated in medieval sources by the common name "Tatars". In addition to them, Burtases, Cheremis, Mordvinians, Circassians, Alans, etc. lived in the Golden Horde. In the western "wing" in the 2nd half of the 13th - 14th centuries, the Turkic tribes apparently merged into a single ethnic community. A strong tribal structure remained in the eastern "wing".
The population of each ulus occupied a certain territory (yurts) for seasonal movements, paid taxes, performed various duties. For the needs of taxation and military mobilization of the militia, a decimal system was introduced, characteristic of the entire Mongol Empire, that is, the division of the people into tens, hundreds, thousands and darkness, or tumens (ten thousand).
Initially, the Golden Horde was a poly-confessional state: Islam was confessed by the population of the former Bulgaria, the Volga-Kama, Khorezm, some nomadic tribes of the eastern "wing", Christianity - the population of Alania and Crimea; there were also pagan beliefs among the nomadic tribes. However, the powerful civilizational influence of Central Asia and Iran led to the strengthening of the position of Islam in the Golden Horde. Berke became the first Muslim khan in the middle of the 13th century, and under Uzbek in 1313 or 1314 Islam was declared the official religion of the Golden Horde, but became widespread only among the population of the Golden Horde cities, nomads adhered to pagan beliefs and rituals for a long time. With the spread of Islam, legislation and legal proceedings began to be more and more based on Sharia, although the positions of Turkic-Mongolian customary law (adat, choryu) also remained strong. In general, the religious policy of the rulers of the Golden Horde was distinguished by religious tolerance based on the precepts ("yasa") of Genghis Khan. Representatives of the clergy of various denominations (including the Russian Orthodox Church) were exempted from taxes. In 1261 an Orthodox diocese arose in Sarai; Catholic missionaries were active.
The Khan stood at the head of the Golden Horde. The highest official after him was the beklerbek - the supreme military leader and the head of the estate of the nomadic nobility. Some of the beklerbeks (Mamai, Nogai, Edigei) achieved such influence that they appointed khans at their own discretion. The upper layer of the ruling elite was made up of representatives of the "golden clan" (Chinggisids) along the line of Jochi. The economy and finance were controlled by a divan office led by a vizier. Gradually, a ramified bureaucratic apparatus was formed in the Golden Horde, using mainly management techniques borrowed from Central Asia and Iran. The direct control of the subjects was exercised by the nobility of nomadic tribes (beks, emirs), whose influence grew from the 1st half of the 14th century. The tribes' beks gained access to the supreme government, from among them beklerbeks began to be appointed, in the 15th century the heads of the most powerful tribes (Karachi-beks) formed a permanent council under the khan. Control over the cities and the peripheral sedentary population (including Russians) was entrusted to the Baskaks (Darugs).
The bulk of the population of the Golden Horde was engaged in nomadic cattle breeding. The Golden Horde formed its own monetary system based on the circulation of silver dirhams, copper pools (from the 14th century) and Khorezm gold dinars. Cities played an important role in the Golden Horde. Some of them were destroyed by the Mongols during the conquest, and then restored, because stood on the old trade caravan routes and provided profit to the Golden Horde treasury (Bolgar, Dzhend, Sygnak, Urgench). Others were re-founded, including in places where the winter nomadic headquarters of the khans and provincial governors were located (Azak, Gulistan, Kyrym, Madjar, Saraichik, Chingi-Tura, Khadzhi-Tarkhan, etc.). Until the end of the 14th century, the cities were not surrounded by walls, which demonstrated the safety of life in the country. Extensive archaeological excavations in the cities of the Golden Horde revealed the syncretic nature of their culture, the presence in it of Chinese, as well as Muslim (mainly Iranian and Khorezm) elements in the construction and planning of buildings, handicraft production, and applied arts. Architecture, production of pottery, metal and jewelry reached a high level. Craftsmen (often slaves) of various nationalities worked in special workshops. A significant contribution to the culture of the Golden Horde was made by the poets Qutb, Rabguzi, Seif Sarai, Mahmud al-Bulgari and others, lawyers and theologians Mukhtar ibn Mahmud al-Zakhidi, Sad at-Taftazani, Ibn Buzzazi, and others.
Khans of the Golden Horde pursued an active foreign policy. In order to spread their influence to neighboring countries, they made campaigns on the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (1275, 1277, etc.), Poland (end of 1287), the countries of the Balkan Peninsula (1271, 1277, etc.), Byzantium (1265, 1270), etc. The main enemy of the Golden Horde in the 2nd half of the 13th - 1st half of the 14th century was the state of the Hulaguids, which disputed Transcaucasia from it. Heavy wars have repeatedly fought between the two states. In the struggle against the Hulaguids, the khans of the Golden Horde enlisted the support of the sultans of Egypt.
Contradictions among the representatives of the Jochid dynasty have repeatedly led to internecine conflicts in the Golden Horde. In the 1st half - the middle of the 14th century, during the reign of the khans Uzbek and Janibek, the Golden Horde reached its highest prosperity and power. However, soon the signs of a crisis of statehood began to appear gradually. Certain areas became more and more closed economically, which further contributed to the development of separatism in them. The plague epidemic in the 1340s caused great damage to the state. After the assassination of Khan Berdibek (1359), a "great jam" began in the Golden Horde, when various groups of the Golden Horde nobility entered the struggle for the Sarai throne - the court nobility, provincial governors, relying on the potential of the subordinate regions, the Jochids of the eastern part of the Golden Horde. In the 1360s, the so-called Mamaev Horde was formed (in the territory west of the Don River), where Mamai ruled on behalf of the nominal khans, who was defeated by Russian troops in the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380, and then finally defeated in the same year by Khan Tokhtamysh on river Kalka. Tokhtamysh managed to reunite the state and overcome the consequences of the turmoil. However, he came into conflict with the ruler of Central Asia Timur, who invaded the Golden Horde three times (1388, 1391, 1395). Tokhtamysh was defeated, almost all major cities were destroyed. Despite the efforts of the beklerbek Edigei to restore the state (early 15th century), the Golden Horde entered the stage of irreversible disintegration. In the 15th - early 16th centuries, the Uzbek Khanate, the Crimean Khanate, the Kazan Khanate, the Big Horde, the Kazakh Khanate, the Tyumen Khanate, the Nogai Horde and the Astrakhan Khanate were formed on its territory.
"Horde raid on Ryazan land in 1380". Miniature from the Obverse Chronicle Code. 2nd half of the 16th century Russian National Library (St. Petersburg).
Source: Collection of materials related to the history of the Golden Horde / Sobr. and processed. V.G. Tizengauzen and others. SPb., 1884.Vol. 1; M .; L., 1941.Vol. 2.
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