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Principles and methods of historical research. Social science What method history does not use

When, in ancient times, a Hellenic writer named Herodotus began to compose his famous book about the bloody Greek wars, in which he described the customs and traditions of the countries around him and their inhabitants, even in his wildest dreams he could not imagine that his descendants would give him the big name of his father great and incredibly interesting science - history. As one of the most ancient and well-known disciplines, it has its own subject, methods, and sources for the study of history.

What discipline is called history

What is history? This is a fascinating science that studies the past of both an individual person and the entire human society. Exploring the various sources available to it, this discipline tries to establish the real sequence of certain events that occurred in the distant or near past, as well as to diversify the causes of their occurrence and consequences.
Originating, like many other sciences, in ancient Greece, history initially studied the lives of prominent personalities, as well as crowned families, rulers and wars. However, over time, the subject and method of studying history have changed and expanded. More precisely, over the years, history began to study the past not only of individual people who distinguished themselves in some way, but also of entire peoples, various sciences, buildings, religions and much more.

Basic Methods for Studying History as a Science

The method of studying history is a way of studying historical processes through a diverse analysis of facts, as well as acquiring new information based on these very facts.
There are two broad categories into which the methods of studying history are divided. These are specific methods as well as general methods for most of the humanities.

Specific Methods of Studying History

1. General scientific methods.
2. Private scientific methods.
3. Methods borrowed from other sciences.

General scientific methods are of the following types:

• Theoretical, which include the famous deduction, induction, synthesis and analysis, the construction of hypotheses, modeling, generalization, inversion, abstraction, analogy and system-structural approach.
• Practical methods of studying history: experiment, observation, measurement, comparison, description. Often this type of method is also called empirical.

Private scientific historical methods of studying history:

• Chronological method - historical data are presented in their chronological sequence, from the past to the present.
• The retrospective method is the study of historical facts with the help of a gradual penetration into the past in order to discover the causes of an event that happened.
• The concrete historical method is the recording of all events and facts.
• Comparative-historical - the event is studied in the context of similar incidents that took place earlier or later. This method of research makes it possible to study this or that event from different angles in depth.
• Historical-genetic - the study of the emergence and development of a particular event.
• Historical-typological - classification of events or objects according to their type, attribute.

In addition to the above, quite often scientists use other methods to study history, borrowed from other related and not so sciences, for example, from statistics, psychology, sociology, anthropology, archeology and others.

General methods of research and study of history

For most humanities and history in particular, the general methods are:

1. The logical method considers the studied phenomena at the peak of their development, since during this period their form becomes the most mature, and this gives the keys to understanding the previous stages of historical development.
2. The historical method - with its help, processes and certain historical phenomena are reproduced in chronological development, taking into account unique features, patterns and details. By observing them, you can track certain patterns.

historical sources

Being engaged in the study of history, scientists have to work with objects or phenomena that they most often cannot see with their own eyes, since they took place many years, centuries or even millennia ago.
Between the research of historians and the fact that really happened in the past, there is an intermediate link - this is a historical source. The science of source study deals with research and classification of sources for the study of history.

Types of historical sources

There are various types of classifications of historical sources. The most popular is the classification by type. According to it, 7 groups of sources are distinguished:

1. Oral (folk tales, songs, rituals).
2. Written (chronicles, books, diaries, newspapers, magazines and others).
3. Material (the remains of weapons on the battlefield, ancient burials, preserved items of clothing, household items, and so on).
4. Ethnographic (materials related to the culture of a particular ethnic group, most often they are provided by ethnography).
5. Linguistic (names of cities, rivers, areas, foodstuffs, concepts, etc.).
6. Phonodocuments.
7. Photographic documents.

The last two types of sources of historical research have become available to historians relatively recently, but thanks to them, research has become much easier. Although, thanks to the achievements of modern technology, it has become very easy to fake photographs, video recordings and audio recordings, so it will be difficult for historians of the near future to use these historical sources.

The science of history, like the history of mankind itself, interacts with a whole range of other disciplines, often using them as sources of information, as well as using their methods, principles and achievements. In turn, history also helps other disciplines. Therefore, there are a number of historical sciences that concentrate their attention on the subject of a particular discipline. Such, for example, as the history of philosophy, politics, culture, literature, music and many others. In this regard, correctly chosen methods and sources for studying history are very important, because the establishment of the facts of objective reality depends on their choice and use, which affects not only the “brainchild of Herodotus”, but also all other sciences associated with it.

Each method is formed on a certain methodological basis, i.e. any method proceeds from a certain methodological principle (one or a combination).

Methodology – the basic principles on (from) which the historian proceeds (is based). That is why the variety of interpretations of the same eras and events is so great (for example, the degree of significance of the role of the USSR and Western countries in the victory in World War II).

Methodology of historical research - the means, methods, techniques by which the historian obtains historical information, builds his narrative.

Specific historical methods the most common. Why do historians need to know them?

1. To study results were richer, the study is more complete.

2. Clearer become limitations reliance on sources and other methods of historical research.

Methods of historical research:

1. Method of relying on sources (source analysis method).

2. Descriptive method.

3. Biographical method.

4. Comparative historical method.

5. Retrospective method.

6. Terminological method.

7. Statistical method.

Method of relying on sources (method of source study analysis).

Methodological principle of the source analysis method- the historian must conduct external and internal criticism of the source to establish the authenticity, completeness, reliability and novelty, significance of both the source itself and the information contained in it.

The advantage of this method of historical research: comes from information, reports of contemporaries, documentary sources (they are more or less objective).

The disadvantage of this method of historical research: information from one source is not enough, it is necessary to compare one source with other sources, data, etc.

Descriptive Method

Descriptive Method historical research (one of the oldest) is based on the methodological principle that history must study the unique, individual, non-repeating (historical events do not repeat) in the past.

Proceeding from the originality, uniqueness, singularity of historical events, descriptive method comes down to this:

1. Way of presentation wears not “formalized” (i.e. in the form of diagrams, formulas, tables, etc.), but literary, narrative.

2. Since dynamics(movement, way) development of events is individual, then it can be expressed only by describing.

3. Since every event is related to others, then to determine these relationships, you must first describe them (connections).

4. Definition of the subject (image) possible only with the help of description (if based on terms (for example, civilization), then first you need to agree on what it is (subject, object), i.e. describe).

conclusions.

1. Description is a necessary step in historical research.

2. Description is only the first step, because event entity expressed not in individual, but in in general terms(signs); common features can be expressed in the logic of narration, generalizations, conclusions(for example, when describing a person (let's say Turgenev's Bazarov), we can only describe a specific person, but not a person as a phenomenon, concept).

3. Generalization without description is schematization, description without generalization is factography, which means that these descriptions and conclusions, generalizations are closely related, but with this method (descriptive) description prevails over generalization.

biographical method

biographical method historical research is one of the oldest.

Used in era of antiquity ("Comparative Lives" Plutarch), was widely used in the 19th century. in political history.

ATXIXin., in political historiography There were both supporters and opponents of the biographical method.

Proponents of the biographical method (Thomas Carlyle, Pyotr Lavrov etc.) proceeded from the methodological position, according to which the biographical method is the most intelligent (the subject of the historical process is heroes, outstanding, unique personalities; their (heroes, outstanding personalities) biography, motives, actions, behavior were studied).

Critics of the biographical method: subject of history masses(German historian highway) and their needs (from this position, Schusser studied uprisings, rebellions).

compromise position: English historian Lewis Namir (Namir) considered mid-level politicians(deputies of the English parliament of the middle level, ordinary deputies): what influenced the results of their voting, analyzed their life path, biography, social status, personal connections (career, household); L. Namir believed that he was able to determine in this way not imaginary, abstract (generalized) class motives, but true, concrete motives for the behavior of the social stratum, expressed in the figure of an ordinary (average) deputy; at Namira the political struggle in the English parliament looked only like a struggle for personal power, career growth and well-being, parliamentary seats, so these are the true motives for the behavior and social strata that the above-mentioned deputies represent? Namir does not take into account the means of production, social interests in its concept.

In what cases and to what extent is the biographical method applicable?

1. The biographical method can be used with taking into account the nature of historical conditions, the needs of the masses(since the historical personality expresses the needs of the masses, it plays a very important role).

2. The combination of the role of the masses and the individual is such that the leading role belongs to the masses, personality can only speed up or slow down but not generate historical conditions.

T. Carlyle exaggerated the role of the individual many Soviet historians- the role of the masses. Namir did not connect the motives of people's behavior with specifics of historical conditions (i.e., the motives of the behavior of a medieval lord and a townsman are not identical to the motives of the behavior of a lord and a townsman in the English parliament of the 19th century), which is determined by production method (primitive-communal, slave-owning, feudal, capitalist, communist) material goods.

Comparative historical method

Comparative historical method is now very widely used (especially in Russian historiography).

The comparative-historical method was also used in Enlightenment , but in a very peculiar way:

1. Compare different types of society, state, therefore, they came to false conclusions (for example, about the superiority of European civilization over the American Indians on the example of the Spanish monarchy and the Aztec state).

2. The basis for comparing different types of societies, states was the belief in the truth of the methodological principle, according to which human nature is unchanged in all ages, times (for example, by the English historian Lewis Namir), history was perceived as general patterns, motives for the behavior of human society.

Conclusion. Thus, the methodological basis of the comparative historical method in the Age of Enlightenment was the incorrect definition of the general, regular in the form of the same human nature as the basis of motivation. One cannot investigate the general on the basis of the immutability of human nature (for example, the empire of Charlemagne and the Qing empire).

AT XIX in. (especially towards the end of the century), the comparative historical method began to be used both for identify common(general patterns - for example, in HELL. Toynbee (tried to find common features in civilizations of different times, etc.)), and for identifying originality(for example, at Gerhard Elton , a German historian at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries), i.e. some historians absolutized the general, other historians - originality (bias in one direction).

The Possibility and Necessity of Using the Comparative Historical Method associated with the recognition of the truth of the following methodological principle(if derived from the following methodological principle): there is a close relationship between the general and the singular (i.e. in events that are repetitive and non-repeating (peculiar) in the understanding of history).

The condition for the correct application of the comparative historical method is comparison of "single-order" events, which suggests preliminary use of the descriptive method:

I – analogy , "parallel", i.e. transfer of ideas from an object of one era to a similar object of another era, but the comparison of "single-order" events, phenomena, etc. involves the use of the next stage of the comparative-historical method (descriptive character prevails at stage I);

IIstage of the comparative historical method– identification essential-content character (e.g. war, revolution) events, the basis is "repeatability" in time and space(the essence is repeated both in the same epoch and in different epochs and space).

With an incorrect comparison at stage I (descriptive character predominates), the historian may come up with incorrect elements of “repetitiveness” at stage II. For example, commodity production at the second stage of the comparative historical method was equated with capitalist production (for example, in Edward Meyer (1855-1930), German historian who saw capitalism in ancient Greece and in the modern world; according to one attribute, one phenomenon is equated to another).

IIIstage of the comparative historical method– in fact, horizontal “repeatability” –

typology reception , i.e. should be compared Not only individual(albeit important) events, but also system of events in a given era, i.e. types are distinguished.

Types of feudal society:

1) Romanesque (Italy, Spain) beginning;

2) Germanic (England, Scandinavian countries) beginning;

3) a mixture of Romanesque and Germanic principles (the Frankish kingdom from the Merovingians to the Capetians).

Gradually, the general comes to the fore, the originality is gradually erased. Typology is an attempt to establish a balance between the general and originality.

Sampling method

A more complex type of quantitative analysis is sample statistics , representing a method of probabilistic conclusion about the unknown on the basis of the known. This method is used in cases where there is no complete information about the entire statistical population and the researcher is forced to create a picture of the studied phenomena on the basis of incomplete, partial data, or when the information is complete, but it is difficult to cover it or its study in its entirety does not provide noticeable advantages in comparison. with a sample.

Example. On the basis of a small part of the surviving household inventories, generalized indicators were calculated for the beginning of the 19th century, and 1861, in particular, which made it possible to judge the presence of livestock in the peasant economy (namely, serfs), the ratio of various strata in the peasant environment and etc.

Sampling method finds application also with complete information, the processing of which in its entirety does not give any significant advantage in obtaining results.

How are the calculations made according to sampling method? Computed the arithmetic mean applied to the totality of phenomena. Generalizations obtained on the basis of a sampling approach become justified only if they are sufficiently representative, i.e. adequately reflecting the properties of the studied set of phenomena.

Selective statistical analysis in most cases leads to detection of development trends.

Example. Comparison of selective quantitative data on the provision of peasant farms with workers and other livestock at the beginning of the 19th century. in comparison with the post-reform period, it helped to reveal a tendency towards a deterioration in the situation of the peasant economy, to show the nature and degree of social stratification in its environment, etc.

The results of a quantitative assessment of the ratio of the studied characteristics are not absolute results in general and cannot be transferred to a situation with other conditions.

Retrospective method

Historical knowledge is retrospective, i.e. it refers to how events developed in reality - from cause to effect. The historian must go from the effect to the cause. (one of the rules of historical knowledge).

The essence of the retrospective method is reliance on a higher stage of development in order to understand and evaluate the previous one. This may be due to the fact that there may not be enough evidence, sources, or because:

1) to understand the essence the event or process being studied thinking needs to be traced his end to end development;

2) each previous stage can understand not only thanks to him links to other stages but also in the light subsequent and a higher stage of development in general, in which the essence of the whole process is most fully expressed; it also helps to understand the previous steps.

Example. French Revolution endXVIIIin. developed in an ascending line, if we keep in mind the degree of radicalization of demands, slogans and programs, as well as the social essence of the strata of society that came to power. The last, Jacobin stage expresses this dynamic to the greatest extent and makes it possible to judge both the revolution as a whole and the nature and significance of its previous stages.

The essence of the retrospective method, in particular, expressed Karl Marx . On the method of studying the medieval community by the German historian Georg Ludwig Maurer (1790 - 1872) K. Marx wrote: "... the seal of this "agricultural community is so clearly expressed in the new community that Maurer, having studied the latter, could restore the first."

Lewis Henry Morgan (1818 - 1881), an American historian and ethnographer, in his work "Ancient Society" showed the evolution of family and marriage relations from group forms to individual ones; recreated the history of the family in reverse order up to the primitive state of the domination of polygamy. Along with recreating the appearance of the primitive form of the familyL.G. Morgan proved the fundamental similarity of the development of family and marriage relations among the ancient Greeks and Romans and the American Indians. He was helped to understand this similarity by the idea of ​​the unity of world history, which also manifests itself asynchronously, and not only within the time horizon. Your idea of ​​unity L.G. Morgan expressed as follows: "Their" (the forms of family and marriage relations in ancient Greece and Rome with the relations of the American Indians) "comparison and comparison indicates the uniformity of the activity of the human mind with the same social system." Opening L.G. Morgana reveals in the mechanism of his thinking the interaction of retrospective and comparative historical methods.

In Russian historiography, the retrospective method was used Ivan Dmitrievich Kovalchenko (1923 - 1995) in the study of agrarian relations in Russia in the 19th century. The essence of the method was an attempt to consider the peasant economy at different system levels: individual peasant farms (yards), a higher level - peasant communities (villages), even higher levels - volosts, counties, provinces.

I.D. Kovalchenko considered the following:

1) the system of provinces represents the highest level, it was on it that the main features of the socio-economic structure of the peasant economy were most clearly manifested; their knowledge is necessary to reveal the essence of structures located at a lower level;

2) the nature of the structure at the lower (household) level, being correlated with its essence at the highest level, shows to what extent the general tendencies in the functioning of the peasant economy were manifested in the individual.

Retrospective method applicable not only to the study of individual phenomena, but also entire historical epochs. This essence of the method is most clearly expressed in K. Marx who wrote the following: bourgeois society- is the most developed and most versatile historical organization of production. That's why categories expressing his attitudes, understanding of his organization, give at the same time possibility of penetration in organization and industrial relations of all obsolete social forms, from the fragments and elements of which it is built, partly developing to its full meaning what was previously only in the form of a hint, etc. Human anatomy is the key to monkey anatomy. On the contrary, the hints of the higher in the lower species of animals can only be understood if this higher itself is already known later.

In a concrete historical study retrospective method very closely associated with "method of experiences" , by which historians understand the method of reconstructing objects that have gone into the past according to the remains that have survived and have come down to the contemporary historian of the era.

"The Survival Method" used E. Taylor, German historian BUT. Meitzen, K. Lamprecht, M. Blok and etc.

Edward (Edward) Burnett Taylor (1832 - 1917), an English researcher of primitive society, an ethnographer, understood the term "survivals" as follows: "... there is an extensive class of facts, for which I would find it convenient to introduce the term "survival". These are those customs, rituals, views, etc., which, being transferred by force of habit from one stage of culture, to which they were characteristic, to another, later one, remain a living evidence or monument of the past. E. Taylor wrote about the significance of the study of survivals: "The study of them invariably confirms that a European can find among the Greenlanders and Maori many features to recreate a picture of the life of his own ancestors."

Relics in the broad sense of the word include monuments, information of a relic nature. If we are talking about written sources belonging to a certain era, then data or fragments included from older documents may be relic in them (for example, among the titles of the Salic truth (IX century) of archaic content is title 45 “On Settlers”) .

Many German historians of the 19th century, who were engaged in agrarian historical research and actively used the “survival method”, believed that historical development is evolutionary in nature, the past is reproduced in the present and is its simple continuation, profound qualitative changes in the communal system throughout its existence missing; vestiges are not relics of the past in conditions of a qualitatively different reality, but in general, phenomena of the same type with it (reality).

This led, for example, to the following. Overgeneralization of data obtained by a German historian A. Meizen by using "method of survivals”, expressed itself in the fact that, without due critical examination, he covered the agricultural regulations of one region on the basis of boundary maps of another region and transferred the evidence of German boundary maps to the agrarian system of France, England and other countries.

German historian Karl Lamprecht (1856 - 1915) in the study of household communities that took place in the first half of the 19th century. near the city of Trier, found in them features that were not a direct relic of the ancient free community.

French historian Mark Block (1886 - 1944) and representatives of his school successfully applied the "survival method" to the analysis of French boundary maps of the 18th century.

Main methodological requirement presented to the "survival method" –

the need to determine and prove the relic nature of the evidence on the basis of which the historian wants to reconstruct in a scientific way the picture of a long-vanished historical reality. At the same time, genuine historicism must be observed in assessing the phenomena of the past. A differentiated approach to relics of the past of various character is also needed.

terminological method

The vast majority of information about the past is expressed for the historian in verbal form. This raises a number of problems, the main of which is linguistic: does the meaning (meaning) of the word have reality or is it a fiction? The last performance was shared by the famous Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (1857 - 1913).

Methodological basis study of the role of terminological analysis in the studies of the historian is the thesis according to which the terminological apparatus of sources borrows its substantive content from life, from reality, although the ratio of thought and content of the word is not quite adequate.

Accounting for the historical, i.e. changing, content of terms, words of sources - one of the necessary conditions for scientific historicism in understanding and evaluating social phenomena.

AT XIX in . scientists came to the conclusion that language becomes one of the sources of knowledge of social phenomena from the moment when they begin to treat it historically, i.e. when it is seen as one of the results of historical development. Using the achievements of classical philology and comparative linguistics, German historians B.G. Niebuhr , T. Mommsen and others widely used terminological analysis as one of the means of cognition social phenomena era of antiquity.

Terminological analysis is of particular importance when using various categories of ancient and medieval sources. This is explained by the fact that the content and meaning of many terms related to the modern researcher of the era are not as clear as the language of his day or the language of the recent past. Meanwhile, the solution of many fundamental concrete historical problems often depends on this or that interpretation of the content of terms.

The complexity of studying many categories of historical sources also lies in the fact that the terms used in them are ambiguous or, on the contrary, different terms are used to refer to the same phenomena.

Famous researcher of the peasantry of Ancient Russia, academician Boris Dmitrievich Grekov (1882 - 1953) attached great importance to the analysis of the terms of historical sources. He wrote about the need to find out "... what terms the written language left to us denoted the farmer ... what terms the sources denoted the various strata of the mass of the people who fed the country with their labor." According to Grekov, the conclusions of the researcher depend on this or that understanding of the terms.

An example of the relationship between language data analysis and historical analysis is the work Friedrich Engels "Frankish Dialect". This work is an independent scientific-historical and linguistic research. The study Engels The Frankish dialect is accompanied by generalizations on the history of the Franks. At the same time, he widely applies the retrospective method of studying the Salic dialect in contemporary languages ​​and dialects.

F. Engels uses language for solving a number of problems in the history of the ancient Germans. By analyzing the High German movement of consonants, establishing the boundaries of dialects, he draws conclusions about the nature of the migrations of the tribes, the degree of their mixing with each other and the territory they occupied initially and as a result of conquests and migrations.

The development of the content of terms and concepts recorded in historical sources, by and large, lags behind the development of the real content of historical events hidden behind them. In this sense, archaism is inherent in many historical terms, which often borders on the complete necrosis of their content. Such a lag is a problem for the researcher that requires a mandatory solution, because. otherwise, historical reality cannot be adequately reflected.

Depending on the nature of the historical source, terminological analysis may have different meanings for solving historical problems proper. Clarification of the property appearance of various categories of holders, hiding under the terms villani, borbarii, cotarii found in doomsday book(end of the 11th century), is of paramount importance for studying the history of feudalism in England.

Terminological analysis is a productive means of cognition even in cases where sources are written in the native language of a given people, for example Russian truth or Scandinavian and Anglo-Saxon truths.

special terminological analysis as one of the sources of historical knowledge is toponymic analysis . Toponymy, needing the data of history, as well as the data of other branches of knowledge, is itself kind source for the historian. Geographical names are always historically determined, so they somehow bear the imprint of their time. Geographical names reflect the features of the material and spiritual life of the people in a particular era, the pace of historical development, the impact on social life of natural and geographical conditions. For the historian, the source of knowledge is not only the content of the word, but also its linguistic form. These are formal elements in toponymic material, which cannot serve as a reliable source without linguistic analysis; the latter, however, must have a truly historical basis, i.e. it is necessary to study both the bearer of names and those who gave these names. Geographical names reflect the process of settlement of territories, individual names indicate the occupations of the population in the past. Toponymic data are of great importance for history of non-literate peoples; they replace chronicles to a certain extent. Toponymic analysis gives material for the preparation of geographical maps.

A certain source of knowledge of the past are names and surnames of people, anthroponymic analysis (rarely used in modern historiography) The processes of name-formation and name-creation were closely connected with the real life of people, including economic relations.

Example. The surnames of representatives of the feudal nobility of medieval France emphasized the ownership of their bearer on the land. The need to account for subjects in order to receive feudal rent from them was one of the important reasons for the introduction of the surname. Often names and surnames were a kind of social signs, the decoding of which allows us to judge social status of their carriers, as well as to raise and resolve other specific historical issues.

Without a preliminary study of the content of the term, it is impossible to achieve an understanding of any phenomenon. The problem - language and history - is an important scientific problem for both linguists and historians.

The fruitfulness of terminological analysis(method) depends primarily on the following conditions:

1. Required take account of polysemy of the term , used to refer to various events or phenomena that differ from each other; connected with this is the need to consider a set of terms relating to the same events, and in order to clarify this ambiguity, the widest possible range of sources in which it takes place is involved.

2. To the analysis of each term should fit historically , i.e. take into account the development of its content depending on conditions, time, place, etc.

3. With emergence of new terminology should find out whether it hides new content or one that already existed before, but under a different name.

Statistical method (methods of mathematical statistics)

In historical science, quantitative and mathematical methods are increasingly being used. What caused this, what are the essence and purpose of these methods, what is their relationship with the methods of essential-content, qualitative analysis in the work of a historian?

Historical reality is a unity of content and form, essence and phenomenon, quality and quantity. Quantitative and qualitative features are in unity, characterized by the transition from one to the other. The ratio of quantity and quality expresses a measure that reveals the mentioned unity. The concept of "measure" was first used Hegel. There is a wide variety of quantitative methods - from the simplest calculation and counting to modern mathematical methods using computers.

The application of mathematical analysis varies depending on the measure of the ratio of quantity and quality. For example, to conquer China, Genghis Khan required, among other things, military leadership ( quality) and a 50,000th army ( amount). The properties and nature of phenomena determine the measure and features of the application of their quantitative analysis, and in order to understand this, a qualitative analysis is necessary.

Ivan Dmitrievich Kovalchenko (1923 - 1995) - a historian who at an early extent mastered the methods of essential-content and quantitative analysis, wrote: "... the widest use of mathematical methods in any branch of knowledge does not in itself create any new science (in this case," mathematical history ”) and does not replace other research methods, as is sometimes mistakenly thought. Mathematical methods allow the researcher to obtain certain characteristics of the studied features, but by themselves they do not explain anything. The nature and inner essence of phenomena in any field can be revealed only by the methods inherent in this or that science.

Although measurement, to one degree or another, can also be used to characterize the qualitative features of any, including individual, phenomena, but there are objects in the course of the study of which a qualitative analysis is insufficient and cannot do without quantitative methods. This is the area massive phenomena reflected in mass sources.

Example. For example, land donation in Western Europe in the Middle Ages in favor of the church found its expression in the design of letters (cartulary). The cartularies number in the tens of thousands, in particular the cartulary of the Lorsch Monastery. To study the transfer of landed property from hand to hand, a qualitative analysis is insufficient; labor-intensive operations of a quantitative nature and properties are necessary.

The application of quantitative analysis methods is dictated the nature of the object of historical science and the needs for the development of its study. Historical research opens up the possibility of applying mathematical methods when it is “ripe” for this, i.e. when the necessary work has been carried out on a qualitative analysis of the event or phenomenon under study in the ways inherent in historical science.

The original form of quantitative analysis in historical research was statistical method. Its development and application are associated with the emergence of statistics as a social discipline that studies the quantitative side of mass social phenomena and processes - economic, political, cultural, demographic, etc. Statistics(originally - "political arithmetic") originated in England in the second halfXVIIin. The term "statistics" came into use inXVIIIin. (from lat.status- state). The statistical method has been widely used in middle - second halfXIXin. This method was used by: English historian Henry Thomas Buckle (1821 - 1862), German historians K.T. Inama-Sternegg (1843 - 1908), Karl Lamprecht (1856 - 1915), Russian and Soviet historians IN. Klyuchevsky, ON THE. Rozhkov, N.M. Druzhinin, M.A. barg, I.D. Kovalchenko and etc.

The statistical method can be an effective means of historical knowledge only under certain conditions of its application. In works IN AND. Lenin the requirement of social typology is clearly formulated as one of the conditions for applying the statistical method: “... statistics should give not arbitrary columns of numbers, but digital illumination of those various social types of the phenomenon under study, which have been fully outlined and are outlined by life.

To the number general conditions for the rational application of the statistical method relate:

1. A priority , primacy qualitative analysis in relation to to quantitative analysis .

2. Study qualitative and quantitative features in their unity.

3. Identification qualitative homogeneity of events subjected to statistical processing.

It is not always possible to use the statistical method in the presence of mass material from medieval sources. In connection with the study of the history of the free and dependent peasantry in Germany in the 8th - 12th centuries. Alexander Iosifovich Neusykhin (1898 - 1969) wrote: “ The nature of the sources at our disposal in particular for the first two regions (Alemannia and Tyrol), – does not allow the use of the statistical method surveys, because the cartularies we have studied do not make it possible to make quantitative calculations of different strata of the peasantry or different forms of feudal rent. In such cases, a qualitative analysis of the content of sources, associated with an individual approach to them, becomes a cognitive tool that fills this gap in the application of the statistical method.

One of the varieties of statistical analysis is descriptive statistics . Its similarity with the descriptive method is that the description procedure is applied to quantitative data, the totality of which constitutes a statistical fact. For example, in pre-revolutionary Russia, 85% of the population was the peasantry.

correlation method

There is also correlation method , at which the ratio (correlation coefficient) of two values ​​\u200b\u200bis established with a much greater degree of probability, reliability than a qualitative analysis can give (see below).

Example. The historian sets the task of clarifying the dependence of the size of corvee duties and their dynamics on the state of peasant farms and its changes. In this case, the historian uses the calculation of the ratio between the level of corvée and the provision of the peasant economy with draft animals, between corvée and the number of able-bodied men, and then the total dependence of duties on the number of draft animals and the amount of labor.

The correlation method is hardly suitable for determining the comparative role of various causes (factors) in a particular process.

Regression Method

There is also a regression method, which is used where there is a combination of factors (i.e. almost always). Example. One of the important tasks of studying agrarian relations in the Russian village of the XIX century. was to identify the degree of impact of peasant duties and their growth on the state of the peasant economy and its dynamics. In such a situation, the calculation of the regression coefficient is used, which shows the degree of change in the result of a particular development process from a change in the factor (factors) influencing it. The use of the regression method made it possible to obtain indicators characterizing the extent of the impact of the size of duties on the state of the peasant economy. Quantitative analysis operates with numerical data on the studied phenomena, helps to identify and characterize their important features and features, i.e. leads to an understanding of their essence, makes this understanding more accurate than in a qualitative analysis, or even is the only way to achieve such an understanding.

They are based on philosophical, general scientific ones, they are the basis of concrete-problem methods.

Historical-genetic and retrospective methods. The historical-genetic method is the most common. It is aimed at the consistent disclosure of properties, functions and changes in historical reality. According to the definition of I. Kovalchenko, by logical nature it is analytical, inductive, by the form of information expression it is descriptive. It is aimed at identifying cause-and-effect relationships, at analyzing the emergence (genesis) of certain phenomena and processes. Historical events are also shown in their individuality, concreteness.

When applying this method, some errors are possible if it is absolutized. With emphasis on the study of the development of phenomena and processes, one should not underestimate the stability of these phenomena and processes. Further, showing the individuality and uniqueness of events, one should not lose sight of the common. Pure empiricism should be avoided.

If the genetic method is directed from the past to the present, then the retrospective method is from the present to the past, from the effect to the cause. It is possible to reconstruct this past by elements of the preserved past. Going into the past, we can clarify the stages of formation, the formation of the phenomenon that we have in the present. What may seem random in the genetic approach, with the retrospective method, will appear as a prerequisite for later events. In the present we have a more developed object in comparison with its previous forms and we can better understand the process of formation of this or that process. We see the prospect of the development of phenomena and processes in the past, knowing the result. By studying the years preceding the French Revolution of the 18th century, we will obtain certain data on the maturing of the revolution. But if we return to this period, already knowing what happened in the course of the revolution, we will know the deeper causes and preconditions of the revolution, which manifested themselves most clearly in the course of the revolution itself. We will see not individual facts and events, but a coherent regular chain of phenomena that naturally led to the revolution.

Synchronous, chronological and diachronic methods. The synchronous method is focused on the study of various events occurring at the same time. All phenomena in society are interconnected, and this method, especially often used in a systematic approach, helps to reveal this connection. And this will make it possible to clarify the explanation of the historical events taking place in a particular region, to trace the influence of economic, political, and international relations of different countries.

In Russian literature, B. F. Porshnev published a book where he showed the system of states during the English revolution in the middle of the 17th century. However, to this day, this approach is poorly developed in Russian historiography: the chronological histories of individual countries predominate. Only recently has an attempt been made to write the history of Europe not as the sum of individual states, but as a definite system of states, to show the mutual influence and interconnection of events.

chronological method. It is used by every historian - the study of the sequence of historical events in time (chronology). Important facts must not be overlooked. Distortions of history are often allowed, when historians hush up facts that do not fit into the scheme.

A variant of this method is problem-chronological, when a broad topic is divided into a number of problems, each of which is considered in a chronological sequence of events.

Diachronic method (or periodization method). The qualitative features of processes in time, the moments of formation of new stages, periods, are distinguished, the state at the beginning and at the end of the period is compared, and the general direction of development is determined. In order to identify the qualitative features of periods, it is necessary to clearly define the criteria for periodization, take into account the objective conditions and the process itself. One criterion cannot be replaced by another. Sometimes it is impossible to accurately name the year or month of the beginning of a new stage - all facets in society are mobile and conditional. It is impossible to fit everything into a strict framework, there is an asynchrony of events and processes, and the historian must take this into account. When there are several criteria and various schemes, the historical process is more deeply known.

Historical-comparative method. Even enlighteners began to apply the comparative method. F. Voltaire wrote one of the first world histories, but he used the comparison more as a technique than a method. At the end of the 19th century, this method became popular, especially in socio-economic history (M. Kovalevsky, G. Maurer wrote works on the community). After the Second World War, the comparative method was especially widely used. Virtually no historical study is complete without comparison.

Collecting factual material, comprehending and systematizing the facts, the historian sees that many phenomena can have similar content, but different forms of manifestation in time and space, and, conversely, have different content, but be similar in form. The cognitive significance of the method lies in the possibilities it opens up for understanding the essence of phenomena. The essence can be understood by the similarity and difference of the characteristics inherent in the phenomena. The logical basis of the method is analogy, when, based on the similarity of some features of an object, a conclusion is made about the similarity of others.

The method allows you to reveal the essence of phenomena when it is not obvious, to identify the general, repetitive, natural, to make generalizations, to draw historical parallels. A number of requirements must be met. Comparison should be carried out on specific facts that reflect the essential features of phenomena, and not formal similarities. You need to know the era, the typology of phenomena. It is possible to compare phenomena of the same type and different types, at one or different stages of development. In one case, the essence will be revealed on the basis of identifying similarities, in the other - differences. We should not forget the principle of historicism.

But the use of the comparative method has some limitations. It helps to understand the diversity of reality, but not its specificity in a particular form. It is difficult to apply the method when studying the dynamics of the historical process. Formal application leads to errors, and the essence of many phenomena can be distorted. You need to use this method in combination with others. Unfortunately, only analogy and comparison are often used, and the method, which is much more meaningful and broader than the methods mentioned, is rarely used in its entirety.

Historical-typological method. Typology - the division of objects or phenomena into different types based on essential features, the identification of homogeneous sets of objects. I. Kovalchenko considers the typological method to be the method of essential analysis. Such a result is not given by the formal descriptive classification proposed by the positivists. The subjective approach led to the idea of ​​constructing types only in the thinking of the historian. M. Weber deduced the theory of "ideal types", which for a long time was not used by domestic sociologists, who interpreted it in a simplified way. In fact, it was about modeling, which is now accepted by all researchers.

According to I. Kovalchenko, types are distinguished on the basis of a deductive approach and theoretical analysis. The types and features that characterize the qualitative certainty are distinguished. Then we can attribute the object to a particular type. I. Kovalchenko illustrates all this on the example of the types of Russian peasant farming. I. Kovalchenko needed such a detailed development of the typology method to justify the use of mathematical methods and computers. A significant part of his book on the methods of historical research is devoted to this. We refer the reader to this book.

Historical-system method. This method was also developed by I. Kovalchenko in connection with the use of mathematical methods, modeling in historical science. The method proceeds from the fact that there are socio-historical systems of different levels. The main components of reality: individual and unique phenomena, events, historical situations and processes are considered as social systems. All of them are functionally related. It is necessary to isolate the system under study from the hierarchy of systems. After the selection of the system, a structural analysis follows, the determination of the relationship between the components of the system and their properties. In this case, logical and mathematical methods are used. The second stage is a functional analysis of the interaction of the system under study with systems of a higher level (the peasant economy is considered as part of the system of socio-economic relations and as a subsystem of capitalist production). The main difficulty is created by the multi-level nature of social systems, the transition from lower-level systems to higher systems (yard, village, province). When analyzing, for example, a peasant economy, data aggregation provides new opportunities for understanding the essence of phenomena. In this case, all general scientific and special-historical methods are used. The method gives the greatest effect in synchronous analysis, but the process of development remains undiscovered. System-structural and functional analysis can lead to excessive abstraction and formalization, and sometimes subjective design of systems.

We have named the main methods of historical research. None of them is universal and absolute. You need to use them in combination. In addition, both historical methods must be combined with general scientific and philosophical ones. It is necessary to use methods taking into account their capabilities and limits - this will help to avoid errors and false conclusions.

History performs several socially significant functions.

cognitive function consists in a concrete study of the historical path of Russia and its peoples, in a theoretical generalization of historical facts and events that took place in Russia. In scientific language, the word "history" is often used as a process of movement in time and as a process of knowledge in time. Therefore, when studying the course of national history, it is important to understand the process of the origin, formation and functioning of the Russian state at various stages of its development.

Practical advisory function is that history in general, and the history of Russia in particular, revealing the patterns of development of society, helps to develop a scientifically based course of foreign and domestic policy, the life of the country, international relations, and guide the activities of historical figures and political parties.

educational function - plays an important role in the formation of a scientific worldview, in the knowledge of the laws of development of human society. History provides documented accurate data on outstanding events of the past. Their comprehension develops a view of the world, society, the laws of development.

History is based on facts: objective events of the past, and we receive facts from various sources. Distinguish:

Material sources (material), or monuments of human activity (tools, household items, weapons, etc.;

Written sources: chronicles, legislative acts, memoirs);

Folklore sources;

Linguistic sources;

Visual sources (graphic, artistic);

Phonetic sources (film, photo, audio, video).

No source, by itself, can give an estimate of the past. It only reproduces or helps to reconstruct the historical fact, the truth. Only a historian, on the basis of studying sources of various origins, establishes the veracity of information, i.e. recreates a real picture of the past, interprets, explains it. And since each researcher has his own scientific concept, his own vision of history, the facts receive a different assessment and interpretation.

This is how theoretical concepts or approaches to the study of history are developed.

historical method - this is a way of studying historical patterns through their specific manifestations: through historical facts, ways of extracting new knowledge from facts.

Research methods of historical science are divided into the following groups.

1.3.1. General scientific methods of historical research:

- logical– establishment of causal relationships between phenomena, which allows you to arrange events in a logical order and derive one fact from another;

- classification- grouping facts according to certain features and criteria;

- historicism- consideration of phenomena not in isolation, but taking into account previous and subsequent events;

- analysis and synthesis- the decomposition of the process under study into its component parts and the combination of new components into a new whole.

1.3.2. Socio-historical research methods:

- chronological - a presentation of events in the order in which they occurred; when studying the history of Russia, the following chronological methods are used:

Actually chronological, the essence of which is that the phenomena are presented in a strict chronological order;

- chronologically problematic, provides for the study of history by periods, and within them - by problems;

- problem-chronological, studying any one side of the life and activities of the state in its consistent, chronological development;

Much less common, but used synchronous method, which allows you to establish connections and relationships between phenomena and processes occurring at the same time in different places in Russia or its regions.

- comparative historical - highlighting historical events in one or more countries and comparing them according to various parameters;

- historical simulation – creation of a theoretical model to explain the most important processes in a particular society.

Historians use the results of almost all the humanities (disciplines): geography, economics, religious studies. Auxiliary historical disciplines that study material sources stand out: paleography (studies the material and tools of writing, changes in graphics, the system of accepted abbreviations in writing), heraldry (coats of arms and their symbols), sphragistics (seals, inscriptions on them, material, era production, nature of use), numismatics (the study of coins), chronology and metrology (studies calendars, a system of calculations and measures), source studies (studies historical documents to establish the time and place of their creation, authorship, purpose of writing, authenticity), historigraphy (from the Greek "History" - reconnaissance, research of the past, and "Grapho" - I write. This term is often used to refer to historical literature, meaning not only content, but also authorship).

1.4. The general objective of the discipline "History of the Unified State System for the Prevention and Elimination of Emergencies (RSChS) and Civil Defense (GO)": the study of the origins, development and improvement of the national system of civil protection.

The main task of training: the formation of high morale-combat, professional and patriotic qualities in trainees, necessary for future specialists in the field of technosphere safety (life safety); familiarization of students with the historical prerequisites for the occurrence of emergencies in the wars for freedom and national interests of Russia; substantiation of the historical importance of the creation of the State Rescue Service in our country; creation of a scientific and informational basis for organizing and conducting special historical work by graduates in accordance with the order of the Minister of the Ministry of Emergency Situations No. 734 of December 21, 1998 (see Appendix).

It makes no sense to study the exploits of the past without a firm faith in the future. This, by no means a new saying, contains the truth, which largely determines the need to study history in educational institutions that train specialists in the field of civil protection.

The history of the Russian state is also the history of its defense, including armed defense. It is well known that the significance of history in the educational process is determined, first of all, by its enormous cognitive capabilities. For a civil protection specialist, knowledge of special history is an essential part of his general and professional readiness, an integral part of general cultural development. The need to study special history stems from the role that historical experience plays in the development of all areas of modern military affairs.

Special historical knowledge occupies a special place in the formation of personal, primarily moral and combat qualities of future civil protection specialists. They actively help students to establish themselves in the conviction that the path they have chosen of selfless service to their people is the path true and necessary for the Fatherland.

The study of the experience of defensive (defensive, including military) construction of Russia, the organization and implementation of its defense can and should become an inexhaustible source of historical optimism for future specialists. History testifies that in the best times for the spiritual rise of the Fatherland and in the darkest years for it, the most noble forces of the nation gathered in the army and other power structures. Understanding this allows future specialists to form that courageous idealism in serving the Fatherland, which has traditionally been inherent in the best representatives of the corps of defenders of our Motherland at all stages of its history. It is this quality, based on knowledge of special and military history, that will make it possible to successfully resist any attempts of disorientation, disinformation, blackmail and defamation in order to deform consciousness and betray the duty of a specialist defender of the Motherland, as it often happened relatively recently around our army and navy.

In the daily creative activity of a civil protection specialist, his ability to correctly navigate the main directions of development of the civil protection system and skillfully use all the possibilities of the latest means and methods of protection to successfully complete the tasks is becoming increasingly important.

Practice shows that the complex and responsible tasks of training and educating subordinates, maintaining high combat readiness and combat readiness of government bodies, forces and means of civil protection require specialists to correctly understand the laws of social development, knowledge of the essence and content of modern problems of civil protection, the ability to deeply understand in the dialectic of its forms, means and methods.

The complexity and specificity of the functional duties performed by civil protection specialists, as well as the special responsibility assigned to them at the highest levels of readiness and modes of operation, place increased demands on their morale, combat and professional qualities. The formation of these qualities can be successful only if the trainees have a solid worldview foundation, in the creation of which special historical training provides especially favorable opportunities.

In particular, an active way of influencing the formation of the scientific worldview of students is to reveal to them the content of the main methodological problems of the history of civil protection. These problems are primarily definition of the object and subject, structure, functions and boundaries of the history of the PA, analysis of the general properties of its subject, its relationship with other social and special sciences, characterization of the principles of mutual relations of individual parts and aspects of historical science, consideration of their subordination and coordination, disclosure of content, patterns and general provisions of the history of the CP, as well as their role in relation to its special and particular provisions.

The disclosure of the problems of the history of civil defense in combination with the structure of military history contributes to the formation of the scientific worldview of students. In particular, the fixed distinction between the two areas of historical knowledge and the clarification of their interrelationships and correlations contribute to a deep disclosure of the nature, content of not only civil protection, but also armed struggle, war in general, help to correctly understand their laws and individual specific aspects, understand the principles, categories and conceptual apparatus.

Thus, an opportunity is created for revealing and in-depth understanding of the conformity of the laws of materialistic dialectics with the real cause-and-effect relationships of nature and society. This way, already at the first acquaintance with the subject of historical training, there is a consolidation and development of those fundamental principles of the worldview of the defender of the Motherland, the content of which was set forth in the process of studying social disciplines at the previous levels of education (at school and university).

An opportunity is created to study all the specific forms in which the basic laws of materialistic dialectics can manifest themselves, acting as a universal universal connection both in war and in any emergency, as well as in conditions of ensuring technospheric security. It seems possible to fill the categories of materialistic dialectics, which are concepts of the ultimate degree of generality, with specific content - knowledge about the development of phenomena and processes of civil protection and technospheric security.

Consequently, with a sufficiently high cognitive activity of students and the necessary depth of study of the discipline, a sufficiently deep formation of a single categorical system of scientific thinking of a civil protection specialist is possible. This will allow developing creative abilities, learning the correct objective approach to analyzing the internal structure of the protection system, both in wartime and in emergency situations, to identifying the specifics of using various means and methods of protection and security in specific historical conditions, to finding ways to prevent and elimination of the consequences of emergencies.

Experience shows that using the possibilities of history to form the scientific outlook of future specialists, starting with the first lecture, can be successfully continued in the course of studying the discipline. At the first, initial stage, this is manifested in the ordering, systematization of the existing individual concepts and ideas that are of a worldview nature. Gradually, in the course of training sessions and independent work, a quantitative accumulation of information can and should occur, which forms the basis of a specialist's professional thinking. Ultimately, it is precisely those intellectual skills and abilities that testify to the maturity and strength of the worldview positions of a specialist are formed.

Historical training plays an exceptionally important role in shaping the political (state) thinking of a specialist. The past, imprinted on the pages of history, is essentially an important element of our worldview, which allows us to determine the correct position on the most burning problems of our time. The progressive minds of mankind at all times noted that knowledge of history does not burden the memory, but makes a person wiser, able, based on the experience of the past, to solve the problems of today, to lift the veil over the future. Particularly fruitful in this respect is special history, including military history. Its knowledge gives everyone the opportunity to think in particular about such facts: there was the First World War, there was the Second. Will it be possible to prevent the third - the most unthinkable? After all, if reliable barriers are not put in the way of its preparation and unleashing, then the probable alternative may be the absence of a future for billions of people on earth. One of the important factors in preventing the possibility of unleashing a new world war is, as is well known, the strengthening of the state's defense might and the increased readiness of the Armed Forces to prevent and, if necessary, suppress aggression.

The experience of history teaches that if difficulties arise in the world, crisis or pre-crisis phenomena, a deterioration in the economic situation, a weakening of the combat effectiveness of the armed forces, the supporters of aggression become more rigid and arrogant. And today, in the context of a tense foreign policy struggle to maintain military-strategic parity at a gradually lowering level, the policy of preventing war is unthinkable without maintaining the high combat readiness of the Russian Armed Forces, their ability to suppress any outside encroachment on the security of the state. At the same time, the system of civil protection (civil defense) of the country, as an integral part of the system of national security and defense of the country, must be ready to perform tasks in any scenario for the deployment of hostilities and large-scale terrorist acts, including in conditions of massive use by the enemy of modern and advanced weapons , as well as to take part in the protection of the population and territories in emergency situations of a natural and man-made nature, as well as in terrorist attacks.

Thus, understanding the laws of historical development, the ability to draw the right conclusions for the future based on the analysis of the course and outcome of past wars and emergencies will lead the student to a conscious perception of the importance for the preservation of peace of the activity that awaits him after graduation. It is the knowledge of history that allows the student to fully appreciate the meaning and interconnection of such concepts as peace, vigilance and combat readiness. Based on historical experience, they are more confidently oriented in the modern situation, realizing that if a war is blazing somewhere, hotbeds of military conflicts are smoldering, the legitimate rights of peoples are being violated, then this threatens not only the regional, but also the world world with emergencies on a global scale. It is history that repeatedly testifies: in the event of an aggravation of the international situation, the boundaries between political struggle and military clashes can become very thin, fragile, unstable, and in this case only extreme vigilance and the highest combat readiness can save the world from catastrophe.

Increasing the methodological armament of future specialists, special historical knowledge at the same time actively helps to form in them high morale-combat and political qualities necessary for further professional activity. Revealing the heroic past of our people, especially its military and labor traditions, historical science contributes to raising the morale of soldiers, civil protection specialists, instilling patriotism in them, it actively participates in the formation of a moral and political factor - the most important component of ensuring the country's security.

In modern conditions, it is especially important to emphasize the role of historical knowledge in the patriotic education of citizens. In order to unobtrusively and effectively influence the formation of civil state consciousness, especially among young people, in order to correctly and effectively direct their education, it should be remembered that the most confident civil development of a person occurs when it begins with history, with the memory of the heroic past of the Motherland. And it is necessary to constantly study, to be able to truthfully and honestly present the glorious history of the Fatherland, the origins of the courage and heroism of the defenders of the Motherland, not bypassing the difficulties and dramatic pages of their activities in the field of civil protection. At the same time, one should not forget, from the standpoint of scientific objectivity, to see and understand how dearly one had to pay for voluntaristic mistakes, dogmatism in thinking, for inertia in practical actions. It is absolutely clear that one cannot count on success in this difficult task if the civil protection specialist himself does not have a clear moral position, which can only serve as a reliable compass that provides a choice of methods and arguments for analyzing, explaining and correctly politically evaluating the events and facts of national history. . It is natural to assume that the formation of such a position should take place in the course of training at a university. And the special historical training of students is essentially called upon to ensure this process.

Thus, the study of the experience of the history of our country allows professionals to confidently find their place both in the process of implementing new concepts of civil protection and in implementing the provisions of the modern doctrine of state defense and defense.

It follows from the foregoing that the role and functions of the special historical training of BSARF students are very wide and diverse. Specifically, they basically boil down to the following:

To study and comprehend that part of the general historical process that is associated with wars and emergency situations of wartime and peacetime;

To assimilate social experience that is of theoretical and practical importance for solving the defensive, defense tasks of our state, for the development of modern military art, the theory and practice of civil protection;

To educate new generations of certified professionals, and through them all employees of our service, on the heroic, patriotic traditions of defending the Motherland;

Actively assist the leadership of the EMERCOM of Russia, all rescue services in the fight against all kinds of anti-scientific conjectures, versions and false theories in the field of history, against its use as a means of ideological struggle;

To provide professionals with the opportunity to correctly understand modern policy in the field of defense construction and draw the right conclusions from it for their practical work in the civil protection system.

1.5. Target setting and organizational and methodological guidelines for the study of the academic discipline "History of the unified state system for the prevention and elimination of emergency situations (RSChS) and civil defense (GO)".

As a result of studying the discipline, students should

Have an idea:

On the experience of preventing and eliminating emergency situations in peacetime;

On the practice of using formations of civil defense of foreign countries and the organization of international cooperation on the prevention and elimination of emergencies of a different nature;

Know:

The history of MPVO, civil defense, RSChS at all stages of their origin and development during the Great Patriotic War, in local wars, armed conflicts, as well as during the elimination of major industrial accidents, catastrophes and natural disasters;

The reasons for the emergence and development of emergencies in the military solution of geopolitics problems on the examples of domestic military history in the interests of the possible peacekeeping activities of the EMERCOM of Russia.

Be able to:

Apply the principles of historicism in a creative approach to solving the problems of their practical professional activities upon graduation from the academy;

Use the experience of national military history to affirm in the minds of subordinate personnel the ideas of patriotism, the selfless fulfillment of the professional duty of a rescuer, a sense of pride in belonging to an important component of the national security of the Fatherland - the Defense Forces of Russia.

The discipline "History of the unified state system for the prevention and elimination of emergency situations (RSChS) and civil defense (GO)" is studied in a complex of operational and tactical disciplines that profile the training of undergraduate students of the academy.

METHODOLOGY OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH - 1) the theoretical provisions of historical science, which act as a means of discovering new historical facts or are used as a tool for knowing the past [V. V. Kosolapov]; 2) the theoretical basis of concrete historical research [N. A. Mininkov].

The methodology of historical research is a way of solving a scientific problem and achieving its goal - obtaining new historical knowledge. The methodology of historical research as a method of research activity is a system of theoretical knowledge, including the goal, objectives, subject, cognitive strategy, methods and methodology for the production of historical knowledge. This system includes knowledge of two types - subject and methodological. Subject theoretical knowledge is the result of specific historical research. This is theoretical knowledge about historical reality. Methodological theoretical knowledge is the result of special scientific research, the subject of which is the research activity of historians. This is theoretical knowledge about the methods of research activities.

Theoretical knowledge of the subject and methodological content is included in the structure of the methodology of historical research, provided that they are internalized by the methodological consciousness of the researcher, as a result of which they become the design and normative basis of research activities. In the structure of the methodology of historical research, such theoretical knowledge functions as cognitive "filters" that mediate the interaction between the subject and the subject of historical research. Such "preconditional" or "out-of-source" knowledge is sometimes called patterns, which are a syncretic unity of the constructive and the conceptual. These are “images”, on the one hand, of the subject of historical research, and on the other hand, of the very process of its research.

In the structure of the methodology of historical research, the following levels can be distinguished: 1) a model of historical research as a system of normative knowledge that defines the subject area of ​​a particular scientific research, its cognitive strategy, basic principles and cognitive means; 2) the paradigm of historical research as a model and standard for setting and solving a certain class of research problems accepted in the scientific community to which the researcher belongs; 3) historical theories related to the subject area of ​​specific historical research, forming its scientific thesaurus, model of the subject and used as explanatory constructs or understanding concepts; 4) methods of historical research as ways of solving individual research problems.

It is necessary to distinguish between the concept of "methodology of historical research" and the concept of the methodology of history as a branch of special scientific research or a scientific discipline formed within the framework of historical science with the aim of theoretically ensuring the effectiveness of historical research conducted in it. The methodology of history as a branch of science, according to the Russian historian of the early 20th century A. S. Lappo-Danilevsky, is divided into two parts: the theory of historical knowledge and the doctrine of the methods of historical thinking. In the 20th century, the subject area of ​​methodology as a scientific discipline began to include the principles and methods of historical research, the laws of the process of historical knowledge, as well as such non-methodological issues as the meaning of history, the role of the masses in history, the laws of the historical process. Currently, the methodology of history is considered as a scientific discipline that provides the organization of the research process in order to obtain new and most reliable knowledge [N. A. Mininkov]. Consequently, the subject of the methodology of history as a scientific discipline is historical research itself.

The selection of historical research as a subject of the methodology of history as a scientific discipline raises important questions: is this research expedient or is it arbitrary, what conditions determine the possibility of obtaining new historical knowledge, are there logic and norms for the research activity of a historian, is its process cognizable ?

The inner world of a historian always requires a certain freedom of creativity, it is associated with inspiration, intuition, imagination and some other unique mental qualities of a scientist. Therefore, in this respect, historical research as creativity is an art. At the same time, historical research, in order to be scientific, must be carried out in accordance with certain principles and requirements that a scientist must comply with. Therefore, freedom of creativity, "flashes of insight" in historical science inevitably coexist with the scientist's ideas about the necessary elements of purposeful cognitive activity. Therefore, historical research is not only scientific creativity, but also, to a certain extent, a craft, that is, a cognitive activity subject to certain regulatory requirements. The study of these norms, bringing them into a system of purposeful activity, its theoretical justification makes it possible to exercise conscious control over the process of concrete historical research, constantly improve its practice, as well as transfer the experience of research skills and teach it. This is the direct practical significance of the methodology of history as a scientific discipline.

A. V. Lubsky

The definition of the concept is cited from the ed.: Theory and Methodology of Historical Science. Terminological dictionary. Rep. ed. A.O. Chubaryan. [M.], 2014, p. 274-277.

Literature:

Kosolapov VV Methodology and logic of historical research. Kiev. 1977. S. 50; Lappo-Danshevsky A.S. Methodology of history. M, 2006. S. 18; Lubsky A. V. Alternative models of historical research: conceptual interpretation of cognitive practices. Saarbriicken, 2010; Mipinkov N. A. Methodology of history: a guide for a novice researcher. Rostov n / D, 2004. S. 93-94: Smolensky N. I. Theory and methodology of history: textbook. allowance 2nd ed., ster. M., 2008. S. 265.