Methods used to study the economy. Methods of economic research. research economic competition
Economics has the status of a scientific discipline, where many methods of scientific and practical research are combined.
Method of scientific abstraction or associative methods
Like any scientific discipline, for example, mathematics, in economics there are a number of generally accepted scientific abstractions, axioms, theorems, which are accepted without proof for the purposes of scientific research.
The variant closest to everyday life is the theoretical substantiation (assumption) that every economic agent - a business, a household or an individual consumer - is a rationally acting subject. Those. it is assumed that the entrepreneur always strives to increase profits (which was well described in the work of K. Marx "Capital"), and that, for example, a buyer or trader in the stock market seeks to make a rational decision from all options.
Despite the fact that practice also proves some irrationality of behavior (“the effect of lemmings” or crowds), nevertheless, scientific abstraction in economics helps to create a set of universal models for analyzing the behavior of economic agents in a particular economic system.
Method of integration and differentiation (or method of induction and deduction)
This method is based on the study of a general phenomenon on the basis of a particular event, or vice versa, the study of a particular phenomenon on the basis of a larger one. This allows you to study economic systems, for example, the behavior of an individual as a consumer in the market, based on the analysis of the behavior of a group or segment of consumers (reference group analysis).
Similarly, if such methods are applied to the financial market, then judging by how the overall stock market index behaves, certain conclusions can be drawn about how the economy of the entire country is functioning. Or, on the contrary, according to how the exchange rate of a particular country behaves, it is possible to predict and analyze the work of a particular business by deduction, for example, to study the dynamics of the balance of payments of export-import companies.
Method of historical research and analogies
In economics, as in science, the method of comparing past events with the present is used very often. For example, all economic crises, starting with the history of tulip mania, have a certain development algorithm that repeats itself in historical retrospect. This is a good scientific basis for research, the result of which can be the ability to predict the onset of new crises and their main parameters.
Methods of statistical information processing
Economics, as a science, deals with a huge amount of data, which includes factors in the development of large and small economic systems - from studying the dynamics of consumer preferences and the amount of lending to individual households, to studying the parameters of the budget of a particular country.
The collection, analysis and preparation of ready-made solutions used in the economy is based on the statistical processing of information using special econometric models. They allow you to systematize the amount of information, filter random events and give the researcher a probabilistic outcome of events.
From a purely practical point of view, for example, in the financial market, a trader or investor is also studying the statistics of the number of exits of the price level of any asset (stocks, bonds or currencies) above (below) a certain level.
Modeling of processes in the economy
Modeling in economics occurs in the same way as it is used in theoretical physics or mechanics, when a model of a certain complexity is created to study a process, sometimes in the form of a set of mathematical functions.
The economy uses a large arsenal of such mathematical models, ranging from Monte Carlo-type models to complex systems of hundreds of equations. Such modeling is very often used not only in macroeconomics, but also in purely practical areas, for example, in insurance, where there are special models for analyzing the occurrence of certain insured events.
Graphical analysis methods
Since economics, as a science, deals with processes occurring in a certain space and time, the question naturally arises of the analogy of these events with cyclic or wave ones. Any economic system, whether it is the economy of the country as a whole, the business of an individual enterprise or the price of a share in the stock market, develops in a certain cyclical sequence. So the price of a share cannot grow indefinitely upwards, since the economy of any country experiences phases of growth and decline (crises). Accordingly, for such a cyclic (wave) analysis, graphic-analytical methods are used.
Economics in the study of economic processes uses certain methods. Research methods in economics are ways and means of studying certain phenomena.
Research methods in economics, as in any other branch of knowledge, are divided into general (philosophical), general scientific (historical, logical, etc.) and specific to the economy.
In this science, such methods as functional and synthesis, scientific abstraction, proposing and testing hypotheses, experimentation, modeling, etc. are widely used.
Method of scientific abstraction comes down to the purification of the object under study from particulars, any accidents and the selection of typical, constant and essential features and characteristics. As a result of using this method, categories and concepts are derived that reflect the most important aspects of the objects under study, as well as economic laws that reflect the constant cause-and-effect relationships that exist between economic phenomena.
Method of graphic images allows you to visualize certain economic dependencies. Typically, economists place independent data (variables) on the y-axis, and dependent data, respectively, on the abscissa.
functional analysis helps to establish interrelations and dependencies between economic processes and phenomena, when some factors act as exogenous (independent), and others as endogenous (derived from the first group).
I widely use research methods in economics. economic and mathematical modeling, which today is one of the most common methods for studying economic problems. It allows you to identify the causes, consequences, patterns of processes. Economic models help to describe reality in a simplified way, they are an abstract generalization using graphs, equations and are necessary for a visual description of the relationships between economic variables. Models help to better understand reality, because they do not include many secondary details that complicate the vision of the essence of processes and the relationships between them.
Mathematical research methods in economics are quite complex, since the economy is a multidimensional system in which most of the processes are probabilistic in nature and depend on many factors.
Marginal (marginal) analysis used to study economic categories and laws. The essence of the analysis is reduced to an increment caused by an increase by one unit of the factor on which this indicator depends. Such an increase is characterized by marginal income, marginal product, marginal utility, etc.
Experimentation is used to artificially reproduce economic processes and phenomena so that they can be studied "up close". However, this method requires caution, since it is unacceptable to break natural processes by fitting real life into artificial structures.
In economic theory, they use statistical methods for studying the economic situation. These methods are necessary in the work of analysts as a diagnostic tool in order to make the right management decisions. The conjuncture is the situation that has developed at a certain moment in a certain area of economic life. We are talking about the specific conditions of the production process, the situation on the markets, etc. As part of the application of this method, they use the methods of calculating absolute and relative efficiency, apply the index and balance methods.
Rice. 1.1.
Exploring economic processes, ET applies a number of general scientific methods of cognition. The most important of them for the economy are nine (Fig. 1.1). Thus, it is obvious that the empirical function of ET assumes observation (deliberate, purposeful perception of economic phenomena, processes in their real form) and collection of real facts. It is thanks to the information obtained in this way that it is possible, say, to trace how commodity prices have changed for one or another pepiol. how the volume of production, trade and profits of enterprises increased. In contrast to this An experiment involves an artificial scientific experiment, when the object under study is placed in specially created and controlled conditions. For example, to test the effectiveness of a new wage system, its trial tests are carried out within a particular group of workers.
In its turn modeling involves the study of socio-economic phenomena according to their theoretical, virtual model - according to models, which replaces the object of study itself (simulation on computers is especially effective).
The method of scientific abstractions (abstraction) is a special mental technique that allows you to formulate certain abstract concepts - abstractions(from Latin abstractio - distraction), or categories (cost, price, money, market, expensive, cheap, etc.).
For example, the concept of a product - how to define it? If you start from the store shelves, nothing will work. What kind of things are not there in the mixed goods - big-small, edible-inedible, liquid-loose ... How to bring this to a "general commodity denominator"? How to manage to combine, relatively speaking, round and green? Only with the help abstraction, i.e. abstraction from the specific, but secondary in this case, properties of these things (size, weight, shape, color). Having done this, we will simultaneously fix the features that unite them, namely, that they are all products of labor intended for sale. This is the answer to the question, what is a product.
Methods of analysis and synthesis involve the study of economic phenomena as in parts - this analysis(from the Greek. analysis - dismemberment), and in general - synthesis(from Greek synthesis - connection). For example, comparing the economic performance of individual mines is analysis, and the definition of industry-wide results of managing the entire coal industry in Russia - synthesis.
Thanks to the combination of methods of analysis and synthesis, a systematic, integrated approach to complex (multi-element) objects of study. Such objects ( systems) are considered as complex interconnected parts (subsystems) of a single the whole and not as a mechanical connection of some disparate elements. This is important, because the entire economy (and not only it) consists of many large and small systems (the national economy - from industries, industries - from enterprises, enterprises - from workshops, the cost of goods - from cost elements, the market - from many sectors, niches , participants).
The division of ET into micro- and macroeconomics is logically connected with analysis and synthesis. It involves two different levels of consideration of economic systems. So, microeconomics having dealt with separate elements (parts) of these systems. She learns (a) such isolated economic units as industry, enterprise, household); as well as (b) individual markets (say, the grain market); production, sale or price of a particular product, etc. The microeconomic approach is thus close to the method of analysis.
In contrast to this macroeconomics explores economic systems generally, or the so-called units, that is, a set of economic units. Such aggregates include the world economy, the national economy, as well as large subdivisions of the latter - the public sector, households (taken in aggregate), the private sector, etc. Macroeconomics, based on the synthesis method, operates with generalizing (aggregate) indicators of the type: gross production volume, National income, total expenses. In addition, the macroeconomic sphere also includes consideration of such general concepts such as cost, market, budget, taxes, etc.
Figuratively speaking, if microeconomics studies scattered trees, then macroeconomics- the forest formed from them. At the same time, the division of economic science into micro- and macrospheres should not be taken as an absolute, since they are closely interconnected and intertwined. Many problems intrude into both realms, albeit at different levels of generality. Where, for example, to attribute questions of profit? After all, to compare the incomes of two concrete factories (microeconomics), you need to use general the concept of profit, and it is developed by macroeconomics.
Further induction and deduction . These are two opposite but closely related ways of reasoning. The movement of thought from particular (separate) facts to a general conclusion is induction(from Latin inductio - guidance), or generalization. Reasoning in the opposite direction (from the general position to particular conclusions) is called deduction(from lat. deductio - excretion). Thus, when we see in some country that almost all citizens have a job, that their growing incomes are outpacing price increases, and the stores are filled with domestic goods, then this suggests on the idea of economic growth induction). And the opposite example deduction. If the country is reputed to be backward and poor, then from this general idea one can certainly draw conclusions: arbitrariness and venality of officials, lawlessness and crime, unemployment and economic stagnation reign in it.
Historical and logical methods (approaches) are also used in unity. Here is a detailed study of socio-economic processes in their historical sequences accompany logical generalizations, those. assessment of these processes as a whole and general conclusions. For example, a detailed study of the specific course and features of building socialism in the 20th century in different societies is historical an approach. And the conclusions based on it (about the inefficiency of the economy in socialist countries, about the widespread loss of incentives to work, about commodity shortages, etc.) - approach logical.
Widely used in ET graphic method . It displays economic phenomena using diagrams, tables, graphs, diagrams, providing brevity, conciseness and clarity in the presentation of complex theoretical material. So, schedule visibly demonstrates the dependence of certain quantities on each other, reflecting, for example, the relationship between ticket prices and the number of theater spectators (Fig. 1.2). The figure shows that there is inversely proportional(negative) relationship: the higher the prices, the fewer viewers. This causes descending the nature of the curve. In other cases there may be directly proportional(positive) dependencies with ascending lines on the graph (p. 122).
TOPIC 1. Subject and method of economics
Starting a systematic study of the course, it is necessary, first of all, to find out what economics is, what are its subject, functions, how economics is connected with other social sciences; what methods economists use when conducting economic analysis; what is the peculiarity of economic indicators that characterize certain economic processes and phenomena.
The main questions of the topic:
Question 1. The subject and functions of the economy.
Question 2. Methods of economic research.
Question 3. Economic indicators.
The word "economy" is of Greek origin (oikos - economy, nomos - law). It means "laws of management". Today, the term "economics" is used in two main meanings: firstly, as a synonym for the word "economy" (the economy of the country, region, enterprise, etc.) and, secondly, as the name of the science of management.
According to the modern understanding, economics is the science of choosing the most efficient ways to meet the unlimited needs of people through the use of limited resources. It should be noted that such an understanding of the subject of economics has developed in the course of a long historical development of economics as a science.
The second function of the economy is practical (recommendatory). On the basis of positive knowledge, the economy gives recommendations, offers options for economic practice and economic policy pursued by the state. Economic policy (a set of measures aimed at achieving the main economic goals) should not be voluntaristic (strong-willed), it should be based on theoretical conclusions and provisions developed by economic science.
The economy is a complex, multi-level system, therefore, depending on the object of study, economic science is usually divided into two large areas:
Microeconomics - a section of economic science that studies the behavior of individual economic entities - buyers, firms; analyzes the mechanism of functioning of individual markets, the distribution of resources in the areas of their use, the formation of income, etc.;
Macroeconomics is a branch of economic science that studies the functioning of the country's economy as a whole, such general phenomena and processes as the growth rate of national production, inflation, unemployment, budget deficit, public debt, government regulation methods, etc.
Despite differences in emphasis, micro- and macroeconomics are parts of the same science. The same concepts and theories are used in micro- and macroanalysis, the same problems can be considered at different levels.
There are also positive and normative economic science. positive economy describes that there is something that might happen. Positive economics deals with facts and is free from value judgments. Normative economics gives an assessment of economic phenomena, studies what "should be." It predicts what will happen to certain processes and phenomena if the factors influencing these processes and phenomena are changed. Objective facts cannot prove the truth or falsity of normative judgments.
Economy - social science. It studies a certain aspect of the life of society and, as such, is closely related to other social sciences: history, sociology, political science, jurisprudence, etc. The connection between economics and jurisprudence is due to the fact that in the economic life of society, economic and legal relations are closely intertwined. The economy cannot function normally without an appropriate legal framework - a set of rules governing the activities of economic entities both at the micro and macro levels. At the same time, the very need for appropriate legal norms is generated by the changes taking place in the economic life of society.
Economics is a historical science; it is constantly developing, contributing to the deepening of knowledge about the economic side of society.
Since economics studies the most important (material) side of the development of society, it is the basis for most other social sciences. Economics is the only branch of social research in which the Nobel Prize is awarded.
- What is the subject of economics as a science?
- What are the functions of economics?
- Name the main sections of economic science. What is the subject of study?
- What does positive and normative economics study?
- What is the relationship of economics with other economic sciences?
Studying how the economy functions, and putting forward requirements for how it should function, economics as a science uses certain research methods (a method is a way, a way to study any phenomena). How does economics study its subject? When analyzing economic phenomena, they use such research methods as: scientific abstraction, analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, hypotheses and testing, functional analysis, modeling, experimentation, etc. Let us dwell on some of these methods in more detail.
Method of scientific abstraction. Its essence is the purification of the object under study from the particular, random, transient and the allocation of the essential, permanent, typical. The results of scientific abstraction are:
- categories and concepts, expressing the essential aspects of the objects under study (price, profit, rent, etc.);
- economic laws(principles) reflecting permanent, stable, recurring causal relationships between economic phenomena (the law of demand: an increase in price (cause) leads to a decrease in demand (consequence).
Functional analysis. The establishment of dependencies and relationships between economic phenomena and processes, in which some factors are considered as data, independent (exogenous), and others as dependent (endogenous), derived from the first. When studying the dependence, for example, of investment demand on the level of bank interest, the percentage is considered as an independent variable (argument), and investment as a dependent variable (function).
The method is widely used in economics. graphic images, allowing to visualize certain economic dependencies. At the same time, one should keep in mind a certain feature of economic graphs. Traditionally, economists (unlike mathematicians) tend to place the independent variables on the y-axis (vertical axis) and the dependent variables on the abscissa (horizontal axis).
Economic and mathematical modeling today it is a very common method of studying economic problems, which allows you to identify the causes, patterns, consequences of certain economic processes and phenomena. Models are a simplified description of reality, an abstract generalization through equations and graphs that describe the relationship of economic variables. Models, ignoring numerous minor details that complicate the identification of economic relations, patterns, allow you to better understand and describe the phenomena of economic reality.
Mathematical modeling in the economy is quite difficult, since the economy is a multidimensional system, the nature of the functioning and development of which is largely stochastic (probabilistic) in nature, is influenced by many external factors.
Marginal (marginal) analysis is widely used to study economic laws and categories in the modern economy. The essence of this method lies in the fact that the increment of the economic indicator is investigated, due to the increase by unit of the factor on which this indicator depends.
Marginal utility, marginal product, marginal cost of production, marginal income, etc. - these are values characterizing the growth of the corresponding indicator under the influence of a change in one or another factor affecting this indicator, per unit. For example, the marginal product of labor characterizes the increase in the volume of production due to the increase in the investment of one of the factors of production (labor) per unit; marginal utility shows how much the satisfaction of needs has changed when a unit of good is added, etc.
Experimentation- this is an artificial reproduction of economic phenomena and processes with the aim of studying them. Experimentation in economics is, in principle, possible, but must be used very carefully; experiments should not forcibly break natural economic processes, "squeeze" real economic life into the framework of artificial structures.
Whatever methods economists use in their research, practice, economic reality are the criterion for the correctness of certain conclusions, provisions of economic theory. If you can say that "this is true in theory, but not in practice," this means that this or that theoretical position, this or that conclusion is wrong.
- What is meant by research method? What general scientific research methods do you know?
- What is scientific abstraction?
- What is the essence of the method of economic and mathematical modeling?
- What is functional analysis and how is it applied in economic research?
- What is the essence of marginal (limiting) analysis?
- Is it possible to experiment in economics?
One of the most important characteristics of the method of economic research is the unity qualitative and quantitative analysis. Studying economic processes and phenomena, economists always strive to quantify them, express them, evaluate them with the help of numbers.
Economic indicators used to characterize economic processes and phenomena with the help of numbers have a number of features.
So, economists distinguish between indicators measured in units for a certain period of time, i.e. having the dimension of a flow, and indicators measured at a point in time, i.e. having the stock dimension. Although often not specified, timing is implicitly present. When they say that the salary is 5 thousand rubles or the interest rate on loans is 10%, it is obvious that we are talking about 5 thousand rubles per month and the interest rate per year. If we say that the fixed capital of the company is 20 million rubles, then this is already the dimension of the stock - capital at some date.
In general, the time factor in the economy plays a big role, due to the fact that the value of money for people today and in the future is different. Whether or not there is inflation in the economy, people tend to value money today more than money in the future. This is due to the fact that by placing today's money in a bank or investing it in production, you can get a lot of money, respectively, future income today is of less value.
Today's assessment of future economic performance occurs in the process of discounting.
Discounting is the process of bringing the economic performance of future years to their present value. (The discounting methodology will be discussed in detail in Topic 17.)
The discounting operation is carried out when choosing investment projects, when it is necessary to compare today's investments with future income, while bringing the indicators of flows and stocks to a single dimension.
Further, in economics there are nominal and real values. Nominal values characterize cost economic indicators in operating, current prices, and since prices are subject to change, it is often necessary to eliminate (eliminate) the influence of prices on them in order to analyze the dynamics of certain indicators. quantities, cleared of the influence of price changes, called real. So, for example, in the economy, nominal and real wages, nominal and real interest rates, etc. are distinguished. Nominal wages are money wages, and real wages are quantity of goods and services that can be purchased with nominal wages. Obviously, real wages depend on nominal wages and the price level.
Finally, when analyzing economic indicators, it is very important whether they are considered in dynamics or the analysis is static. Comparative statics- this is the simplest tool for describing and studying real economic processes considered at a certain point in time.
Within the framework of comparative statics, three periods are distinguished:
- instant - when all the factors influencing the economic phenomenon remain constant;
- short-term - when some factors are considered as constants, others - as variables;
- long-term - when all factors are considered as variables.
Questions for self-examination
- What is the difference between the economics of the flow dimension and the stock dimension?
- Why are there differences in the value of money today and in the future?
- What is discounting?
- What is the difference between nominal and real values?
- What is the difference between short-term, instant and long-term periods?
Basic concepts and terms
Economics, cognitive function of economics, practical function of economics, positive economics, normative economics, microeconomics, macroeconomics, scientific abstraction, functional analysis, modeling, graphical analysis, marginal analysis, flows and stocks, nominal and real values, time factor and discounting, comparative statics , instantaneous period, short-term period, long-term period .
- Economics is a science that studies the economic side of society, the problem of coordinating the needs of people with limited resources that can be used to meet them. The main functions of economic science are cognitive and practical. The economy consists of two large parts - microeconomics, which studies the activities of individual economic entities, and macroeconomics, which studies the economic life of society as a whole. Economics is a social science, it studies a certain aspect of the life of society and therefore is closely related to other social sciences: political science, sociology, jurisprudence, psychology, etc. Being a historical science, economics changes as human society develops.
- The following methods of economic research are most widely used: collection, processing, systematization of the facts of economic life; scientific abstraction, the result of which is the development of concepts; functional analysis that establishes dependencies between individual economic variables; modeling, a graphical method for describing economic interdependencies, marginal analysis, which involves the study of changes in some indicators due to changes in other indicators associated with them per unit; experimentation, etc. The criterion for the correctness of theoretical conclusions is practice.
- Economists characterize many economic processes and phenomena with the help of numbers. Economic quantities can have a flow dimension or a stock dimension, be nominal or real. To equalize the values of economic indicators today and in the future, the discounting method is used. Comparative statics is a method of analysis in which real economic processes are considered at a certain point in time. When studying economic processes and phenomena, instant, short-term and long-term periods are distinguished.
4. Methods of economic research.
The word "method" (from the Greek "methodas") literally means: "the path to something", "the path of knowledge" (or research). In the most general philosophical sense, it means a way of cognition as a certain set or system of techniques and procedures for the purpose of mental reproduction of the subject being studied. Therefore, in relation to economic theory, the concept of "method" is the way of knowing the system of economic relations in their interaction with the development of productive forces, the way of mental reproduction.
The system of receptions cannot be arbitrary. It must be consistent with the objective laws of the development of reality itself. Methodology is called upon to solve this problem as a science about a system of techniques, ways of knowing and transforming the world. The name "methodology" (from the Greek "methodas" and "logos") literally translates as the doctrine of methods. Since the objective laws of the development of reality are, first of all, the laws of dialectics, reflecting the laws of development of nature, society and human thinking, the dialectical method is an epistemological toolkit and a logical reflection of all dialectics.
At the same time, within the framework of this method, the subjective element should be taken into account, since the object of economic analysis is the behavior of people, and, consequently, human activity. The most important categories of this approach include needs, interests, goals, motives of human behavior, utility, use value of goods and services.
Investigating economic processes, economic theory applies a number of general scientific methods of cognition, that is, such techniques that are used by other social and natural sciences. The most important of them for the sphere of economy are the following nine (Fig. 1).
| Observation and fact gathering |
| Experiment |
| Modeling |
| Method of scientific abstractions |
| Analysis and synthesis |
| Systems approach |
| Induction and deduction |
| Historical and logical methods |
| Graphic method |
Rice. 1. Basic methods of economic research.
Let's consider these methods. So, it is obvious that observation (that is, a deliberate, purposeful perception of economic phenomena, processes in their real form) and the collection of facts that occur in reality. It is thanks to this that it is possible, say, to trace how commodity prices have changed over a given period, how the volumes of production, trade and profits of an enterprise have increased.
In contrast, an experiment involves an artificial scientific experiment, when the object under study is placed in specially created and controlled conditions. For example, in order to test the effectiveness of a new wage system, its pilot tests are carried out within a particular group of workers.
Such a method as modeling is also actively used. It provides for the study of socio-economic phenomena according to their theoretical image - a model (from the Latin modulus - measure, sample), which replaces the object of study itself. Particularly effective is modeling on computers, which allows, say, to calculate the most rational variant of economic relations of an enterprise, city, region, country with their partners.
The method of scientific abstractions, or abstraction, is a special mental device that allows you to formulate certain abstract concepts - the so-called abstractions, or categories. People in their everyday life use a great variety of various abstractions at every step, without even thinking about it.
The method of scientific abstraction, which involves the rejection of the analysis of superficial, non-essential aspects of the phenomenon in order to reveal its internal, essential, stable and universal connections, to identify the actual trend of movement. The result of applying this method is the "derivation" (substantiation) of economic categories. Abstraction allows you to reflect in an ideal form the content that is already embedded in the phenomena under study. The more meaningful and capacious abstractions (in the form of categories, definitions, concepts) are developed by economic theory, the more fully and accurately they reflect reality, the more effective their use as a tool of knowledge.
An equally important aspect of this method of cognition is the need for selective consideration of economic phenomena or processes from a certain point of view while ignoring all other properties. Thus, when studying the structure of the social mode of production, the productive forces are considered as its material content, production relations as a social form, and the technical and technological side of the productive forces (the technological structure of production) is omitted in this case.
For abstraction to be scientific, it is necessary to determine the boundaries of abstraction, to prove that consideration of an economic phenomenon or process in a certain aspect or from a certain point of view does not change their inner essence, the laws of development and functioning.
Methods of analysis and synthesis involve the study of socio-economic phenomena both in parts - this is analysis (from the Greek analysis - decomposition, dismemberment), and as a whole - synthesis (from the Greek synthesis - connection, combination, compilation). For example, comparing the economic performance of individual mines is an analysis, and determining the industry-wide results of managing the entire coal industry in Russia is a synthesis (Fig. 2).
Rice. 2. Concepts of analysis and synthesis
Thanks to the combination of methods of analysis and synthesis, a systematic, integrated approach to complex (multi-element) research objects is provided. Such objects (systems) are considered as a complex of interrelated parts (subsystems) of a single whole, and not as a mechanical connection of some disparate elements. The importance of an integrated approach is due to the fact that the entire economy essentially consists of many large and small systems (the national economy - from industries, industries - from enterprises, enterprises - from workshops, the cost of goods - from cost elements, the market - from many sectors, niches, participants, etc.).
The division of economic theory into micro- and macroeconomics (from the Greek mikros - small and makros - large) is logically connected with the method of analysis and synthesis, which involve two different levels of consideration of economic systems (Fig. 3).
Rice. 3. Two levels (two areas) of economic research.
Thus, microeconomics deals with individual elements (parts) of these systems. She learns:
a) such isolated economic units as industry, enterprise, household;
b) individual markets (for example, the grain market);
c) production, sale or price of a particular product, etc.
The microeconomic approach is thus close to the method of analysis.
In contrast, macroeconomics explores economic systems as a whole, or the so-called aggregates (from the Latin aggregatus - attached), that is, the totality of economic units. Such aggregates include the world economy, the national economy, as well as large subdivisions of the latter - the public sector, households (taken in aggregate), the private sector, etc. Macroeconomics, based on the synthesis method, operates with generalizing, or aggregate, indicators of the type: gross output , national income, total expenditures. In addition, the macroeconomic sphere also includes consideration of general concepts - cost, market, budget, taxes, etc.
The division of economic science into micro- and macro-spheres should not be made absolute. They are closely related. Many problems intrude into spheres, albeit at different levels of generalization. Where, for example, to attribute questions of profit? Indeed, in order to compare the incomes of two specific factories (microeconomics), one must use the general concept of profit, and macroeconomics develops it.
Induction and deduction are two opposite but closely related ways of reasoning. The movement of thought from particular (separate) facts to a general conclusion is induction (from the Latin inductio - guidance), or generalization. It allows us, in the words of Dostoevsky, "to gather our thoughts into a point." And reasoning in the opposite direction (from the general position to particular conclusions) is called deduction (from the Latin deductio - derivation). Therefore, the meaning of induction and deduction follows from the very etymology of these words. Thus, the facts of an increase in the price of milk, bread, vegetables, etc., suggest an increase in the cost of living in the country (induction). From the general proposition about the rising cost of living, one can deduce individual indicators of consumer price increases for each product (deduction).
Historical and logical methods (or approaches) are also applied in unity. Here, a detailed study of socio-economic processes in their historical sequence is accompanied by logical generalizations, that is, an assessment of these processes as a whole and general conclusions. For example, a detailed study of the specific course and features of the construction of socialism in the twentieth century in different societies is a historical approach. And the conclusions based on it (on the inefficiency of the economy in socialist countries, on the daily loss of incentives to work, on commodity shortages, etc.) are a logical approach.
Finally, the graphic method (from the Greek grapho - I write, draw, draw) has a very wide application in economic sciences. It displays economic processes and phenomena using various systems, tables, graphs, diagrams, providing brevity, conciseness, clarity in the presentation of complex theoretical material. Thus, the graph visibly demonstrates the dependence of certain quantities on each other, reflecting, say, the relationship between ticket prices and the number of theater spectators (Fig. 4).
Rice. 4. Graph of the dependence of the number of theater spectators on ticket prices. It is easy to see that there is an inversely proportional (or negative) relationship here: the higher the prices, the fewer viewers. This causes the descending nature of the curve. In other cases, we will find directly proportional (or positive) dependencies that look like ascending lines on the graph (for example, with an increase in sales of products, the company's income also grows).
Conclusion
In all definitions of economic science by well-known and little-known economists, the idea of the economic life of a person or society as a whole, its organizational and managerial foundations, which determine the efficiency of production as the basis of the subject of this science, runs like a red thread.
However, an expanded interpretation of this subject leads to the fact that economics includes the entirety of the functioning of both a separate production link - an enterprise, a firm (micro level), and the entire national or international economy (macro level).
It might be expected that a science dealing with questions so important to the well-being of mankind would attract the attention of many of the most talented thinkers of every age and would now be on the verge of full maturity. But in reality the number of economic scientists has always been small compared with the complexity of the problems that this science had to solve, and as a result it is still almost in its infancy.
One of the reasons for this lies in the underestimation of the impact of economics on the achievement of higher human well-being. Indeed, the science of which wealth is the object of study often seems to many researchers at first glance repulsive, for those who do most to expand the frontiers of knowledge rarely care about acquiring wealth for its own sake.
The considered concepts and categories, reflecting the system of production relations, contain strong interconnections among themselves. Each side of these relationships is characterized by its own characteristics, its own patterns. Therefore, one law is characteristic of production, others are characteristic of exchange and distribution, and consumption and accumulation have their own laws and patterns. Their interactions remain objective as well as the fact that these relations themselves remain objective: production, distribution, etc.
List of used literature.
1. Borisov E.F. Volkov F.M. Basics of economic theory. M. Higher school. 1993.
2. Nuriev R.M. Basics of economic theory. Microeconomics. Textbook for high schools. M. Higher school. 1996.
3. Rokhlin E. Fundamentals of economic theory. Microeconomic theory of input markets. M. "Science", 1996
