≡× MENU

• Water supply
• Pumps
• Water purification
• Wells
• Filters

What revolutions took place in 1917? Great Russian Revolution

The history of the October Socialist Revolution is one of those topics that attracted and continues to attract the greatest attention of foreign and Russian historiography, because it was as a result of the victory of the October Revolution that the position of all classes and strata of the population and their parties radically changed. The Bolsheviks became the ruling party, leading the work to create a new state and social system.
On October 26, a decree on peace and land was adopted. Following the decree on peace and land, the Soviet government adopted laws: on the introduction of workers' control over the production and distribution of products, on the 8-hour working day, and the “Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia.” The Declaration proclaimed that from now on in Russia there are no dominant nations or oppressed nations, all peoples receive equal rights to free development, to self-determination, even to the point of secession and the formation of an independent state.
The October Revolution marked the beginning of profound, all-encompassing social changes throughout the world. The land of the landowners was transferred free of charge into the hands of the working peasantry, and factories, plants, mines, and railways were transferred into the hands of the workers, making them public property.

Causes of the October Revolution

On August 1, 1914, the First World War began in Russia, which lasted until November 11, 1918, the cause of which was the struggle for spheres of influence in conditions where a unified European market and legal mechanism had not been created.
Russia was the defending party in this war. And although the patriotism and heroism of the soldiers and officers was great, there was no single will, no serious plans for waging war, no sufficient supply of ammunition, uniforms and food. This filled the army with uncertainty. She lost her soldiers and suffered defeats. The Minister of War was put on trial and the Supreme Commander-in-Chief was removed from his post. Nicholas II himself became Commander-in-Chief. But the situation has not improved. Despite continuous economic growth (coal and oil production, the production of shells, guns and other types of weapons increased, huge reserves were accumulated in case of a prolonged war), the situation developed in such a way that during the war years Russia found itself without an authoritative government, without an authoritative prime minister. minister, and without an authoritative Headquarters. The officer corps was replenished with educated people, i.e. intelligentsia, which was subject to oppositional sentiments, and daily participation in a war in which there was a shortage of the most necessary things gave rise to doubts.
The growing centralization of economic management, carried out against the backdrop of a growing shortage of raw materials, fuel, transport, skilled labor, accompanied by the scale of speculation and abuse, led to the fact that the role of state regulation increased along with the growth of negative factors of the economy (History of the Russian State and Law. Ch. 1: Textbook / Edited by O. I. Chistyakov - M.: BEK Publishing House, 1998)

Queues appeared in cities, standing in which was a psychological breakdown for hundreds of thousands of workers.
The predominance of military output over civilian production and rising food prices led to a steady increase in prices for all consumer goods. At the same time, wages did not keep pace with rising prices. Discontent grew both in the rear and at the front. And it was directed primarily against the monarch and his government.
If we take into account that from November 1916 to March 1917, three prime ministers, two ministers of internal affairs and two ministers of agriculture were replaced, then the expression of the convinced monarchist V. Shulgin about the situation prevailing in Russia at that time is indeed true: “autocracy without an autocrat” .
Among a number of prominent politicians, in semi-legal organizations and circles, a conspiracy was brewing, and plans were being discussed to remove Nicholas II from power. The plan was to seize the Tsar's train between Mogilev and Petrograd and force the monarch to abdicate.
The October Revolution was a major step towards transforming a feudal state into a bourgeois state. October created a fundamentally new, Soviet state. The October Revolution was caused by a number of objective and subjective reasons. The objective ones, first of all, include the class contradictions that worsened in 1917:

• The contradictions inherent in bourgeois society are the antagonism between labor and capital. The Russian bourgeoisie, young and inexperienced, failed to see the danger of impending class friction and did not take sufficient measures in a timely manner to reduce the intensity of the class struggle as much as possible.
• Conflicts in the village, which developed even more acutely. The peasants, who for centuries dreamed of taking the land from the landowners and driving them away themselves, were not satisfied with either the reform of 1861 or the Stolypin reform. They openly longed to get all the land and get rid of long-time exploiters. In addition, from the very beginning of the twentieth century, a new contradiction associated with the differentiation of the peasantry itself intensified in the countryside. This stratification intensified after the Stolypin reform, which tried to create a new class of owners in the countryside through the redistribution of peasant lands associated with the destruction of the community. Now, in addition to the landowner, the broad peasant masses had a new enemy - the kulak, even more hated because he came from his environment.
• National conflicts. The national movement, not very strong in the period 1905-1907, intensified after February and gradually grew by the autumn of 1917.
• World War. The first chauvinistic frenzy that gripped certain sections of society at the beginning of the war soon dissipated, and by 1917 the overwhelming mass of the population, suffering from the diverse hardships of the war, longed for a speedy conclusion of peace. First of all, this concerned, of course, the soldiers. The village is also tired of endless victims. Only the top of the bourgeoisie, who made enormous capital from military supplies, advocated continuing the war to a victorious end. But the war had other consequences. First of all, it armed the millions of workers and peasants, taught them how to use weapons and helped overcome the natural barrier that prohibits a person from killing other people.
• The weakness of the Provisional Government and the entire state apparatus created by it. If immediately after February the Provisional Government had some kind of authority, then the further it went, the more it lost it, being unable to solve pressing problems in the life of society, first of all, questions about peace, bread, and land. Simultaneously with the decline in the authority of the Provisional Government, the influence and importance of the Soviets grew, promising to give the people everything they longed for.

Along with objective factors, subjective factors were also important:

• Wide popularity in society of socialist ideas. Thus, by the beginning of the century, Marxism had become a kind of fashion among the Russian intelligentsia. It also found a response in wider public circles. Even in the Orthodox Church at the beginning of the twentieth century, a movement of Christian socialism arose, albeit small.
• The existence in Russia of a party ready to lead the masses to revolution - the Bolshevik Party. This party was not the largest in number (the Socialist Revolutionaries had more), however, it was the most organized and purposeful.
• The Bolsheviks have a strong leader, authoritative both in the party itself and among the people, who managed to become a real leader in a few months after February - V.I. Lenin.

As a result, the October armed uprising won victory in Petrograd with greater ease than the February Revolution, and almost bloodlessly as a result of the combination of all the factors mentioned above. Its result was the emergence of the Soviet state.

The legal side of the October Revolution of 1917

In the fall of 1917, the political crisis in the country worsened. At the same time, the Bolsheviks were actively working to prepare the uprising. It began and was carried out according to plan.
During the uprising in Petrograd, by October 25, 1917, all key points in the city were occupied by detachments of the Petrograd garrison and the Red Guard. By the evening of this day, the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies began its work, proclaiming itself the highest authority in Russia. The All-Russian Central Executive Committee, formed by the First Congress of Soviets in the summer of 1917, was re-elected.
The Second Congress of Soviets elected a new All-Russian Central Executive Committee and formed the Council of People's Commissars, which became the government of Russia. (World history: Textbook for universities / Edited by G.B. Polyak, A.N. Markova. - M.: Culture and Sports, UNITI, 1997) The congress was of a constituent nature: governing state bodies were created at it and the first acts that had constitutional, fundamental significance. The Decree on Peace proclaimed the principles of Russia's long-term foreign policy - peaceful coexistence and “proletarian internationalism”, the right of nations to self-determination.
The decree on land was based on peasant orders formulated by the councils back in August 1917. A variety of forms of land use were proclaimed (household, farm, communal, artel), confiscation of landowners' lands and estates, which were transferred to the disposal of volost land committees and district councils of peasant deputies. The right of private ownership of land was abolished. The use of hired labor and land rental were prohibited. Later, these provisions were enshrined in the Decree “on the socialization of the land” in January 1918. The Second Congress of Soviets also adopted two appeals: “To the citizens of Russia” and “Workers, soldiers and peasants”, which spoke of the transfer of power to the Military Revolutionary Committee , the Congress of Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies, and locally - local councils.

The practical implementation of the political and legal doctrine of the “breakdown” of the old state was sanctioned by a number of acts: the November 1917 Decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars on the abolition of estates and civil ranks, the October resolution of the Second Congress of Soviets on the formation of revolutionary committees in the army, the January 1918 Decree of the Council of People's Commissars on separation of church and state, etc. First of all, it was intended to eliminate the repressive and administrative bodies of the old state, preserving its technical and statistical apparatus for some time.
Many of the provisions formulated in the first decrees and declarations of the new government were designed for a certain period of time, right up to the convening of the Constituent Assembly.

Peaceful development of the revolution in conditions of dual power

With the abdication of Nicholas II from the throne, the legal system that had developed since 1906 ceased to exist. No other legal system was created to regulate the activities of the state.
Now the fate of the country depended on political forces, the activity and responsibility of political leaders, and their ability to control the behavior of the masses.
After the February Revolution, the main political parties operated in Russia: Cadets, Octobrists, Socialist Revolutionaries, Mensheviks and Bolsheviks. The policy of the Provisional Government was determined by the Cadets. They were supported by the Octobrists, Mensheviks and Right Socialist Revolutionaries. The Bolsheviks at their VII (April 1917) conference approved a course towards preparing a socialist revolution.
In order to stabilize the situation and mitigate the food crisis, the Provisional Government introduced a rationing system, increased purchasing prices, and increased imports of meat, fish and other products. The grain requisition, introduced back in 1916, was supplemented by the meat requisition, and armed military detachments were sent to forcibly confiscate bread and meat from peasants in the villages.
In the spring and summer of 1917, the Provisional Government experienced three political crises: April, June and July. During these crises, mass demonstrations took place under the slogans: “All power to the Soviets!”, “Down with ten capitalist ministers!”, “Down with war!” These slogans were put forward by the Bolshevik Party.
The July crisis of the Provisional Government began on July 4, 1917, when a 500,000-strong demonstration took place in Petrograd under Bolshevik slogans. During the demonstration, spontaneous shootings occurred, as a result of which more than 400 people were killed and wounded. Petrograd was declared under martial law, the newspaper Pravda was closed, an order was given for the arrest of V.I. Lenin and a number of other Bolsheviks. The second coalition government was formed (the first was formed on May 6 (18), 1917 as a result of the April crisis) headed by A.F. Kerensky, vested with emergency powers. This meant the end of dual power.
At the end of July and beginning of August 1917, the VI Congress of the Bolshevik Party took place semi-legally in Petrograd. Due to the fact that dual power was ended and the Soviets found themselves powerless, the Bolsheviks temporarily removed the slogan “All power to the Soviets!” The congress proclaimed a course towards an armed seizure of power.
On September 1, 1917, Russia was proclaimed a republic, power passed to the Directory of five people under the leadership of A.F. Kerensky. At the end of September, the third coalition government was formed headed by A.F. Kerensky.
The socio-economic and political crisis in the country continued to grow. Many industrial enterprises were closed, unemployment rose, military spending and taxes increased, inflation was rampant, food was scarce, and the poorest segments of the population faced the threat of famine. Mass peasant uprisings and unauthorized seizures of landowners' lands took place in the village.

October armed uprising

The Bolshevik Party, putting forward topical slogans, achieved increased influence among the masses. Its ranks grew rapidly: if in February 1917 it numbered 24 thousand, in April - 80 thousand, in August - 240 thousand, then in October about 400 thousand people. In September 1917, the process of Bolshevization of the Soviets took place; The Petrograd Soviet was headed by the Bolshevik L.D. Trotsky (1879-1940), and the Moscow Soviet is the Bolshevik V.P. Nogin (1878-1924).
Under the current conditions, V.I. Lenin (1870-1924) believed that the moment was ripe for preparing and carrying out an armed uprising. This issue was discussed at meetings of the Central Committee of the RSDLP (b) on October 10 and 16, 1917. The Petrograd Soviet created the Military Revolutionary Committee, which turned into the headquarters for preparing the uprising. The armed uprising began on October 24, 1917. On October 24 and 25, revolutionary-minded soldiers and sailors and Red Guard workers captured the telegraph, bridges, train stations, telephone exchange, and the main headquarters building. The Provisional Government was arrested in the Winter Palace (except for Kerensky, who had previously left for reinforcements). The uprising from Smolny was led by V.I. Lenin.
On the evening of October 25 (November 7), 1917, the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies opened. The Congress heard and accepted what V.I. wrote. Lenin’s appeal “To Workers, Soldiers and Peasants,” which announced the transfer of power to the Second Congress of Soviets, and locally to the Councils of Workers’, Soldiers’ and Peasants’ Deputies. On the evening of October 26 (November 8), 1917, the Decree on Peace and the Decree on Land were adopted. The congress formed the first Soviet government - the Council of People's Commissars, consisting of: Chairman V.I. Lenin; People's Commissars: for Foreign Affairs L.D. Trotsky, on affairs of nationalities I.V. Stalin (1879-1953) and others. L.B. was elected Chairman of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee. Kamenev (1883-1936), and after his resignation Y.M. Sverdlov (1885-1919).
On November 3, 1917, Soviet power was established in Moscow and the “triumphant march” of Soviet power began throughout the country.
One of the main reasons for the rapid spread of the Bolshevik Soviets throughout the country was that the October Revolution was carried out under the sign not so much of socialist as of general democratic tasks.
So, the result of the February revolution of 1917 was the overthrow of the autocracy, the abdication of the tsar, the emergence of dual power in the country: the dictatorship of the big bourgeoisie represented by the Provisional Government and the Council of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies, which represented the revolutionary-democratic dictatorship of the proletariat and peasantry.
The victory of the February revolution was a victory of all active strata of the population over the medieval autocracy, a breakthrough that put Russia on par with advanced countries in the sense of proclaiming democratic and political freedoms.
The February Revolution of 1917 became the first victorious revolution in Russia and turned Russia, thanks to the overthrow of tsarism, into one of the most democratic countries. Originated in March 1917. dual power was a reflection of the fact that the era of imperialism and the world war unusually accelerated the course of the country's historical development and the transition to more radical transformations. The international significance of the February bourgeois-democratic revolution is also extremely great. Under its influence, the strike movement of the proletariat intensified in many warring countries.
The main event of this revolution for Russia itself was the need to carry out long-overdue reforms based on compromises and coalitions, and the renunciation of violence in politics.

By the end of 1916, a deep economic, political and social crisis had matured in Russia, which in February 1917 resulted in a revolution.
On February 18, a strike began at the Putilov plant; On February 25 the strike became general; On February 26, an armed uprising began; On February 27, a significant part of the army went over to the side of the revolution.
At the same time, the revolutionary workers elected the Petrograd Soviet, which was headed by the Menshevik N.S. Chkheidze (1864-1926) and Socialist Revolutionary A.F. Kerensky (1881-1970). A temporary committee was created in the State Duma headed by M.V. Rodzianko (1859-1924). This committee, by agreement with the Executive Committee of the Petrograd Soviet, formed the Provisional Government headed by Prince G.E. Lvov (1861-1925). It included the leader of the Cadet Party P.N. Guchkov (1862-1936) (Minister of War and Navy), Socialist Revolutionary A.F. Kerensky (Minister of Justice), etc. Most of the ministerial posts were occupied by representatives of the Cadet Party. Emperor Nicholas II (1868-1918), under pressure from the revolutionary masses, abdicated the throne on March 2(15), 1917.
A characteristic feature of the February Revolution was the formation of dual power. On the one hand, there was the Provisional bourgeois government, and on the other, the Soviets of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies (in July 1917, the Soviets ceded their power to the Provisional Government). The February Revolution, having won in Petrograd, quickly spread throughout the country.
The year 1917 has forever entered the centuries-old chronicle of mankind as the date of the beginning of a new era - the era of transition from capitalism to socialism, the era of the struggle for the liberation of peoples from imperialism, for an end to wars between peoples, for the overthrow of the rule of capital, for socialism.

• January
• February
• April
• August
• September
• October
• November
• December

January Strikes in Petrograd, rescue of Riga and suffragettes at the White House

Revolution On January 22 (January 9, old style), on the anniversary of Bloody Sunday, the largest strike during the war began in Petrograd, more than 145 thousand workers of the Vyborg, Narva and Moscow regions took part in it. The demonstrations were dispersed by the Cossacks. Strikes also took place in Moscow, Kazan, Kharkov and other major cities of the Russian Empire; in total, more than 200 thousand people went on strike in January 1917.

War On January 5 (December 23, 1916, old style), the Russian army launched an offensive on the Northern Front in the Mitava region (modern Jelgava in Latvia). An unexpected blow made it possible to break through the line of fortifications of the German army and move the front away from Riga. The initial success of the Mitavsky operation could not be consolidated: the soldiers of the 2nd and 6th Siberian Corps rebelled and refused to take part in the hostilities. In addition, the command of the Northern Front refused to provide reinforcements. The operation was terminated on January 11 (December 29).

Picket at the gates of the White House. Washington, January 26, 1917 Library of Congress

On January 10, a picket of the suffrage movement known as the “Silent Watchmen” begins at the White House in Washington. Over the next two and a half years, women picketed the residence of the American president six days a week, demanding equal voting rights with men. During this time, they were repeatedly beaten, detained for “obstructing traffic,” and tortured during arrests. The picketing ended on June 4, 1919, when both houses of Congress passed the 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution: “The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any State on account of sex.”

February Submarine warfare, Duma opposition and the Mexican constitution

Revolution On February 27 (14), the first meeting of the State Duma in 1917 opened. It was supposed to take place in January, but at the beginning of the year, by decree of the emperor, it was postponed to a later date. A demonstration took place near the Tauride Palace; many deputies at the meeting demanded the resignation of the government. The leader of the Trudovik faction, Alexander Kerensky, called for fighting the authorities not only by legal means, but also with the help of “physical elimination.”

War

German submarine U-14. 1910s Library of Congress

On February 1, Germany began unrestricted submarine warfare. German submarines easily overcame obstacles and attacked both military convoys and civilian ships. During the first week of February, 35 steamships were sunk in the English Channel and on its western approaches. For the entire month, the German fleet lost only 4 submarines out of 34, and British troops were cut off from supplies due to constant attacks on merchant ships in the strait and in the Atlantic.

World On February 5, Mexico published the text of the Constitution adopted in January by the Constituent Assembly. The new fundamental law transferred all lands to the state, reduced the powers of the church to a minimum, separated the branches of government and established an eight-hour working day. Thus, the revolutionaries achieved the fulfillment of all their demands. However, the armed struggle between the government and the rebel leaders continued even after this. The revolution began in 1910 with the struggle against the dictatorship of President Porfirio Diaz. Then peasants joined the movement, and land reform became the main goal.

March Abdication in Pskov, capture of Baghdad and the first jazz record

Revolution On March 8 (February 23), International Women's Day, another strike began, which developed into a general strike. Workers from the Vyborg side broke through to Nevsky Prospekt, the strike turned into a political action. On March 11 (February 26), as a result of clashes, demonstrators died, guard regiments began to go over to the side of the rebels, and the unrest could not be extinguished. On March 15 (2) in Pskov, Nicholas II signed an act of abdication, and a Provisional Government was formed in Petrograd, headed by the leader of the Zemstvo Union, Prince Georgy Lvov.

War

British troops enter Baghdad. March 11, 1917 Wikimedia Commons

On March 11, British troops took Baghdad, forcing the Ottoman army to retreat. Great Britain took revenge for its defeat at Kut in early 1916, when the defenders of the fortress were forced to capitulate after a lengthy siege. In January 1917, British troops first recaptured Kut and then advanced north, surprising the Ottoman army and entering Baghdad. This allowed the British to gain a foothold in Mesopotamia, and the Ottoman Empire lost control of yet another territory.

"Livery Stable Blues" performed by the Original Dixieland Jass Band. 1917

On March 7, the first commercial jazz recording goes on sale - the single “Livery Stable Blues” by the white orchestra Original Dixieland Jass Band. The release of this record is associated with an explosion in the popularity of jazz. 1917 also saw the birth of future jazz musicians Ella Fitzgerald (April 25), Thelonious Monk (October 10), and Dizzy Gillespie (October 21).

April Lenin's Theses, Wilson's War and Gandhi's Nonviolent Protest

Revolution

A sketch of the April Theses. Manuscript of Vladimir Lenin. 1917 RIA News"

On April 9 (March 27), the Provisional Government sent a note to France and Great Britain, in which it assured the allies that Russia would not leave the war and would not conclude a separate peace. In response, the Petrograd Soviet, consisting of Bolsheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries, led soldiers and workers to an anti-war demonstration. The April crisis led to a split between the Provisional Government and the Soviets. At the same time, Lenin published his “April Theses” - a program of action for the Bolsheviks: ending the war; refusal to support the Provisional Government; a new, proletarian revolution.

War On April 6, the United States entered World War I. Until this point, the United States had maintained neutrality, but American ships were increasingly becoming victims of the submarine war that Germany had been waging since February. The reason for the war was also a telegram from German Foreign Minister Arthur Zimmermann, in which he asked the German ambassador to the United States to achieve an alliance with Mexico. The British intercepted the telegram, deciphered it and presented it to US President Woodrow Wilson, who made it public. Shortly thereafter, with more American ships sunk in the Atlantic, Congress declared war on Germany.

World On April 10, 47-year-old lawyer and social activist Mohandas Gandhi launched India's first civil disobedience campaign. Gandhi called this form of protest satyagraha (from Sanskrit “satya” means “truth” and “agraha” means “firmness”). In the Champaran district, he began to fight the colonial authorities who were forcing peasants to grow indigo and other commercial crops instead of cereals that could be eaten. The main goal was the independence of India from the British Empire. The first stage of peaceful resistance ended with Gandhi's arrest. Thousands of people demanded his release, calling him Mahatma - the Great Soul, and the police had to release Gandhi within a few days.

May Coalition Government, Commander-in-Chief Pétain and the Birth of Surrealism

Revolution The April crisis, primarily the statement by Foreign Minister Miliukov about “war to a victorious end,” led to a change of government. The new coalition included six socialists: the Socialist Revolutionary Kerensky became the Minister of War and Navy, the leader of the Socialist Revolutionary Party Viktor Chernov became the Minister of Agriculture, the Mensheviks Irakli Tsereteli and Matvei Skobelev, the Trudovik Pavel Pereverzev and the People's Socialist Alexei Peshekhonov also joined the coalition.

War On May 15, General Henri Philippe Pétain became commander-in-chief of the French army. After the Battle of Verdun, which lasted almost the entire 1916, Pétain became one of the most revered generals by soldiers. In the spring of 1917, Commander-in-Chief Robert Nivelle sent troops to break through the German front; the losses of the French army reached 100 thousand people killed and wounded. A crisis began in the army - the soldiers rebelled. Pétain calmed the troops, promised to abandon suicidal attacks, and shot the instigators of the rebellion. Later, in 1940, he would head the government of the Vichy regime, which collaborated with the Nazis.

Leonid Myasin as a Chinese magician. Costume based on Picasso's sketch for the ballet "Parade". Photo by Harry Lachman. Paris, 1917

Horse. Costume based on Picasso's sketch for the ballet "Parade". Photo by Harry Lachman. Paris, 1917© Victoria and Albert Museum, London

American manager. Costume based on Picasso's sketch for the ballet "Parade". Photo by Harry Lachman. Paris, 1917 © Victoria and Albert Museum, London

Acrobat. Costume based on Picasso's sketch for the ballet "Parade". Photo by Harry Lachman. Paris, 1917© Victoria and Albert Museum, London

American baby. Costume based on Picasso's sketch for the ballet "Parade". Photo by Harry Lachman. Paris, 1917© Victoria and Albert Museum, London

French manager. Costume based on Picasso's sketch for the ballet "Parade". Photo by Harry Lachman. Paris, 1917© Victoria and Albert Museum, London

On May 18, the term “surrealism” appeared. The poet Guillaume Apollinaire applied this definition to the ballet “Parade”. The performance, with music by Erik Satie, script by Jean Cocteau, costumes by Pablo Picasso and choreography by Leonid Massine, which was based on a parade of farce circus performers, caused a real scandal. The audience whistled, critics after the premiere called the production a stain on the reputation of Sergei Diaghilev’s Russian Ballet and a blow to French society. Apollinaire passionately defended ballet in his manifesto "Pa-rad and the New Spirit," explaining that this unity of scenery, costumes and choreography "led to a kind of sur-réalisme" in which the New Spirit could take off.

June All-Russian Central Executive Committee, abdication of Constantine I and the Espionage Act

Revolution On June 16 (3) the Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies opened in Petrograd. The majority there were Socialist Revolutionaries and Mensheviks. Lenin’s “April Theses” on ending the war and transferring power to the Soviets were rejected. Following the results of the congress, the deputies chose their leadership - the All-Russian Central Executive Committee (VTsIK), the head of which was the Menshevik Nikolai Chkheidze.

War On June 11, King Constantine I of Greece abdicated the throne under pressure from the Entente. Since the beginning of the war, the monarch maintained neutrality, despite government opposition. Constantine I was married to the sister of the German Kaiser Wilhelm II, which gave rise to reproaches for the pro-German position of the king. The head of government, Eleftherios Venizelos, approved the British landing in Thessaloniki, was dismissed, but then formed the opposition Provisional Government of National Defense. Dual power arose in the country, and as a result, Constantine I abdicated the throne and went to Switzerland, passing the throne to his son Alexander, who had no real power as king.

Winsor Mackay. Cartoon of the Espionage Act from the New York American. May 1917 Library of Congress

On June 15, the United States adopted the “Espionage Act,” a federal law that was intended to strengthen the national security of a country that had just entered the First World War, but was immediately perceived as an attack on freedom of speech. In particular, it prohibits the dissemination of information that could harm the US military or contribute to the success of its enemies. The Espionage Act is still used today - in particular, its violation is charged with Edward Snowden, who made public data about how American intelligence agencies spy on people around the world.

July Government crisis, failed offensive and execution of Mata Hari

Revolution On July 17-18 (4-5) in Petrograd, demonstrations of anarchists and Bolsheviks lead to clashes with government troops. The armed uprising failed, the Bolshevik leaders Lenin and Zinoviev had to flee the capital. At the same time, a crisis is occurring in the Provisional Government: first the cadets leave it in protest against the granting of broad powers to the Ukrainian Central Rada, and then the chairman of the government, Prince Georgy Lvov, also resigns.

War At the end of June, the Russian army began preparations for a large-scale strategic offensive. On July 1 (June 18), the offensive began on the Southwestern Front in the direction of Lvov. In the first two days, the troops made significant progress, which allowed Minister of War and Navy Kerensky to declare the “great triumph of the revolution.” On July 6 (June 23), the 8th Army of General Lavr Kornilov attacked the positions of the Austro-Hungarian troops. But a week later the impulse dried up: ferment began in the army, military committees decided to abandon hostilities. Meanwhile, the Austro-German command transferred additional forces to this section of the front. The counteroffensive turned into a disaster for the Russian army: entire divisions fled from the front.

Mata Hari in stage costume. Postcard. 1906Bibliothèque Marguerite Durand

Mata Hari on the day of her arrest. 1917 Wikimedia Commons

On July 24, the trial of the Dutch dancer Margaret Gertrude Zelle, better known by her stage name Mata Hari, began in France. She was accused of spying for Germany and transmitting information to the Germans that caused the death of several divisions of soldiers. The very next day the court sentenced Mata Hari to death. She was shot on October 15, 1917, she was 41 years old.

August Mustard, the Bolshevik Congress and the miraculous apparition of the Virgin Mary

Revolution On August 6 (July 24), the second coalition government was formed, already headed by. After the July Days, the provisional government returned the death penalty and announced its intentions to liquidate the Soviets. In Moscow, on the initiative of the government, a State Conference was convened with the participation of all political forces, except the Bolsheviks, which demanded the gradual elimination of military committees, a ban on rallies and meetings, and the return of the death penalty. The Bolsheviks, in turn, held a party congress in Petrograd, at which they declared the need for an armed uprising.

War In August, the most difficult stage of the Battle of Passchendaele in Belgium (the Third Battle of Ypres), which had been going on since July 11, began. British troops decided to break through the German front, the main target being the German submarine base. On the third day of the battle, the German army used a new poisonous gas - mustard gas: it affected the skin and eyes, the losses from it were greater than from any other chemical weapon during the war. In August, due to rains, the area turned into an impassable swamp, in which the armies fought. The tanks got stuck in the mud. The British were unable to overcome the German fortifications, and only in October were they able to advance.

Lucia Santos, Francisco Marto and Jacinta Marto. Fatima, Portugal, 1917 Wikimedia Commons

From May to October 1917, every 13th day, three children from the Portuguese city of Fatima - Lucia Santos and her cousins ​​Francisco and Jacinta Marto - were said to have seen the Virgin Mary. The exception was on August 13, when the children were arrested by a local official and journalist, Arthur Santos, a well-known anti-clerical and anti-monarchist in the area. He tried to get them to admit that they had not actually seen any miracles, but in vain. Having been released from arrest, the children witnessed the next apparition of the Virgin Mary on August 19. The field where this happened became a place of mass pilgrimage back in 1917.

September Kornilov mutiny, surrender of Riga and bacterial viruses

Revolution On September 8 (August 26), the Supreme Commander-in-Chief presented an ultimatum to the Provisional Government. He demanded that full power be transferred to him before the convening of the Constituent Assembly. In response, Kornilov was called a rebel. The troops loyal to the Supreme Commander-in-Chief moved towards Petrograd, but under the influence of agitators they stopped at the approaches to the capital. After the failure of the rebellion, the government collapsed: it was abandoned by the Cadets who supported Kornilov’s speech. During the transition period, the highest authority was formed - the Directory, headed by Kerensky.

War

German infantry in Riga. September 1917© IWM (Q 86949)

Kaiser Wilhelm II and Leopold of Bavaria on the banks of the Western Dvina (Daugava). Riga, September 1917© IWM (Q 70272)

Russian prisoners of war. Riga, September 1917© IWM (Q 86680)

On September 1, German troops began shelling the positions of the Russian army near Riga. This was followed by a massive offensive aimed at encircling the 12th Army. In two days, Russian troops lost 25 thousand people killed and already left Riga on September 3. However, the 12th Army emerged from encirclement. The city was one of the main targets of the German army on the Eastern Front. After the capture of Riga, fears arose that the Germans would be able to occupy Petrograd. Panic arose in the Russian capital and preparations for evacuation began.

World On September 3, French-Canadian microbiologist Felix d'Herelle, working at the Pasteur Institute in Paris, published an article describing bacteriophages - viruses that infect bacteria. This is one of the most ancient and numerous groups of viruses, which is now used in medicine as an alternative to antibiotics, and in biology as a tool for genetic engineering. Initially, bacteriophages were described in 1915 by the Englishman Frederic Twort (calling them bacteriolytic agents), but his research went unnoticed, and d’Herelle made his discovery on his own.

October Attack on Petrograd, capture of the Moonsund Islands and Cleopatra's navel

Revolution On October 8 (September 25), the composition of the third coalition government was announced, of which Kerensky remained chairman. At this time, in Petrograd, the Bolsheviks began preparing an armed uprising. They received a majority in the Petrograd Council of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies, and on October 29 (16) the proposal of the head of the Petrograd Soviet, Leon Trotsky, was approved to create a Military Revolutionary Committee, formally - to protect against the Kornilovites and the German troops approaching the capital. After this, the Petrograd garrison came under the control of the Petrograd Soviet.

War On October 12, German troops began an operation to capture the Russian-owned Moonsund Islands in the Baltic Sea. The operation was a combination: the ground forces, the navy, and aviation (airplanes and airships) took part in it. The German Navy unexpectedly encountered fierce resistance from the Russian fleet. Only by October 17 did the German dreadnoughts manage to reach the archipelago and gain control over it.

Excerpt from the film “Cleopatra” (1917)

On October 14, “Cleopatra” is released, the most expensive film of its time, the budget of which was 500 thousand dollars (almost 10 million dollars in today’s money). The title role stars Theda Bara, one of the main sex symbols of the 1910s. The film was subject to significant censorship - for example, during screenings in Chicago, the scene in which Cleopatra stands in front of Caesar with an “uncovered navel” and “ambiguously leans” towards the Roman ruler was cut from the first part. The last two complete copies of the film were burned in a fire at Fox studios in 1937, and it is now considered lost, with only minor fragments surviving.

November Bolshevik coup, battle from “A Farewell to Arms!” and Jews in Palestine

Revolution On November 7 (October 25), Petrograd was almost completely in the hands of the Military Revolutionary Committee, which issued an appeal “To the citizens of Russia!”, announcing that power had transferred to the Petrograd Soviet. On the night of November 7–8 (October 25–26), the Bolsheviks and their political allies took the Winter Palace and arrested the ministers of the Provisional Government. The next day, the Second Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies formed government bodies and adopted decrees on peace and land.

War

Retreat of the Italian army during the Battle of Caporetto. November 1917 Italian Army Photographers / Wikimedia Commons

On November 9, the active phase of the Battle of Caporetto in northeastern Italy ended. It began on October 24, when the 14th Army under the command of General Otto von Below, consisting of German and Austro-Hungarian divisions, broke through the Italian front. The Italian army, demoralized by the chemical attack, began to retreat. The Entente allies transferred additional forces to this area, but German-Austrian troops continued to advance forward. By November 9, the Italian army was forced to retreat across the Piave River. Ernest Hemingway described this retreat in his novel A Farewell to Arms! The defeat at Caporetto led to the resignation of the Italian government and commander-in-chief Luigi Cadorna; the army of the kingdom lost more than 70 thousand people killed and wounded.

World On November 2, British Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour sent an official letter to Lord Walter Rothschild, a representative of the British Jewish community, for subsequent transmission to the Zionist Federation of Great Britain and Ireland. The purpose of the letter was to enlist the support of not only British, but also American representatives of the diaspora, so that they would contribute to a more active US participation in the First World War. Minister Balfour stated that the Government was "considering with approval the question of establishing a national home for the Jewish people in Palestine." This document was called the Balfour Declaration and became the basis for the post-war settlement in Palestine and the receipt by Great Britain of a mandate over the territories, and in the future - for the creation of the State of Israel.

December Peace negotiations, Cheka and NHL

Revolution By mid-December, the new government, the Council of People's Commissars, and the highest authority, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, included the Left Socialist Revolutionaries. On December 20 (7), the Council of People's Commissars created the All-Russian Extraordinary Commission to Combat Counter-Revolution and Sabotage (VChK). And on December 26 (13), Lenin’s “Theses on the Constituent Assembly” appeared in Pravda, which stated that the composition of the assembly (where the right Socialist Revolutionaries had the majority) did not correspond to the will of the people.

War

Meeting of the RSFSR delegation at the Brest-Litovsk station. Early 1918 Wikimedia Commons

On December 3 (November 20), negotiations between Germany and Soviet Russia on an armistice begin in Brest-Litovsk. Having adopted, on the one hand, the Decree on Peace at the Second Congress of Soviets and hoping for an early revolution in the countries of Central Europe, on the other, the Bolsheviks initiated these negotiations, but tried their best to delay them. Three months later, on March 3, despite the desperate intra-party struggle of the Bolsheviks, peace was concluded, but even its main supporter, Vladimir Lenin, called it “obscene”: Russia agreed to pay colossal reparations and the loss of Western territories with a total area of ​​780 thousand square kilometers with a population more than 50 million people. The Entente called the Brest-Litovsk Treaty a “political crime.” However, Russia, in fact, did not have to fulfill its conditions: in November 1918, Germany was defeated in the First World War. Some of the seized territories became part of the USSR following the Civil War, while some were occupied by the Soviet Union at the beginning of World War II.

World On December 19, the first match in the history of the National Hockey League took place, which arose as a result of disagreements within the National Hockey Association, which had existed since 1909. The NHL's opening match featured Toronto Arenas and the Montreal Wanderers. Two more Canadian teams took part in the first championship - the Montreal Canadiens and the Ottawa Senators, which, unlike the first two clubs, still exist. Toronto became the champion of the first season. The NHL was predicted to collapse quickly: in the third year of the war, many hockey players went to the front. However, the league turned out to be a successful project and soon attracted clubs not only from Canada, but also from the United States.

Plan

Revolution of 1917 in Russia

February Revolution

Policy of the Provisional Government

From February to October

October Revolution

The Bolsheviks came to power

II Congress of Soviets

Revolution of 1917 in Russia

Russia's entry into the First World War relieved the severity of social contradictions for some time. All segments of the population rallied around the government in a single patriotic impulse. The defeat at the front in the fight against Germany, the worsening situation of the people caused by the war, gave rise to mass discontent.

The situation was aggravated by the economic crisis that emerged in 1915-1916. Industry, rebuilt on a war footing, generally provided for the needs of the front. However, its one-sided development led to the fact that the rear suffered from a shortage of consumer goods. The consequence of this was an increase in prices and an increase in inflation: the purchasing power of the ruble fell to 27 kopecks. Fuel and transport crises developed. The capacity of the railways did not ensure military transportation and uninterrupted delivery of food to the city. The food crisis turned out to be especially acute. The peasants, not receiving the necessary industrial goods, refused to supply the products of their farms to the market. Bread lines appeared for the first time in Russia. Speculation flourished. The defeat of Russia on the fronts of the First World War dealt a significant blow to public consciousness. The population is tired of the protracted war. Worker strikes and peasant unrest grew. At the front, fraternization with the enemy and desertion became more frequent. Revolutionary agitators used all the government's mistakes to discredit the ruling elite. The Bolsheviks wanted the defeat of the tsarist government and called on the people to turn the war from an imperialist one into a civil one.

The liberal opposition intensified. The confrontation between the State Duma and the government intensified. The basis of the June Third political system, cooperation between bourgeois parties and the autocracy, collapsed. Speech by N.N. Miliukov on November 4, 1916, with sharp criticism of the policies of the tsar and ministers, marked the beginning of an “accusatory” campaign in the IV State Duma. The “Progressive Bloc” - an inter-parliamentary coalition of the majority of Duma factions - demanded the creation of a government of “people's trust” responsible to the Duma. However, Nicholas II rejected this proposal.

Nicholas II catastrophically lost authority in society due to “Rasputinism,” the unceremonious intervention of Tsarina Alexander Feodorovna in state affairs and his inept actions as Supreme Commander-in-Chief. By the winter of 1916-1917. All segments of the Russian population realized the inability of the tsarist government to overcome the political and economic crisis.

February revolution.

At the beginning of 1917, interruptions in food supplies to major Russian cities intensified. By mid-February, 90 thousand Petrograd workers went on strike due to a shortage of speculative bread and rising prices. On February 18, workers from the Putilov plant joined them. The administration announced its closure. This was the reason for the start of mass protests in the capital.

On February 23 (new style - March 8), workers took to the streets of Petrograd with the slogans “Bread!”, “Down with war!”, “Down with autocracy!” Their political demonstration marked the beginning of the Revolution. On February 25, the strike in Petrograd became general. Demonstrations and rallies did not stop.

On the evening of February 25, Nicholas II, who was in Mogilev, sent the commander of the Petrograd Military District S.S. A telegram to Khabalov with a categorical demand to stop the unrest. Attempts by the authorities to use troops did not produce a positive effect; the soldiers refused to shoot at the people. However, officers and police killed more than 150 people on February 26th. In response, the guards of the Pavlovsk regiment, supporting the workers, opened fire on the police.

Chairman of the Duma M.V. Rodzianko warned Nicholas II that the government was paralyzed and “there is anarchy in the capital.” To prevent the development of the revolution, he insisted on the immediate creation of a new government headed by a statesman who enjoyed the trust of society. However, the king rejected his proposal.

Moreover, he and the Council of Ministers decided to interrupt the meeting of the Duma and dissolve it for the holidays. Nicholas II sent troops to suppress the revolution, but a small detachment of General N.I. Ivanov was detained and not allowed into the capital.

On February 27, the mass transition of soldiers to the side of the workers, their seizure of the arsenal and the Peter and Paul Fortress, marked the victory of the revolution.

The arrests of tsarist ministers and the formation of new government bodies began. On the same day, elections to the Petrograd Soviet of Workers' Soldiers' Deputies were held in factories and military units, drawing on the experience of 1905, when the first organs of workers' political power were born. An Executive Committee was elected to manage its activities. The Menshevik N.S. became the chairman. Chkheidze, his deputy - Socialist Revolutionary A.F. Kepensky. The Executive Committee took upon itself the maintenance of public order and the supply of food to the population. On February 27, at a meeting of leaders of Duma factions, it was decided to form a Provisional Committee of the State Duma headed by M.V. Rodzianko. The task of the committee was “Restoring state and public order” and creating a new government. The temporary committee took control of all ministries.

On February 28, Nicholas II left Headquarters for Tsarskoye Selo, but was detained on the way by revolutionary troops. He had to turn to Pskov, to the headquarters of the northern front. After consultation with the front commanders, he became convinced that there was no force to suppress the revolution. On March 2, Nicholas signed a Manifesto abdicating the throne for himself and his son Alexei in favor of his brother, Grand Duke Mikhail Alexandrovich. However, when Duma deputies A.I. Guchkov and V.V. Shulgin brought the text of the Manifesto to Petrograd, it became clear that the people did not want a monarchy. On March 3, Mikhail abdicated the throne, declaring that the future fate of the political system in Russia should be decided by the Constituent Assembly. The 300-year rule of classes and parties ended.

The bourgeoisie, a significant part of the wealthy intelligentsia (about 4 million people) relied on economic power, education, experience in participating in political life and managing government institutions. They sought to prevent the further development of the revolution, stabilize the socio-political situation and strengthen their property. The working class (18 million people) consisted of urban and rural proletarians. They managed to feel their political strength, were predisposed to revolutionary agitation and were ready to defend their rights with weapons. They fought for the introduction of an 8-hour working day, a guarantee of employment, and increased wages. Factory committees spontaneously arose in cities. To establish workers' control over production and resolve disputes with entrepreneurs.

The peasantry (30 million people) demanded the destruction of large private land properties and the transfer of land to those who cultivate it. Local land committees and village assemblies were created in the villages, which made decisions on the redistribution of land. Relations between peasants and landowners were extremely tense.

The extreme right (monarchists, Black Hundreds) suffered a complete collapse after the February revolution.

Cadets from the opposition party became the ruling party, initially occupying key positions in the provisional government. They stood for turning Russia into a parliamentary republic. On the agrarian issue, they still advocated the purchase by the state and peasants of the landowners' lands.

The Social Revolutionaries are the most massive party. The revolutionaries proposed turning Russia into a federal republic of free nations.

The Mensheviks, the second largest and most influential party, advocated the creation of a democratic republic.

The Bolsheviks took extreme left positions. In March, the party leadership was ready to cooperate with other social forces. However, after V.I. Lenin returned from immigration, the “April Theses” program was adopted.

Policy of the provisional government.

In its declaration on March 3, the government promised to introduce political freedoms and a broad amnesty, abolish the death penalty, and prohibit all class, national and religious discrimination. However, the internal political course of the provisional government turned out to be contradictory. All the main bodies of central and local government have been preserved. Under the pressure of the masses, Nicholas II and members of his family were arrested. On July 31, Nicholas, his wife and children were sent into exile in Siberia. An Extraordinary Commission was created to investigate the activities of senior officials of the old regime. Adoption of a law introducing an 8-hour working day.

In April 1917, the first government crisis broke out. It was caused by general social tension in the country. On April 18, Miliukov addressed the Allied Powers with assurances of Russia’s determination to bring the war to a victorious end. This led to extreme indignation of the people, mass meetings and demonstrations demanding an immediate end to the war, the transfer of power to the Soviets, the resignation of Miliukov and A.I. Guchkova. On July 3-4, mass armaments and demonstrations of workers and soldiers took place in Petrograd. The slogan “All power to the Soviets” was again put forward. The demonstration was dispersed. Repressions began against the Bolsheviks and Left Socialist Revolutionaries, who were accused of preparing an armed seizure of power.

Measures were taken to strengthen discipline in the army, and the death penalty was restored at the front. The influence of the Petrograd and other Soviets temporarily decreased. The dual power was over. From this moment, according to V.I. Lenin, the stage of the revolution ended when power could pass to the Soviets peacefully.

From February to October.

The February Revolution was victorious. The old state system collapsed. A new political situation has emerged. However, the victory of the revolution did not prevent the further deepening of the country's crisis. Economic devastation intensified.

The time from February to October is a special period in the history of Russia. There are two stages in it.

At the first (March - early July 1917) there was a dual power, in which the provisional government was forced to coordinate all its actions with the Petrograd Soviet, which took more radical positions and had the support of the broad masses.

At the second stage (July - October 25, 1917), dual power was ended. The autocracy of the provisional government was established in the form of a coalition of the liberal bourgeoisie. However, this political alliance also failed to achieve the consolidation of society. Social tension has increased in the country. On the one hand, there was growing indignation of the masses over the government's delays in carrying out the most pressing economic, social and political reforms. On the other hand, the right was not happy with the weakness of the government and the insufficiently decisive measures to curb the “revolutionary element.” Monarchists and right-wing bourgeois parties were ready to support the establishment of a military dictatorship. The far left Bolsheviks set a course for seizing political power under the slogan “All power to the Soviets!”

October Revolution. The Bolsheviks came to power.

On October 10, the Central Committee of the RSDLP (b) adopted a resolution on an armed uprising. L.B. opposed her. Kamenev and G.E. Zinoviev. They believed that preparations for an uprising were premature and that it was necessary to fight to increase the influence of the Bolsheviks in the future Constituent Assembly. IN AND. Lenin insisted on the immediate seizure of power through an armed uprising. His point of view won.

The chairman was the left Socialist-Revolutionary P.E. Lazimir, and the actual leader is L.D. Trotsky (chairman of the Petrograd Soviet from September 1917). The Military Revolutionary Committee was created to protect the Soviets from the military coup and Petrograd. On October 16, the Central Committee of the RSDLP(b) created the Bolshevik Military Revolutionary Center (MRC). He joined the Military Revolutionary Committee and began to direct its activities. By the evening of October 24, the government was blocked in the Winter Palace.

On the morning of October 25, the appeal of the Military Revolutionary Committee “To the citizens of Russia!” was published. It announced the overthrow of the provisional government and the transfer of power to the Petrograd Military Revolutionary Committee. On the night of October 25-26, the ministers of the provisional government were arrested in the Winter Palace.

IICongress of Soviets.

On the evening of October 25, the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets opened. More than half of its deputies were Bolsheviks, 100 mandates were from the Left Social Revolutionaries.

On the night of October 25-26, the congress adopted an appeal to workers, soldiers and peasants, and proclaimed the establishment of Soviet power. The Mensheviks and Right Socialist Revolutionaries condemned the action of the Bolsheviks and left the congress in protest. Therefore, all the decrees of the Second Congress were permeated with the ideas of the Bolsheviks and Left Socialist Revolutionaries.

On the evening of October 26, the congress unanimously adopted the Decree on Peace, which called on the warring parties to conclude a democratic peace without annexations and indemnities.

On November 7-8 (October 25-26), during an armed uprising, the Provisional Government was overthrown, and the October Revolution took place, which was of enormous importance not only for Russia, but for all of humanity.

The answer to the question of what happened in 1917 has been worrying researchers for more than nine decades. They give a variety of, often the most opposite, answers to it. Until recently, in Russia, stricken by the tumor of liberalism, the prevailing opinion was that the coup of October 25 (November 7) was a fatal act of destruction of Russian statehood, which in turn led to many dire consequences, such as the collapse of the empire and millions of victims of the Civil War. However, this is a deliberate untruth, although it was actually approved by the Russian media as the only correct point of view. Russian citizens were heavily deceived by telling about the consequences of the February Revolution - the horrors of the Civil War, famine, red terror, surplus appropriation, camps, decossackization and other terrible results of the 1917 Revolution. In reality, the consequences overshadowed the causes and prerequisites of the October Revolution.

It is necessary to clearly understand that the death of the Russian state became irreversible back in February - March 1917, when the “Februaryists” organized a coup that led to the fall of the monarchy, the final undermining of the century-old foundations on which the great power rested. The Bolsheviks, due to their small numbers and almost complete absence from the political, military and industrial-financial elite of the Russian Empire, were not actually involved in the February Revolution. The empire was destroyed by liberal-democratic Duma politicians (closely associated with the Freemasons and the West), industrialists and financiers, generals, and part of the aristocracy, including members of the imperial family.

During the February Revolution, almost all the most influential Bolsheviks were absent from the capital of the empire. During the First World War, they were defeatists; naturally, this caused their universal condemnation. Prominent Bolsheviks by February 1917 were either in exile in Western Europe and the United States, or in distant exile, without strong ties to Petrograd. Naturally, in such a situation, it is stupid to talk about the leading role of the Bolshevik Party in the February Revolution of 1917 and the collapse of the empire. Of the 29 members and candidates for membership of the Central Committee of the RSDLP (b), elected at the VI Congress (in August 1917), not one was in Petrograd in February 1917. The Bolshevik leader Lenin not only did not know about the impending coup, but did not even imagine that it was possible at all (it was believed that a bourgeois revolution in Russia would be possible only in 50 years).

Mass demonstrations and strikes that began on February 23, 1917 in the capital were caused by the shortage and unprecedented high cost of food, and especially bread in Petrograd. But the bread shortage, as follows from research, was artificially organized. Thus, in the study by T. M. Kitanina “War, bread, revolution (food question in Russia, 1914 - October 1917),” it is reported that the surplus of bread (minus the volume of consumption and union supplies) in 1916 amounted to 197 million. poods. European Russia, together with the army, could be supplied with its own grain until the harvest of 1917, without exhausting the remaining reserves of previous years. The organizers of the February Revolution “created” a food crisis (using a similar scheme they will destroy the USSR, creating a shortage in Moscow). The process was well synchronized: in the fall of 1916, strong attacks on the authorities began in the State Duma and immediately there was a collapse of food supplies, which outraged the capital's population. Similarly, they created a negative attitude towards the authorities in the army. The fronts and armies constantly experienced a shortage of shells and other supplies and equipment. However, by 1917, there were 30 million shells in warehouses - approximately the same amount as was spent in 1914-1916. (!). This reserve was then sufficient for the entire Civil War, when enterprises hardly worked. If we take into account the fact that the head of the Main Artillery Directorate in 1915-February 1917. was A. A. Manikovsky - a Freemason and a close associate of Kerensky, the situation becomes extremely clear.

When the unrest had already begun, the “Februaryists” did everything to fan it and not let it be nipped in the bud. In fact, the chief of staff of the Supreme Commander-in-Chief, General M.V. Alekseev, who led the army, not only did nothing to send troops to the capital on February 23-27 to suppress the riot, but, for his part, used the unrest in Petrograd to put severe pressure on the emperor . In addition, he created the appearance that the entire army was on the side of the coup.

Emperor Nicholas II was unable to organize resistance to these putrefactive processes and suppress the February uprising in Petrograd. On March 2, the emperor, under pressure from Duma leaders and generals, decided to abdicate in favor of his son under the regency of Grand Duke Mikhail Alexandrovich. Another comparable in importance to this act is the famous Order No. 1. This order was issued by the Petrograd Soviet late in the evening of March 1 (March 14), 1917. The order was aimed at “democratizing” the armed forces: all soldiers of the guard, army, artillery and navy sailors were ordered to create elected committees from representatives of the lower ranks. In fact, on all political issues, military units were now subordinate not to officers, but to their elected committees and the Council. In addition, the order provided that weapons would be placed at the disposal and control of soldiers' committees. This order violated the unity of command in the armed forces and led to a sharp decline in discipline and combat effectiveness in the Russian army, which ultimately contributed to its collapse. It must be remembered that this order was issued in the context of a grandiose World War, when about 11 million people were under arms in the empire. One of the main authors and editors of Order No. 1, which virtually destroyed the Russian Imperial Army, was lawyer and freemason Nikolai Sokolov.

It should be noted that the order came from the Central Executive Committee (CEC) of Petrograd, essentially the All-Russian Council of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies, where the Bolsheviks did not play a leading role until September 1917.

Just a few days after Alexander Kerensky became Minister of War and Navy (May 5), he issued the “Order on the Army and Navy,” which was very close in spirit to Order No. 1 of the Petrograd Soviet. It came to be called the “soldier’s declaration of rights.” Subsequently, General Anton Denikin noted that the “declaration of rights” had finally undermined all the foundations of the Russian army. It must be said that Denikin allowed himself to sharply criticize the actions of the Provisional Government already on July 16, 1917, when, speaking in the presence of Kerensky (he was already minister-chairman), he said: “When they repeat at every step that the Bolsheviks were the reason for the collapse of the army, I I protest. This is not true. The army was destroyed by others...” The general did not name the culprits, but they are already known. According to Denikin: “The military legislation of recent months destroyed the army” (and “the military legislators were Sokolov and Kerensky).

There were quite a lot of people like Sokolov and Kerensky (they were one of the leaders of Russian Freemasonry) in the highest circle of Russia to lead Russian statehood to disaster. For a long time it was customary to mock the topic of “Masonic conspiracy,” but now there are many serious studies that show the significant role of Russian Freemasonry in the events of the 1917 Revolution. One could even say that Russian Freemasonry became the decisive force in February 1917, since it was able to unite the forces of various parties and movements that acted on the political stage more or less separately, but were generally focused on eliminating the autocracy. Secured by an oath before their own and the supervising Western European Freemasonry, these figures - from Octobrists and Cadets to Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries - began to carry out one task with discipline and purpose. Freemasonry cemented all destructive currents into a single force, which destroyed the statehood, army and social structure of Russia.

The role of Freemasonry in the February Revolution and subsequent events is perfectly illustrated by the fact that out of 29 people who served as ministers of the Provisional Government that lasted eight months, 23 were Freemasons. We see a similar situation in the second center of power - in the Central Executive Committee of the Petrograd Soviet - all three members of the presidium were Freemasons - A.F. Kerensky, M.I. Skobelev and N.S. Chkheidze. Of the four members of the Secretariat, two were Freemasons - K. A. Gvozdev and N. D Sokolov (the other two - K. S. Grinevich-Shekhter and G. G. Pankov, did not play a primary role). Therefore, in reality, there is no need to talk about the dual power of the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet; all power in Russia belonged to people who played on the same “team”.

The Masons, having united a variety of political forces, were able to destroy the Russian Empire, but they were unable to create a new state, “European” Russia (following the example of England or France). Destroyers cannot be creators. In addition, they not only failed to create the foundation of a new statehood, but also turned out to be powerless to retain power. The “Februaryists”, in fact, were unable to provide any resistance to the new, October, coup.

Russian Freemasons, Westerners of that time, saw in the countries of Western Europe the ideal of a socio-political system and measured Russia by purely European standards. It seemed to them that it was enough to destroy the autocracy, carry out the “democratization” of the country, and Russia would become one of the members of the European club. They believed that the “element,” which they awakened by bringing crowds of thousands into the streets, would calm down as soon as they gained power. In Russia, the liberation of the crowd from statehood always leads to the birth of the “Russian rebellion” (turmoil) - Bolotnikovism, Razinism, Pugachevism, Makhnovism, etc. The Russian Empire had very serious contradictions, fundamental breaks, which were restrained by the bonds of autocracy, based on the presence of a sacred the power of the tsar and the Russian army, ready to suppress any rebellion with bullets and bayonets (since a small evil is obviously better than a big one). The Februaryists removed these bonds, and the building of the empire collapsed into a funnel of chaos.

The Bolsheviks were able to seize power, or rather take the place of the “king of the hill,” only because there was no longer a real central power. The Russian revolt, brought to life by the “Februaryists,” meant the abolition of power altogether. The Bolsheviks, in essence, did not seize, did not conquer, but only took the power that had fallen from the hands of their predecessors. This fact is confirmed by the almost bloodless October Revolution - there were 6 killed and 50 wounded on both sides, and by the initial victorious march of Soviet power across Russia. Hundreds of thousands of victims were already caused by the fact that the new government (the real one, with goals, a program corresponding to the interests of the majority of the population), had to crush the resistance of the “Februaryists”, “whites”, interventionists, “greens” (bandits of all stripes), religious separatists like Basmachi, to eliminate the consequences of the “Russian revolt”. At the same time, the Bolsheviks had to solve the problem of not only building a new vertical power, but also a horizontal one - in fact, they had to solve the problem of recreating the empire, mastering the gigantic space of Northern Eurasia. The collapse of statehood after February naturally caused the collapse of this power (we observed this in 1991, when the collapse of Soviet statehood led to the automatic death of the USSR). The Bolsheviks (their “patriotic” wing) had to solve the colossal task of restoring a “single and indivisible” Great Russia.

It is enough to remember how quickly the process of disintegration of the territory of Russia, which had been built over centuries, proceeded. Under the Provisional Government, Finland seceded, the Central Rada spontaneously arose in Ukraine, and in the summer of 1917 announced autonomy and the formation of its own government. In September, the Northern Caucasus began to separate, and the “United Government of the South-Eastern Union of Cossack Troops, Highlanders of the Caucasus and Free Peoples of the Steppes” was established in Yekaterinodar. In November, the South Caucasus began to separate: the “Transcaucasian Commissariat” was founded in Tiflis; in December - Bessarabia (Moldova) and Lithuania. The decomposition processes proceeded like an avalanche. Individual regions, provinces and even counties declared their “independence”. The formation of “independent states” inevitably led to bloody interethnic conflicts, especially in the Caucasus. Russian people who found themselves in “independent” state entities lost ground under their feet; they found themselves in the position of “foreigners,” deprived of many rights and subjected to discrimination. National councils and the press waged a campaign for “derussification”, talking about “occupation”, “slavery”, violence”, “sea of ​​blood”, “cruelties of tsarism”, etc. Naturally, for all this (mostly fictitious grievances, or greatly exaggerated), the Russians had to answer.

It is very important to understand that this catastrophic collapse of the state was caused precisely by February, although it is clear that the processes of decomposition continued after the October Revolution. The Bolsheviks did not yet have the power, strength, or resources to restore unity. The unification process had to be carried out “with fire and sword.” It is interesting that both Reds and Whites fought against various “independent” authorities.

The revolt swept not only the national regions, but also the Russian provinces themselves. Sources count hundreds of uprisings month by month throughout the Civil War of 1917-1922. In fact, it is difficult to find a province or district where there were no uprisings and protests of the population against any government. Soviet historian E.V. Illeritskaya noted that by November 1917, 91.2% of the districts were covered by the agrarian movement, which developed into a peasant war. The punitive policy of the Provisional Government was no longer successful; the soldiers increasingly refused to punish the peasants for their arbitrariness and crimes. Thus, under the democratic Provisional Government, the peasant revolt had already assumed an almost universal character (even before the policy of “war communism” of the Council of People’s Commissars and the brutal actions of the white governments).

The people tasted “freedom” and opposed, in principle, any government. After the destruction of the statehood that had developed over centuries, the people clearly did not want any authorities, “taxes” and “recruitment”. The Westerners who destroyed Russian statehood did not understand this (the smartest partially realized only after defeat and long years of living in exile) that the very existence of Great Russia is possible only in the presence of powerful and tough state power. European-style power is unsuitable in Russia (this also applies to modern Russia).

The Bolsheviks, “having applied for power,” for a long time were not at all busy building socialism and communism, but restoring state institutions, fighting to consolidate power and retain it. The period of “war communism” is this intense struggle. The Bolsheviks fought for a future united Russia and restored its statehood (in their own way). It is difficult for us to imagine the severity of this struggle; there was a battle for the future of Northern Eurasia. The existence of a thousand-year-old Russian civilization was in question. The Bolsheviks (except for the wing of “internationalist-Trotskyists”) objectively fought for its restoration of Great Russia, its statehood. It is very characteristic that having won the civil war. Having more or less established order, in 1921 the Bolsheviks moved to the New Economic Policy (NEP), which essentially returned Russia to its previous economic fundamentals (even foreign capital was allowed). They could begin to build socialism in the country only at the end of the 1920s, after a certain stabilization.

The revolutionary marathon from February to October 1917 changed Russia and the whole world. The successive fall of the autocracy and then the Provisional Government led to a change in the socio-political system and an interruption of the democratic prospects for development.

Announcement: the revolution was not allowed to come to its senses, destroying strong Russia more and more.

CAUSES of revolutions:

1. A revolutionary situation arose when the government could not strictly restore order in the economy, and the people could not endure it any longer.
2. Defeats at the front, hunger, poverty.
3. Conspiracy against the Tsar, betrayal of the generals.
4. Contradictions between workers and capitalists, peasants and landowners.

February 1917- bourgeois-democratic revolution. Overthrow of the king. The creation of two government bodies: the Petrograd Council of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies (Petrosovet) and the Provisional Government. Arose dual power. The Petrograd Soviet controlled the army and navy. The provisional government directed politics and economics.

Constant government crises. Change of government composition 4 times in six months. Defeats at the front. In August, General Kornilov revolted in order to seize power. The head of government, Kerensky, declared him an “enemy of the Fatherland.” The Bolsheviks participate in the creation of people's defense units. The growth of the authority of the Bolshevik Party and the number of its members. There is spy mania in Russia, constant demonstrations. September 1, 1917 Kerensky declares Russia a republic. A search is underway for Lenin, Trotsky and other revolutionaries. The Bolsheviks are preparing for an armed seizure of power.

At night from 25 to 26 October 1917- armed coup, the Bolsheviks arrested the Provisional Government. At the same time it is meeting II All-Russian Congress of Soviets. The Decrees on Land and Peace were adopted. Having learned about the Bolsheviks' prank, other parties left the congress in protest. The remaining Bolsheviks accept the Decree on Power and declare the coup legal. They create a one-party government - SNK(Council of People's Commissars). Later this coup would be called the Great October Socialist Revolution.

From October 1917 to March 1918 there was a triumphal march of Soviet power. The slogans of the Bolsheviks won in all areas. Russia's democratic development was interrupted.

REASONS for the Bolshevik victory:

1. Disagreements among other parties and the weakness of the bourgeoisie.
2. The development of a development program that promises a lot for the people.
3. The growth of the number and armament of the Bolshevik Party.
4. Lenin managed to overcome differences among the Bolsheviks.

The Bolsheviks were armed, organized, strong, and therefore took power. But they will flood Russia with blood. To be continued.