What is emotionally evaluative vocabulary. Assessment vocabulary. Types of evaluative vocabulary. Emotionally expressive coloring of speech

7.5. How objective is the evaluative judgment about volitional qualities? Among psychologists in general, and especially among sports psychologists, the method of identifying the level of development of will and volitional qualities by observing and self-observation and evaluating this level in points is widespread.

Today we are again talking about the style of the Russian language, and the topic of our conversation will be emotionally expressive coloring of speech... It is no secret that the style of works of art is very different from other language styles (colloquial, journalistic, official-business). Its differences lie in the plane not only of the range of lexemes used, but also of the categories of quantity / quality of emotionally colored words. In terms of the number of such words, fictional speech is close to colloquial speech, but an equal sign between take off can not be put in any case: what is permissible in oral communication is not always applicable on the pages of a book. Let's just say that the author is allowed a lot, but not everything.

Therefore, in order to master a competent and skillful artistic speech, the author must understand many subtleties, which, undoubtedly, include the use of emotional and evaluative vocabulary. We will talk about her today.

Emotional expressive coloring of speech.

As you know, many words in the Russian language not only name concepts, but also reflect the speaker's attitude towards them. For example, admiring the beauty of a white flower, the author can call it snow-white or lily. A positive assessment in adjectives differs from the stylistically neutral word “ White". This makes them emotionally charged. Of course, a negative assessment is also possible: white - blond. A writer, using a particular word in a context, expresses his attitude, his assessment of an object, action or feature.

For this reason, emotional vocabulary is often called evaluative or emotionally evaluative. However, it is important to understand that emotional words by themselves may not be judgmental. For example, interjections oh oh and others do not value anything. Conversely, words where the assessment is the essence of their lexical meaning may not refer to emotional vocabulary ( good, bad, please, scold). In the second case, the assessment is not emotional, but rather intellectual, logical.

The main distinguishing feature of emotional-evaluative vocabulary is still the fact the imposition of emotional coloring on the independent lexical meaning of the word... Easier, this vocabulary expresses the speaker's attitude to the phenomenon.

1. Unambiguous words with vivid judgments... The assessment contained in them is so clearly and definitely expressed that the word simply cannot be used in another sense. These include the so-called characteristic words ( grabber, windbag, henpecked, sloven, etc.), as well as words containing an assessment of an action, phenomenon or sign ( predestination, swindle, charming, irresponsible, antediluvian, inspire, disgrace).
2. Polysemantic words, usually neutral in their basic meaning, but which have received a bright emotional coloring when used as a metaphor. For example, the following contexts of the use of verbs: nag her husband, miss the bus, hum to the bosses, etc. In this case, the word, initially neutral, becomes emotionally evaluative solely due to the appropriate context.
3. Words with subjective suffixes that convey different shades of feelings... They can broadcast as a positive rating - little friend, grass, neatly, and negative - kulachishche, fellow, bureaucratic, etc.... The evaluative result here is determined not so much by the primary meaning of the word, but by the word formation itself: one and the same word can be given both a positive and a negative assessment - table, table, table.

Expressiveness.

Often in relation to emotional-evaluative vocabulary, the concept is used expressive... What does this mean?

Expressiveness(from Latin expressio - expression) - means expressiveness. In practice, this most often means a superstructure over the nominal meaning of the word of special stylistic shades, special expression. For example, instead of the word bad can I use words bad, negative, unfaithful... In this case, the usual lexical meaning of the word is complicated. expression... And as we can see, in artistic speech, the number of expressive words sometimes exceeds the proportion of neutral words.

It should be remembered that one neutral word can have several expressive synonyms at once, differing in the degree of emotional stress ( misfortune - grief - disaster - disaster). It happens that the expressive coloring is already inherent in some words: solemn ( unforgettable, herald, accomplishments), poetic ( azure, chant, unremitting), ironic ( faithful, deign, don Juan), familiar ( cute, knock around, whisper), disapproving ( pretentious, arrogant), dismissive ( daunting, triviality), contemptuous ( to flap, groveling, toady), derogatory ( skirt, squishy, ​​tarantass), vulgar ( grabber, lucky) and, of course, abusive ( fool, boor). As you can see, expressively colored words can be conditionally divided into words expressing a positive assessment, and into words with a negative assessment. A similar division can be seen in the example of synonymous series: to be afraid - to be afraid - to be afraid; face - muzzle - face, etc.

Expressive coloring is constantly superimposed on the emotional-evaluative meaning of the word, and in some cases, expression predominates, and in others - emotional coloring. Therefore, in practice, it is not possible to strictly distinguish between emotional and expressive vocabulary.

The emotionally expressive coloring of a word is undoubtedly influenced by its meaning. Words such as fascism, terrorism, corruption, mafia... Behind the words legality, rule of law, equality the positive coloration was fixed.

It is known that metaphorization contributes to the development of emotional and expressive shades of a particular word. In this case, stylistically neutral words used as metaphors are endowed with strong expression: burn at work, collapse from fatigue, glowing eyes, flying gait, etc.... The author must remember that the main factor in determining the expressive color of a word is the context in which it is used. It is he who brings additional shades of feelings, and sometimes is able to completely turn over its meaning (for example, make a solemn ironic).

The main thing for a writer.

From all of the above, it follows that the author, working on a text, can change its emotional color, thereby affecting the emotional state of the reader. For this purpose, he uses emotionally evaluative vocabulary. Thus, if a writer wants to make laugh or move, inspire or, conversely, form a negative attitude towards the subject, he is free in each case to choose a separate set of linguistic tools. With this approach, it is possible to outline several variants of speech in advance, even within the same text: for example, rhetorically solemn, cold official, intimately affectionate, playful, etc. In contrast to them, neutral speech is used, which is based on words and expressions devoid of strong stylistic coloring.

The moment of using emotionally expressive speech is one of the most important in the formation of the author's style. I believe that the ability to competently and timely use these techniques is in many ways what distinguishes novice authors who do not feel the mood and context from professionals.

Continuing the topic, read the article " " on the blog "Literary Workshop".

That's all for today. This time we figured out the theoretical basis for using emotionally colored vocabulary, but the practice of application is in one of the upcoming blog articles. Stay tuned for updates, leave your questions and comments. See you soon!

Linguists are primarily interested in linguistic means used in expressing the speaker's emotions and capable of influencing the emotional sphere of the listener. Emotionally colored vocabulary is traditionally studied taking into account categories such as emotionality and evaluativeness. Let's consider these categories in more detail.

B.C. Vinogradov notes the following when considering emotionally expressive information contained in the vocabulary: “In each synonymous row, only one or two words are emotionally neutral,“ emotionally empty ”, the rest convey both semantic information and emotionally expressive. The function of the latter is both to express the emotions of the one who speaks or writes, and in the emotional impact on the recipient. "

The point of view of V.K. Kharchenko, who, considering the connotation of words, refers to it imagery, evaluativeness, expression and emotionality. "Evaluation is a functional category, imagery is reflective, expression is stylistic, and emotionality is psycholinguistic."

At the same time, it should be noted that the concepts of emotionality and evaluativeness cannot be called identical. Initially, the assessment category was associated with the expression of the speaker's emotional-subjective attitude to the subject of speech (V.V. Vinogradov; A.L. Shakhmatov). According to this understanding, only a few are considered evaluative if they express a subjective assessment together with the realization of the expressive potential inherent in all words. However, according to L. A. Sergeeva, at the present stage of the development of science, a different approach to the study of this category has emerged. Assessment began to be seen as a kind of reflection of the corresponding logical category by the facts of explicit and hidden grammar.

As noted by N.A. Lukyanova: “Evaluation, represented as the correlation of a word with an assessment, and emotionality associated with emotions, feelings of a person, do not constitute two different components of meaning, they are one, just as assessment and emotion are inseparable at the extra-linguistic level. A positive assessment can only be conveyed through a positive emotion - approval, praise, affection, delight, admiration; negative - through negative emotion - disapproval, rejection, condemnation, annoyance, irritation, neglect, contempt. Evaluation, as it were, "absorbs" the corresponding emotion, and the parameters of emotion and evaluation coincide: "pleasant" - "good", "unpleasant" - "bad." Dictionary labels approved, affectionate, disapproved, neglected, contempt. denote the corresponding emotional reactions of the speaker in relation to the subject of speech, and the assessment is, as it were, hidden in emotion, “rolled into a kidney”, and in specific statements “unfolds” to a greater or lesser extent. After all, such a motley picture of the linguistic interpretation of expressives both in the works of lexicologists and in dictionaries is not accidental: it demonstrates the complexity of the subject of study itself - an emotional assessment as a component of the semantic content of lexical units ”.

According to A.A. Ivina, V.L. Tugarinova, V.A. Vasilenko and others, assessment is a logical and psychological phenomenon. In psychology, the importance of emotions and assessments in the organization of purposeful human behavior is noted.

In the assessment there is always a subjective factor that interacts with the objective one, since a value statement, even if the subject of the assessment is not directly expressed in it, implies a value relationship between the subject and the object.

Of course, emotionality and evaluativeness are categories, although they are interrelated, but still have certain differences.

According to one point of view, emotionality and evaluativeness are essentially unity. For example, V.I. Shakhovsky and N. A. Lukyanova agree that these concepts are inseparable and, in a way, interdependent: “Evaluation presented as the correlation of a word with an assessment, and emotionality associated with emotions, feelings, do not make up two different components of meaning, they are one ".

Evaluation is a component in the semantic structure of a language unit, information about a positive or negative characteristic of an object, about an approving or disapproving attitude towards an object, this is an assessment expressed by means of language. The assessment structure includes three compulsory components: subject - assessment - object. The result of the evaluation process - the evaluative statement - has an object-subjective character. This scheme is universal, it works in the process of evaluating any object by any native speaker, therefore it is of a universal human nature.

T.G. Vinokur connects evaluativeness with stylistic meaning: “... a certain commonality of the act of evaluation (in its socio-psychological sense) with the world of human experiences and feelings is beyond doubt. One particular, albeit the most striking, case of confirmation of this is precisely the existence, along with the "intellectual-evaluative" of the emotional-evaluative type of the semantic structure of the sign. Another confirmation is the possibility of contextual imitation of this type of stylistic meaning. And the third is obtaining on its basis indirect (subjective, figurative) ways of expressing the assessment. " The attitude towards the very way of expressing the assessment is assessed. The most straightforward case of a general assessment of the expressive potentials of a linguistic unit is its acquisition of an evaluative meaning.

Scientific research in the field of assessment of such linguists as N.D, Arutyunova, E.M. Wolf, V.R. Gak and V.I. Shakhovsky, L.A. Sergeeva et al. Show that the linguistic aspect of the assessment category is the entire set of means and ways of expressing it: phonetic, morphological, lexical, syntactic.

EAT. Wolf, studying the semantics and structure of the assessment, highlights the fact that the assessment can be considered as:

• - assessment as one of the types of modality. The evaluative modality is determined by the statement as a whole and is a component of the statement. When included in the context, the assessment is characterized by a special structure, contains a number of mandatory and optional elements;
• - estimates "de dicto" and "de re". In the de dicto structure, the modal operator is ascribed to the sentence, and in the de re structure, the modality ascribes a certain attribute to the thing. In the de dicto modality, evaluative modes are expressed either by adverbs (it's good that you understand me), verbs (I'm sorry he didn't come), modal expressions (alas, this is so). In the de re modality, the evaluative expression refers directly to the designation of the object and is expressed by adjectives - definitions or predicatives (inspirational example, excellent assistant), verbs and predicative expressions with evaluative meaning (your work is not good anywhere), evaluative verbs (I like her hairstyle) ;
• - absolute and comparative assessment. In an absolute appraisal, often we are talking about one appraisal object, in a comparative appraisal, there are two or more objects. The absolute assessment contains an implicit comparison based on the commonality of social stereotypes, and the comparative assessment is based on the comparison of objects with each other;
• - "indifferent" for the assessment. Many names of objects and events are not combined with the evaluative words "good / bad" (good table), i.e. neutrality, to one degree or another, can have any subject;
• - asymmetry of signs "good / bad". The signs "good" and "bad" are by no means always pronounced, it is far from always clear which sign is inherent in a particular unit (difficult, easy, important).

The evaluative component is often associated with the emotional. As mentioned earlier, the evaluative component is the expression of one or another evaluation, either approving or disapproving.

In dictionaries, to assess the negative evaluative component, the same labels are used as to characterize the negative emotional component of the meaning: abusive, ironic, affectionate, disapproving, contemptuous, joking, neglected, derogatory.... A person forms any evaluative attitude to objects in accordance with an individual scale of values. "Evaluative and emotive connotations can be the result of correlation with cultural attitudes (rules of behavior), stereotypes, background knowledge ...".

Views on the connotative component in the meaning of the word are ambiguous, and at the moment there is no precise, unified classification, according to which it would be possible to clearly trace this component in the word. The concept of connotation itself covers various aspects of a word, including emotive and expressive.

The word "connotation" appeared in about 1200, formed from lat. connotare"Together - (about -) - mean". Despite the long history of using this term, its definition in linguistics is still ambiguous.

O.S. Akhmanova gives the following definition of connotation: “The additional content of a word (or expression), its accompanying semantic or stylistic shades, which are superimposed on its main meaning, serve to express various kinds of expressive-emotional-evaluative overtones and can give an expression solemnity, playfulness, ease, familiarity. " O.S. Akhmanova distinguishes inherent(intrinsic to a word out of context) and adherent(contextualized) connotation. The presence of two types of connotations allows us to consider connotation as a linguistic phenomenon.

By "connotation" it is customary to understand everything additional to the value of the assessment, emotional connotations are part of these assessments. “It has become generally accepted that any word can be loaded with emotional connotations, and research has repeatedly confirmed this: emotiveness can be connotative, and“ connotation ”along with polycomponent can be understood as monocomponent, that is, connotation can only be emotive.” IN AND. Shakhovsky calls words with emotive connotations "connotatives", which "serve to express the speaker's emotional attitude to the object of reflection called in the logical-objective component of meaning or, through its name, to another object of reflection that has similar objective or emotional speaker attributes."

The opposite of connotation is denotation, i.e. direct (explicit) meaning of a linguistic unit (word), lexical meaning of a word. In the explanatory dictionary of N.E. Yatsenko presented the following definition of denotation: "Denotation is the assignment of a word-concept to an object of designation, the use of a word in speech to describe real or imaginary objects (denotations) or indicate them."

In some semantic theories, the denotatum, or the signified of a certain symbol, is considered a whole class of things that exist in reality and covered by a given representation, while connotation is called a set of qualities. In this case, it turns out that denotation is the same as the extensiveness of the concept, and then the connotation coincides with its intensity. It is important to note that some authors point out not only to the difficulty of distinguishing between the components of connotation, but also to the differentiation of a part of meaning - connotative and denotative. So I.A. Sternin points out the need to distinguish between lexical units with emotional meaning and lexical units with an emotional component of meaning, as well as lexical units with an estimated value and lexical units with an estimated component of meaning. In this regard, emotion and appreciation can also be elements of denotation.

Many scholars (I.A.Sternin; V.A.Buldakov; I.V. Arnold) share the opinion that the connotation as a whole is a combination of stylistic, emotional and evaluative components. The stylistic component is dominant, while the other components depend on it.

The lack of an accurate structural definition of connotation and its components is partly due to the lack of a unified linguistic theory of emotional speech. Difficulty of differentiation is also due to the fact that it is difficult to determine which of the components: emotionality, expressiveness, or evaluativeness prevails in the case of using a particular lexical unit. As V.N. Telia: "The designated ones themselves can serve as a stimulus for the simultaneous excitation of emotive reactions of different nature, leading to their intertwining into one meaning."

The study of the expressive originality of the language is versatile and cannot be limited to the framework of emotionally colored vocabulary as such. Both emotionality and evaluativeness, in addition to being fixed in semantics, words can appear occasionally in a statement. Consequently, almost all lexical units can express emotional assessment in the context of a certain statement.

Based on the work of linguists, we can conclude that the concepts of emotionality and evaluativeness not only interact, but are also closely related. A characteristic feature of emotionally colored lexical units is their connotative meanings, that is, the polysemy of their meaning and the presence of a certain emotional charge in them. By "connotation" is meant the additional content of a word, its semantic or stylistic shades, which are present along with its main meaning, serve to express a different role of expressive-emotional-evaluative overtones. It is the connotation that reflects the additional meaning of the word that indicates its emotional saturation, the nature of the speaker's assessment of certain phenomena of reality.

It should also be noted that while conducting our research on identifying the features of the use of words with an emotional connotation in the English-language press, we will focus on vocabulary containing an emotional assessment in a denotative component.

Emotionally evaluative words include words in the meaning of which one can single out a component associated with the expression of a feeling, attitude towards the listener (reader), assessment of the subject of speech, and communication situations. From this point of view, the following types of stylistic coloring stand out:

1) affectionate ( mommy, honey);

2) approving ( handsome, brainy, good-natured);

3) disapproving ( hakhanki, gaggle, dilda);

4) dismissive ( fintiflyushka, dumbass, buffoon, fruit- about a human);

5) contemptuous ( grabber, boor);

6) ironic ( home-grown);

7) abusive ( blockhead, bastard, grymza, creature).

Stylistically colored can be not only words and phraseological units ( zero without stick- colloquial, rest in the bose- book), but also word-formation elements, morphological forms, syntactic constructions. The developed literary language includes a whole system of means of expression correlated with each other with a similar meaning, but different stylistic coloring, i.e. stylistic synonyms. For example, the plural endings are synonymous - the more colloquial -а (i) and the neutral-bookish -ы (and) in words heaps - heaps, sweaters - sweaters, stamps - stamps, stacks - stacks. But the most vividly stylistic synonymy is reflected in the vocabulary. So, often there are not one, but two words denoting the same or almost the same concept, for example: localize - limit, preventive - warning, indifferent - indifferent, utilitarian - practical, incident - case, loose - slack, chant - glorify. Stylistic synonyms may differ slightly in meaning, since, as a rule, there are no absolute synonyms in the language, but their main difference is in stylistic coloration. Consider, for example, the synonymous series go - walk - shuffle, in which go- the main word for expressing the meaning "to move, making steps"; parade- "it is important to walk, with dignity, without haste", is used mainly in book speech, it is characterized by an expression of solemnity, it can appear in humorously ironic contexts; shove- "go, move", used in colloquial speech, has a pronounced vernacular and disapproving character (verbs are also colloquial walk, stomp).

Stylistic synonyms may not have semantic differences at all, they can differ only in stylistic meaning: for example, the synonymous row face - face - physiognomy - mug - muzzle means the same thing, but, but these words are used in accordance with the stylistic coloring in different ways, in different communication situations.

The stylistic coloring of word-formation means and grammatical forms (if any) is indicated in grammars (for example, in "Russian Grammar").

The stylistic coloring of words is recorded in the stylistic marks of dictionaries, in which, before the interpretation of the lexical meaning of a word, its stylistic meaning is given in brackets, for example: confidential(book), configuration(specialist.), embarrassed(colloquial) A word can have two labels that characterize it from the point of view of both functional and emotional-evaluative, for example, mediocrity(colloquial, neglected), booze(colloquial, joking, or ironic). In different dictionaries there are different systems of stylistic labels, but there are always functional and stylistic labels "bookish" and "spoken" (usually also "special" and "official") and emotionally evaluative labels "disapproving", "affectionate", "playful" , "ironic" and "abusive".

The stylistic coloration of a word can change over time. So, many words that were assessed as bookish in the 30s and 40s are now perceived as neutral and do not have stylistic marks in dictionaries ( powerlessness, recklessness, heroism, like-minded person, intuition).

Different stylistic coloring of linguistic units allows you to best express the content of speech, show how the interlocutors assess the situation and the purpose of communication, how they relate to each other. The very use of words, grammatical forms and syntactic constructions of a certain color in speech can demonstrate that the interlocutor has chosen a certain social role, that communication is associated with a certain area of ​​life.

Modern language science distinguishes, along with functional styles expressive styles, which are classified depending on the expression contained in the linguistic elements. Expression- means expressiveness (from lat. expressio- expression), the power of manifestation of feelings and experiences. For these styles, the most important function is the impact.

Expressive styles include solemn(high, rhetorical), official,familiar(reduced), and intimately affectionate,playful(ironic), mocking(satirical). Opposed to these styles neutral, that is, devoid of expression.

The main means of achieving the desired expressive coloration of speech is evaluative vocabulary.

Many words not only define concepts, but also express the speaker's attitude towards them, a special kind of evaluativeness. For example, admiring the beauty of a white flower, you can call it snow-white, whitish, lily. These words are emotionally charged: a positive assessment distinguishes them from a stylistically neutral definition of white. The emotional coloring of a word can also express a negative assessment of the called concept: blond, whitish. Therefore, emotional vocabulary is also called evaluative (emotionally evaluative).

At the same time, it should be noted that the concepts of emotionality and evaluativeness are not identical, although they are closely related. Some emotional words (for example, interjections) do not contain an assessment; but there are words in which the assessment is the essence of their semantic structure, but they do not relate to emotional vocabulary: good, bad, joy, anger, love, suffer.

A feature of the emotional-evaluative vocabulary is that the emotional coloring is "superimposed" on the lexical meaning of the word, but is not reduced to it: the denotative meaning of the word is complicated by the connotative one.

The emotional vocabulary includes three groups.

Words with bright estimated value containing an assessment of facts, phenomena, signs, giving an unambiguous characteristic of people: inspire, delightful, daring, consummate, trailblazer, predestinate, herald, self-sacrifice, irresponsible, grouch, double-dealing, bargaining, antediluvian, defile, defame, deceit, sneak, windbag, slob. Such words, as a rule, are unambiguous, expressive emotionality prevents the development of figurative meanings in them.

Polysemous words, neutral in their basic meaning, receiving a qualitatively emotional connotation when used figuratively. So, about a person of a certain character, one can say: a hat, a rag, a mattress, an oak, an elephant, a bear, a snake, an eagle, a crow, a rooster, a parrot; verbs are also used in a figurative sense: saw, hiss, sing, gnaw, dig, yawn, blink, etc.

Words with suffixes of subjective assessment, conveying various shades of feelings: son, daughter, granny, sun, neatly, close by - positive emotions; beard, fellow, bureaucratic - negative. Their evaluative values ​​are due not to nominative properties, but to word formation, since affixes give emotional coloring to such forms.

Emotionality of speech is often conveyed by especially expressive expressive vocabulary. There are many words in the Russian language that have an element of expression added to their nominative meaning. For example, instead of the word good when we are delighted with something, we say wonderful, wonderful, delicious, wonderful one might say I do not like, but it is not hard to find stronger, colorful words - hate, despise, disgust... In all these cases, the semantic structure of the word is complicated by connotation.

Often, one neutral word has several expressive synonyms that differ in the degree of emotional stress; Wed: misfortune - grief, disaster, catastrophe; violent - unrestrained, indomitable, frantic, furious. Vivid expression highlights solemn words(herald, accomplishments, unforgettable), rhetorical(companion, aspirations, proclaim), poetic(azure, invisible, silent, chant). Expressively colored and words joking(faithful, newly minted), ironic(deign, don Juan, vaunted), familiar(not bad, cute, knock around, whisper). Expressive shades delimit words disapproving(mannered, pretentious, ambitious, pedant), dismissive(to paint, triviality), contemptuous(to talk, sneak up), derogatory(skirt, squishy), vulgar(grabber, lucky), abusive(boor, fool). All these nuances of expressive coloring of words are reflected in stylistic notes to them in explanatory dictionaries. Expression of a word is often overlaid on its emotional-evaluative meaning, and in some words expression prevails, in others - emotionality. Therefore, often delineate emotional and expressive coloring is not seems possible, and then they talk about emotionally expressive vocabulary(expressive-evaluative).

Words that are similar in terms of expressiveness are classified into: 1) vocabulary expressing positive assessment of the called concepts, and 2) vocabulary expressing negative evaluation of the called concepts. The first group will include words tall, affectionate, partly playful; in the second - ironic, disapproving, abusive, contemptuous, vulgar, etc. The emotionally expressive coloring of a word is influenced by its meaning. So, we have received a sharply negative assessment of such words as fascism, Stalinism, repression, totalitarianism, mafia, bribery... A positive assessment stuck to the words progressive, rule of law, publicity, honest, merciful. Even different meanings of the same word can differ markedly in stylistic coloring: in one sense, the word appears as solemn, high: Wait, prince. Finally, it’s not a boy’s speech that I hear, buthusband (P.), in another - as ironic, mocking: G. Polevoy has proved that the venerable editor enjoys the fame of a scientisthusband (I AM.).

The development of expressive shades in the semantics of a word is also facilitated by its metaphorization. So, stylistically neutral words used as metaphors get vivid expression: to burn at work, to fall from fatigue, to suffocate in the conditions of totalitarianism, a burning gaze, a blue dream, a flying gait, etc. The context finally shows the expressive coloring of words: in it, stylistically neutral units can become emotionally colored, tall - contemptuous, affectionate - ironic, and even a swear word (scoundrel, fool) can sound approvingly.

Correlation between functional and stylistic fixation and emotional and expressive coloring of words.

Emotional-expressive coloring of a word and its belonging to a certain functional style in the lexical system of the Russian language, as a rule, are interdependent. Emotionally neutral words are usually included in the layer of common vocabulary. The exception is the terms: they are always stylistically neutral, but have a clear functional fixation.

Emotionally expressive words are distributed between book and colloquial (vernacular) vocabulary.

TO book vocabulary own words are lofty, giving speech solemnity, as well as emotionally expressive, expressing both a positive and a negative assessment of the named concepts. So, in book styles, vocabulary is used ironic (fine-hearted, quixotic words), disapproving (pedantic, mannerism), contemptuous (disguise, corrupt), etc. Therefore, it is sometimes incorrectly believed that book vocabulary consists only of words of positive evaluative meaning, although such in it, of course, prevail (all poetic, rhetorical, solemn vocabulary).

TO colloquial vocabulary include words affectionate (darling, mommy), playful (butuz, laugh), as well as some units expressing a negative assessment of the named concepts (but not too rude): zealous, giggle, boast, small fry.

TO colloquial vocabulary belong sharply reduced words that are outside the literary norm. Among them there may be forms that contain a positive assessment of the called concepts (hard worker, brainy), but there are many more forms that express the speaker's negative attitude to the designated concepts (lawlessness, crazy, flimsy, dumb, etc.).

In the word, functional signs and emotionally expressive and other stylistic shades often intersect. For example, the words satellite, epigone, apotheosis are perceived primarily as bookish. But at the same time the word satellite, used in a figurative sense, we associate with journalistic style; in a word epigonous we mark a negative assessment, and in the word apotheosis- positive. In addition, the use of these words in speech is influenced by their foreign language origin (phonetic design, which is not characteristic of the Russian language, can lead to their inappropriateness in a certain context). And affectionately ironic words sweetheart, motanya, flyer, drolya combine colloquial and dialectal coloring, folk poetic sound. The richness of stylistic nuances of the Russian vocabulary requires a particularly attentive attitude to the word.

Use of stylistically colored vocabulary in speech

The stylistic coloring of a word indicates the possibility of using it in a particular functional style (in combination with common, neutral vocabulary). However, this does not mean that the functional attachment of words to a certain style excludes their use in other styles. The modern development of the Russian language is characterized by the mutual influence and interpenetration of styles, and this contributes to the movement of lexical means (simultaneously with other linguistic elements) from one style to another. So, in scientific works, journalistic vocabulary often coexists with terminological vocabulary. This can be seen on the example of literary works: Publication of the Northern Story by K.G. Paustovsky dates back to 1939. This is a romantic story about people of different generations and nationalities, whose fates are closely and sometimes intricately intertwined with each other.

The heroes of the story are united by common features - the struggle for social justice and freedom, moral purity. ... The ideological plan of the writer determined the peculiarities of the composition and plot of the story. The plot parallelism of the first and second-third parts, a kind of repetition of the plot line are not accidental(L. A. Novikov). The scientific style does not exclude emotional speech, and this determines the use of evaluative vocabulary, high and low words in it.

The journalistic style is even more open to the penetration of foreign-style vocabulary. In a newspaper article, you can often find terms next to colloquial and even colloquial vocabulary:

The word "perestroika" entered many languages ​​without translation, like "satellite" in its time. However, it is much easier for a foreigner to learn this word than to realize everything that stands behind it. I will show this on facts from the sphere of management ... Planning, as you know, is based on standards. I hasten to immediately and clearly make a reservation so as not to be accused of being against any standards at all. No, of course! And at the enterprises, I am sure, it will not come to stupidity to deny their necessity indiscriminately. Only depending on what standards. When, say, the percentage of deductions from profit to the budget, or the payment for the consumption of natural resources, or the amount of payments to the bank for the received loan is established, who will be against it? But when the norms regulate the entire internal life of enterprises: the structure and number, salaries and bonuses, deductions for all kinds of needs (up to the purchase of pens and pencils), this is, forgive me, utter nonsense, which leads to results that are often funny, sometimes dramatic. and sometimes tragicomic.(L. Volin)

Here, scientific, terminological vocabulary is intertwined with expressively colored colloquialism, which, however, does not violate the stylistic norms of publicistic speech, but, on the contrary, enhances its effectiveness. For example, the description of a scientific experiment that appeared on a newspaper page: At the Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry .... thirty-two laboratories. One of them studies the evolution of sleep. At the entrance to the laboratory there is a sign: "Do not enter: experience!" But from behind the door you can hear the cackling of a chicken. She's not here to lay eggs. Here is a researcher picking up a corydalis. Turns upside down ... Such an appeal to foreign-style vocabulary is quite justified, colloquial vocabulary enlivens speech, making it more accessible to the reader.

Of the book styles, only the official business is impenetrable for colloquial vocabulary, for emotionally expressive words. Although in special genres of this style, it is possible to use journalistic elements, and therefore, I am evaluative vocabulary (but from the group of book words). For example, in diplomatic documents (statements, government notes), such vocabulary can express an attitude towards

25. Lexical collocation: limited and unlimited

Lexical compatibility is determined by the semantic features of the word. Depending on the lexical meaning of a word, there are two main types of it - free and non-free, limited by a fairly strict list of words. In the first case, we mean the compatibility of words with a direct, nominative meaning. It is due to the subject-logical nature of words; it is based on the semantic incompatibility of lexemes. For example, the verb take is combined with words denoting objects that can be "taken in hands, grabbed with hands, teeth, or any other devices": take a stick, a pen, a spoon, a knife, a glass, a lamp, a branch, etc. Such lexical connections correspond to real, logical connections and relationships of objects, concepts expressed by combined words.

The boundaries of the lexical compatibility of words with the nominative, or direct, meaning are determined primarily by the subject-logical relationships in reality of the denotations of the corresponding words.

The combination of words that are semantically incompatible with each other leads to alogisms (resounding silence, an ordinary miracle, an intelligent fool, dragging along quickly, etc.).

Non-free compatibility is due to intralingual, semantic relationships and relationships. It is typical for words with phraseological related meanings. Combination in this case is selective, lexemes are not combined with all semantically compatible ones. For example, the adjective inevitable is combined with the nouns death, death, failure, but not with the nouns victory, life, success, etc. And in the case of polysemy, individual meanings of the word can be phraseologically related. So, in a lexeme deep, this meaning is ‘reached the limit in development, flow’. The circle of its lexical connections in this sense is limited: it can be combined with the words old age, night, autumn, winter, but it cannot be combined with the words youth, day, spring, summer, the semantics of which does not contradict its own.

The rules of lexical collocation are of a vocabulary nature, they are individual for each word and are not yet sufficiently consistent and fully codified. Therefore, one of the most common mistakes in speech is a violation of the norms of lexical compatibility: a sudden departure (instead of unexpected), increase the level (the level can only rise or fall), increase the pace, etc. Quite often (especially in colloquial speech) errors occur in as a result of contamination (from Lat. contaminatio - bringing into contact; mixing) - crossing, combining two combinations connected with each other by any associations. Usually contamination is the result of incorrect formation of a phrase in speech. For example, the wrong combination to be reflected is the result of contamination of phrases to take place and be reflected, to do harm - to help and cause harm. More often than others, phrases to have meaning, to play a role, to pay (pay) attention are exposed to contamination. Violation of the structure of normalized phrases complicates the perception of speech.

The use of phraseological combinations requires special attention. Using phraseological units, one should take into account their semantics, figurative character, lexical and grammatical structure, emotional-expressive and functional-style coloring, as well as the compatibility of the phraseme with other words in the sentence. An unmotivated deviation from these requirements leads to speech errors similar to those observed in the use of individual words. In addition, unmotivated changes in the composition of the phraseme (its reduction or expansion, replacement of one of the components without expanding the composition of the phraseological unit or with its simultaneous expansion) or structural and grammatical changes, as well as distortion of the figurative meaning of the phraseological combination, are common in speech.

Stylistically unmotivated, unintentional violations of lexical compatibility lead to inaccuracy of speech, and sometimes to unjustified comic. For example: At the meeting, the achieved shortcomings were sharply criticized (the shortcoming lexeme is not semantically combined with the achieved lexeme).

The boundaries of lexical compatibility can change over time (expand or narrow). In the 30s, for example, combinations of only a terminological nature (such as atomic weight) were possible with the atomic lexeme, but at present it is combined with the lexemes war, bomb, weapon, threat, blackmail, politics, century, etc. Compatibility the word hotbed in modern usage is limited to words denoting negative phenomena (infection, banditry, contagion, etc.). Gorky, on the other hand, freely used the combination of the hotbed of enlightenment.

The rules of lexical compatibility, due to intralingual patterns, are specific for each language, national. This creates certain difficulties when translating from one language into another, forcing to select equivalents not to individual words, but to whole phrases. For example, to the Russian word-combination to inform, the equivalent is the Belarusian word-combination davodzits da veda; to take flight - promusits ​​utsyakats or promusits ​​yes ўtsёkaў, the hour is uneven - chago good or chago never happens.

One of the main reasons for the violation of the norms of lexical compatibility in the conditions of Russian-Belarusian bilingualism is the transfer of models of the Belarusian language to Russian. As a result of the interference, the following phrases can be considered: to get (instead of to win) a victory (the equivalent to this phrase in the Belarusian language is atrymats peramogu, atrymats in Russian is to get, from here to get a victory); to take (instead of taking) into account - brother (primats) will fall to respect, to look (instead of to consider) a question - to look at it in a tryanne way.

26. Stylistic differentiation of the vocabulary of the Russian language

Words not only name the phenomena of reality, but also convey the speaker's attitude to them, his assessment. For example, one might say baby, can you baby, fellow.Sheet can be called white, Can i snow-white... Can a person kick out, Can i to expose... The examples show that synonyms contain different assessments of the same phenomenon. And there are a huge number of such examples in the language: sloppy - sloppy - pig; hit - move - go in the face; hands - paws - rake... Words expressing the speaker's assessment are called emotionally expressive vocabulary... Such words are always stylistically marked. Their use is due to both the speech situation and the sphere of communication. However, the emotionally expressive coloring is clearly noticeable against the background of a neutral vocabulary, devoid of emotionality. Thus, all words of the Russian language can be divided into 2 groups - (1) neutral vocabulary and (2) stylistically colored vocabulary. It is clear that the words of the first group constitute a kind of center of the language system. They are used in any functional style, they are appropriate in any communicative situation. The words of the second group are used in different spheres of communication. In addition, they possess or have a reduced stylistic coloration - mug, poke, run over someone, kick, cheat, steal, throw off, shove; or book accessory - the aforementioned, the face to come.

The words of the second group have a strict attachment to any particular style and sphere of communication. It is believed that the words of the second group, that is, emotionally expressive vocabulary, are distributed between the book and colloquial vocabulary.

Schematically, the stylistic stratification of the vocabulary of the modern Russian language can be represented as follows:

Literary vocabulary

Special mention should be made of the terms. These words do not have an emotionally expressive coloring, are stylistically neutral, however, they relate to the scientific style of speech. Although many terms become interstyle, this is especially true for computer terminology.

Interstyle vocabulary is the basis of the vocabulary. It is freely used in all functional styles. It is devoid of an emotional-evaluative component, therefore it is called neutral. For example, house, knife, wooden, red, talk, answer, have, round. The following features of neutral vocabulary are distinguished:

1. names the everyday concepts of everyday life of society: household items, the realities of human life, indicate temporal and spatial characteristics, natural phenomena, forest, bread, water, weather, minute, negative;

2. is devoid of terminological names;

3. Does not convey the speaker's assessment.

Interstyle vocabulary includes words that call specific objects a table, chair, notebook; abstract concepts cold, heat, frost, blow; signs, actions, conditions, quantity. Neutral vocabulary ensures the unity of the Russian literary language. Thanks to her, the general availability of the presentation is created. It must be remembered that polysemantic words in some meanings can act as neutral, and in others - as assigned to a certain style. Compare: hitting a pole ‘bumping into something’ and running into a subordinate ‘insult, swear’. The latter value has a reduced emotional and expressive coloring and is used in a colloquial and everyday style. The word duma in the meaning of ‘thinking’ is stylistically assigned to the book style of the Duma about the Motherland, and in the meaning ‘name of the authority’ it is stylistically neutral and refers to interstyle vocabulary.

Similarly, the words club, pig, donkey, goat, ram in the literal sense are stylistically neutral, in the figurative - emotionally colored, abusive, rudely colloquial.

From the point of view of stylistic stratification, they distinguish between neutral, bookish and colloquial vocabulary.

Book vocabulary serves primarily the sphere of literary, written speech. It is used in formal business, scientific and journalistic styles. By the nature and degree of emotional coloring, the book words are not the same. Scientific vocabulary and vocabulary of the official business style are neutral. These words in the context realize their direct meaning. Scientific vocabulary, in addition to terms, includes abstract words to analyze, actual, identical. Relatively, argument, reason, hypothesis, version.

The most closed is the vocabulary of the official business style. It is divided into several thematic groups:

1) the names of business papers: application, appeal, instruction, certificate;

2) names of documents: passport, diploma, certificate, charter, decree;

3) nomenclature names: directorate, ministry, administration, inspector.

A special group of book words is made up of lexemes with a touch of solemnity. They constitute a group of high vocabulary: good, erect, future, inspiration, eyes, mouth, accomplishments, so that. Usually these words are used in poetry or journalism. Publicistic vocabulary is always emotionally colored, as it is designed to influence the reader. It always contains an evaluative component, as it shapes public opinion. Compare:

Kursk roads have long been the subject of sharp criticism both from the residents of the region and visiting guests. This year our road builders proved that they know how to work. They had never been able to get out on so serious volume of work.

Publicistic vocabulary is devoid of stylistic isolation. It is characterized by the use of words in a figurative sense.

In colloquial vocabulary, 2 groups are traditionally distinguished: (1) literary-colloquial vocabulary used in various spheres of oral communication - stupid, fumbling, falling into ambition, mediocrity, self-importance; (2) colloquial and everyday vocabulary used in everyday communication - to smoke, throw down, bully, brainless, blur out, daughter. Colloquial vocabulary has the following features:

1) the wide use of indicative words he, this, here, out;

2) reduced emotional and expressive coloring to chatter, flicker, blur out, blurt out;

3) the use of verbal nouns balabolka, cheerleader, sang along.

Colloquial vocabulary includes the words affectionate darling, mummy; playful. These are words that are used in casual, informal communication. They allow you to judge the nature of relationships between people. Colloquial vocabulary is widely recorded in dictionaries marked with bran., Joke., Ironic., Caress., Colloquial. For example: to be ashamed (colloquial), to drag in (colloquial), misinterpretations (colloquial). Recently, colloquial vocabulary has been introduced into official speeches, reports, interviews.

Colloquial vocabulary differs from colloquial in greater power of expression. This is a socially conditioned, non-literary variety of Russian vocabulary. Common speech does not have a territorial fixation, unlike dialect words. The following features can distinguish it from literary vocabulary:

1) stress shift n O rtfel, d O cent.

2) Changes in morphological parameters of the surname, statues.

It testifies to the familiar relationship between the interlocutors. In the dictionary it is labeled bran., Colloquially. For example: catch ‘catch at the crime scene’, misdirected, mod e nny, roll ‘write quickly’.

Common words are characterized by the presence of their own diminutive-affectionate suffixes babulence, brother, cognac, daddy, mordulence.

Many vernacular words have a rude connotation, therefore, the scope of their use is limited to such speech acts as a quarrel, a squabble, a showdown. Let me remind you of some words: mug, muzzle, mug, crazy, talker, stunned.

The periphery of the vernacular is made up of swear words. They are called vulgarisms a bitch, a creature, a bastard. Sometimes they are found in works of art. Remember how K. Vorobyov's story "Killed near Moscow" ends.

27. Synonymy as a property of lexical units

2.3. Synonymy of phraseological and lexical units. This section describes the synonymy of phraseological and lexical units, their properties, functions and system relationships.

As you know, phraseological units make up the bulk of the richness of the lexical stock of the language. Phraseological units express values ​​that can be conveyed in one word:

Luќmae chand az sari ishtiњo tanovul kard va dame chand ob dar sarash oshomid, then devi darunash bioromid wa beehuft (11,260-261). He eagerly swallowed several pieces and then drank several sips of water, so that the demon of his insides calmed down and he fell asleep (11,141).