Biotechnology. Presentation on biology "biotechnology" What is biotechnology presentation on chemistry
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Biotechnology ranks second in terms of investment attractiveness after information technology. Biotechnology (BT) is a discipline that studies the possibilities of using living organisms, their systems or products of their vital activity to solve technological problems, as well as the possibility of creating living organisms with the necessary properties using genetic engineering.
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Biotechnology Agriculture Medicine Biocatalysis Mining Nanobiotechnology - chemical industry; - intermediate products for the pharmaceutical industry. - new drugs and vaccines; - diagnostics (including microchips); - gene diagnostics; - gene therapy; - individual medicine; - regenerative medicine (stem cells). - metal mining (hydrometallurgy); - oil production (secondary). - new materials; - biosensors; - biocomputers. - biodegradation of pollutants; - replacement of chemicals fertilizers and pesticides for biology; biodegradable plastics; - replacement of oil with biomass; - reduction of CO2 emissions. Environmental protection - genetically engineered plants and animals; - biopesticides, biofertilizers; - feed amino acids, antibiotics, vitamins, enzymes. green white green red
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Periods of development of bt I - Empirical period. II - Scientific and practical period (etiological). III - Biotechnical period. IV - Genetechnical period.
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I - Empirical period (About 6000 BC - mid-19th century) Characterized by the intuitive use of biotechnological techniques and methods: bread baking, winemaking, brewing, production of fermented milk products, cheeses, sauerkraut, silage of livestock feed, etc.; leather dressing, production of natural dyes; obtaining natural fibers: flax, silk, wool, cotton; In pharmacy and medicine: hirudotherapy, apitherapy; prevention of smallpox with the contents of pustules of calves sick with cowpox.
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II – Scientific and practical period (1856-1933) Establishment of the species identity of microorganisms. Isolation of microorganisms in pure cultures and cultivation on nutrient media. Reproduction of natural processes (fermentation, oxidation, etc.). Production of edible compressed yeast biomass. Obtaining bacterial metabolites (acetone, butanol, citric and lactic acids). Creation of microbiological wastewater treatment systems. L. Pasteur is the founder of scientific microbiology. The first liquid nutrient medium (1859). A. de Bary is the founder of physiological mycology and microphytopathology. DI. Ivanovsky - discovery of the tobacco mosaic disease virus (1892) Introduction to modern biotechnology Associate Professor S.N. Suslina, RUDN University
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III – Biotechnical period (1933-1972) The beginning of industrial biotechnology. Introduction of large-scale sealed fermentation equipment under sterile conditions. Methodological approaches to assessing and interpreting the results obtained during deep cultivation of fungi. Formation and development of the production of antibiotics (the period of the Second World War). “Methods for studying metabolism in molds” (A. Kluyver, L.H.Ts. Perkin) – the beginning of the biotechnical period. Introduction to modern biotechnology Associate Professor S.N. Suslina, RUDN University
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1936 - the main tasks of creating and putting into practice the necessary equipment were solved, including the main one - the bioreactor; 1938 - A. Tiselius developed the theory of electrophoresis; 1942 - M. Delbrück and T. Anderson first “saw” viruses using an electron microscope; 1943 - penicillin was produced on an industrial scale; 1949 - J. Lederberg discovered the process of conjugation in E. colly; 1950 - J. Monod developed the theoretical foundations for continuous controlled cultivation of m/o; 1951 - M. Theiler developed a vaccine against yellow fever; 1952 - W. Hayes described the plasmid as an extrachromosomal factor of heredity; 1953 - F. Crick and J. Watson deciphered the structure of DNA. 1959 - Japanese scientists discovered antibiotic resistance plasmids in dysentery bacteria; 1960 - S. Ochoa and A. Kornberg isolated proteins that can “cross-link” or “glue” nucleotides into polymer chains, thereby synthesizing DNA macromolecules. One such enzyme was isolated from Escherichia coli and named DNA polymerase; 1961 - M. Nirenberg read the first three letters of the genetic code for phenylalanine; 1962 - X. Korana chemically synthesized a functional gene; 1970 - restriction enzyme (restriction endonuclease) was isolated. Significant discoveries that were reflected in the biotechnical period
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IV – genetic technical period since 1972. 1972 - the first recombinant DNA molecule (P. Berg, USA). 1975 - G. Keller and C. Milstein published an article in which they described a method for producing monoclonal antibodies; 1981 - the first diagnostic kit of monoclonal antibodies is approved for use in the USA; 1982 - human insulin produced by Escherichia coli cells went on sale; a vaccine for animals obtained using recombinant DNA technology has been approved for use in European countries; genetically engineered interferons, tumor necrosis factor, IL-2, human somatotropic hormone, etc. have been developed; 1986 - K. Mullis developed the PCR method; 1988 - start of large-scale production of equipment and diagnostic kits for PCR; 1997 - The first mammal (Dolly the sheep) was cloned from a differentiated somatic cell.
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main directions of biotechnology Biotechnology Cellular engineering Objects of biotechnology Cultivated tissues Animal cells Plant cells Microorganisms created by genetic engineering methods Industrial biotechnology Genetic engineering Biotechnology for wastewater treatment and control of water pollution with heavy Me. Bioenergy. Food biotechnology. Medical biotechnology. Biotechnology of dairy products. Agricultural biotechnology. Bioelectronics. Biogeotechnology.
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Bioenergy Dry matter - combustion - heat - mechanical or electrical energy. Raw matter - production of biogas (methane). Methane “fermentation”, or biomethanogenesis, was discovered in 1776 by Volta, who established the presence of methane in swamp gas. Biogas is a mixture of 65% methane, 30% (CO2), 1% (H2S) and minor amounts of (N2), (O2), H2 and (CO).
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Biotechnology for wastewater treatment and control of water pollution with heavy metals Wastewater usually contains a complex mixture of insoluble and soluble components of varying nature and concentration. Household waste typically contains soil and intestinal microflora, including pathogenic microorganisms. Wastewater from sugar, starch, beer and yeast factories, and meat processing plants contains large quantities of carbohydrates, proteins and fats, which are sources of nutrients and energy. Wastewater from chemical and metallurgical industries can contain significant amounts of toxic and even explosive substances. Serious pollution occurs when heavy metal compounds such as iron, copper, tin, etc. enter the environment. The purpose of wastewater treatment is to remove soluble and insoluble components, eliminate pathogenic microorganisms and carry out detoxification in such a way that the components of the wastewater do not harm humans, not polluted water bodies.
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Bacteria of the genus Pseudomonas are practically omnivorous. For example, P. putida can utilize naphthalene, toluene, alkanes, camphor and other compounds. Pure cultures of microorganisms capable of decomposing specific phenolic compounds, oil components in polluted waters, etc. have been isolated. Microorganisms of the genus Pseudomonas can also utilize unusual chemical compounds - insecticides, herbicides and other xenobiotics. Biological methods are also applicable to the treatment of oil industry wastewater. For this purpose, aerated biotreatment systems with activated sludge containing a microbial community adapted to oil components are used. The Institute of Applied Biochemistry and Mechanical Engineering has developed a domestic drug - a biodegradant of oil and petroleum products. It allows you to utilize both crude oil and various petroleum products: fuel oil, diesel fuel, gasoline, kerosene, aromatic hydrocarbons. The biological product works at high levels of contamination up to 20%, with a high content of heavy aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons. Biotechnology for wastewater treatment and control of water pollution with heavy metals
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Agricultural biotechnology Biological nitrogen fixation is the process of converting nitrogen contained in the atmosphere in the form of chemically inert N2 into the form of nitrates and ammonium available to plants. Nitrogen makes up 78% of the total volume of atmospheric air and is absolutely inaccessible to plants in its atamary form. This is why people are forced to apply nitrogen fertilizers to increase the productivity of agricultural crops. Fixation of atmospheric nitrogen is carried out by bacteria living in symbiosis with members of the family or free-living nitrogen fixers (Azotobacter). Bacterial preparations have been developed that improve phosphorus nutrition of plants. Recently, evidence has increasingly appeared about the mutagenic and carcinogenic effects of chemical pesticides, which are poorly destroyed and accumulate in the environment. Microbial insecticides are highly specific and act only on certain types of insects. Microbial pesticides are subject to biodegradation. M/o can regulate the growth of plants and animals, suppress growth. Some bacteria change the pH and salinity of the soil, others produce compounds that bind Fe, and others produce growth regulators. Typically, m/o inoculate seeds and or plants before planting. Animal husbandry uses diagnostics, prevention, treatment of diseases using monoclonal Abs, and genetic improvement of animal breeds. Biotechnology is used for silage of feed, allowing to increase the absorption of plant biomass, for the disposal of waste from livestock farms, etc.
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Biogeotechnology The use of geochemical activity of microorganisms in the mining industry. Leaching of poor and spent ores, desulfurization of hard coal, combating methane in coal mines, increasing oil recovery, etc. Biogeotechnology of metal leaching - the use of mainly thionic (oxidizing sulfur and sulfur-containing compounds) bacteria to extract metals from ores, ore concentrates and rocks . When processing poor and complex ores, thousands and even millions of tons of valuable metals are lost in the form of waste, slag, and “tailings.” There are also emissions of harmful gases into the atmosphere. Bacterial-chemical leaching of metals reduces these losses. The basis of this process is the oxidation of sulfide minerals contained in ores by thionic bacteria. Sulfides of copper, iron, zinc, tin, cadmium, etc. are oxidized. In this case, metals from the insoluble sulfide form pass into sulfates, which are highly soluble in water. Metals are extracted from sulfate solutions by precipitation, extraction, and sorption. The main species of minerals used for biogeotechnological mining of metals is the species of thionic bacteria Thiobacillus ferrooxidans. Biogeotechnology spontaneously arose in the 16th century. Apparently, 1922 should be considered the official birth date of biogeotechnology. Thiobacillus ferrooxidans was discovered in 1947 by Kolmer and Kinkelemyu Introduction to modern biotechnology Associate Professor S.N. Suslina, RUDN University
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Biogeotechnology Biogeotechnology of coal desulfurization is the use of thionic bacteria to remove sulfur-containing compounds from coals. The total sulfur content in coals can reach 10-12%. When coal is burned, the sulfur it contains turns into sulfur dioxide, which enters the atmosphere, where it forms sulfuric acid. From the atmosphere, sulfuric acid falls to the surface of the earth in the form of sulfuric acid rain. According to available data, in some countries of Western Europe, up to 300 kg of sulfuric acid falls per year on 1 hectare of land with rain. In addition, high-sulfur coals do not coke well and therefore cannot be used in non-ferrous metallurgy. The first experiments on the targeted removal of sulfur from coal using microorganisms were carried out in 1959 in our country by Z. M. Zarubina, N. N. Lyalikova and E. I. Shmuk. As a result of these experiments, within 30 days with the participation of Th. ferrooxidans, 23-30% of sulfur was removed from coal. Later, several works on microbiological desulfurization of coal were published by American researchers. Using thione bacteria, they managed to reduce the pyrite sulfur content in coal by almost 50% in four days.
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Bioelectronics In the field of electronics, biotechnology can be used to create improved types of biosensors and biochips. Biotechnology makes it possible to create devices in which proteins are the basis of molecules that act as semiconductors. To indicate contaminants of various origins, recently they began to use not chemical reagents, but biosensors - enzyme electrodes, as well as immobilized microbial cells. Bioselective sensors are also created by applying whole m/o cells or tissues to the surface of ion-selective electrodes. For example, Neurospora europea - for determining NH3, Trichosporon brassiacae - for determining acetic acid. Monoclonal Abs, which have exceptionally high selectivity, are also used as sensors. Leaders in the production of biosensors and biochips are Japanese companies such as Hitachi, Sharp, Sony.
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Medical biotechnology Vaccines and serums. Antibiotics. Enzymes and antienzymes. Hormones and their antagonists. Vitamins. Amino acids. Blood substitutes. Alkaloids. Immunomodulators. Bioradioprotectors. Immune diagnostics and biosensors. Biogeotechnology spontaneously arose in the 16th century. Apparently, 1922 should be considered the official birth date of biogeotechnology. Thiobacillus ferrooxidans was discovered in 1947 by Kolmer and Kinkelemyu Introduction to modern biotechnology Associate Professor S.N. Suslina, RUDN University
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Key biomedical technologies Production of secondary metabolites - NMCs not required for growth in pure culture: a/b, alkaloids, plant growth hormones and toxins. Protein technology is the use of transgenic microorganisms for the synthesis of proteins foreign to producers (insulin, interferon). Hybridoma technology – production of monoclonal Abs to antigens of bacteria, viruses, animal and plant cells, pure enzymes and proteins. Engineering enzymology is the implementation of biotransformation of substances using the catalytic functions of enzymes in pure form or as part of PPS (cells), incl. immobilized.
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Biotechnology OPPORTUNITIES Accurate and early diagnosis, prevention and treatment of infectious and genetic diseases; Increasing agricultural yields. crops by creating plants resistant to pests, diseases and adverse environmental conditions; Creation of microorganisms producing various biologically active substances (antibiotics, polymers, amino acids, enzymes); Creation of farm animal breeds with improved heritable traits; Recycling of toxic waste - environmental pollutants. PROBLEMS Impact of genetically engineered organisms on other organisms or the environment; Reduction of natural genetic diversity when creating recombinant organisms; Changing the genetic nature of a person using genetic engineering methods; Violation of the human right to privacy when using new diagnostic methods; Availability of treatment only to the rich for the purpose of profit; Obstacles to the free exchange of thoughts between scientists in the struggle for priorities
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BIOTECHNOLOGY Biotechnology is the science of methods and technologies for the production of various valuable substances and products using natural biological objects (microorganisms, plant and animal cells), cell parts (cell membranes, ribosomes, mitochondria, chloroplasts) and processes.
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The main direction of biotechnology is the production, using microorganisms and cultured eukaryotic cells, of biologically active compounds (enzymes, vitamins, hormones), medications (antibiotics, vaccines, serums, highly specific antibodies, etc.), as well as valuable compounds (feed additives, for example, essential amino acids, feed proteins, etc.). Genetic engineering methods have made it possible to synthesize in industrial quantities hormones such as insulin and somatotropin (growth hormone), which are necessary for the treatment of human genetic diseases.
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One of the most important areas of modern biotechnology is also the use of biological methods to combat environmental pollution (biological treatment of wastewater, contaminated soil, etc.).
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Thus, to extract metals from wastewater, bacterial strains capable of accumulating uranium, copper, and cobalt can be widely used. Other bacteria of the genera Rhodococcus and Nocardia are successfully used for emulsification and sorption of petroleum hydrocarbons from the aquatic environment. They are capable of separating the water and oil phases, concentrating oil, and purifying wastewater from oil impurities. By assimilating petroleum hydrocarbons, such microorganisms convert them into proteins, B vitamins and carotenes. Some of the halobacteria strains are successfully used to remove fuel oil from sandy beaches. Genetically engineered strains have also been obtained that can break down octane, camphor, naphthalene, and xylene, and effectively utilize crude oil. The use of biotechnology methods to protect plants from pests and diseases is of great importance.
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These methods are used to develop waste dumps from old mines and poor deposits where traditional mining methods are not economically viable. Biotechnology solves not only specific problems of science and production. It has a more global methodological task - it expands and accelerates the scale of human impact on living nature and promotes the adaptation of living systems to the conditions of human existence, i.e. to the noosphere. Biotechnology, thus, acts as a powerful factor in anthropogenic adaptive evolution. Biotechnology is making its way into heavy industry, where microorganisms are used to extract, convert and process natural resources. Already in ancient times, the first metallurgists obtained iron from bog ores produced by iron bacteria, which are capable of concentrating iron. Now methods have been developed for the bacterial concentration of a number of other valuable metals: manganese, zinc, copper, chromium, etc.
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Biotechnology, genetic and cell engineering have promising prospects. As more and more new vectors appear, people will use them to introduce the necessary genes into the cells of plants, animals and humans. This will make it possible to gradually get rid of many hereditary human diseases, force cells to synthesize the necessary drugs and biologically active compounds, and then directly proteins and essential amino acids used in food. Using methods already mastered by nature, biotechnologists hope to obtain hydrogen through photosynthesis - the most environmentally friendly fuel of the future, electricity, and convert atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia under normal conditions.
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The roots of biotechnology go back to the distant past and are associated with baking, winemaking and other methods of cooking known to man in ancient times. For example, such a biotechnological process as fermentation with the participation of microorganisms was known and widely used in ancient Babylon, as evidenced by the description of the preparation of beer, which has come down to us in the form of a note on a tablet discovered in 1981 during excavations in Babylon.
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Biotechnology became a science thanks to the research and work of the French scientist, the founder of modern microbiology and immunology, Louis Pasteur (1822-1895). Louis Pasteur
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Thus, new scientific and technological approaches have translated into the development of biotechnological methods that make it possible to directly manipulate genes, create new products, organisms and change the properties of existing ones. The main goal of using these methods is to more fully use the potential of living organisms in the interests of human economic activity. In the 70s, such important areas of biotechnology as genetic (or gene) and cellular engineering appeared and actively developed, marking the beginning of the “new” biotechnology, in contrast to the “old” biotechnology based on traditional microbiological processes. Thus, the conventional production of alcohol through fermentation is “old” biotechnology, but the use of genetically engineered yeast in this process to increase alcohol yield is “new” biotechnology.
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Modern scientific and technological approaches to biotechnology make it possible to directly manipulate genes, create new products, organisms and change the properties of existing ones. The main goal of using these methods is to more fully use the potential of living organisms in the interests of human economic activity.
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METHODS OF BIOTECHNOLOGY Use of living organisms and biological processes in production Cloning Method of reproduction of organisms without fertilization through the reproduction of one somatic cell Genetic engineering Restructuring of the genotype due to the insertion or exclusion of certain genes Cellular engineering Cultivation of tissues and cells of higher organisms Environmental engineering Use of biofilters At wastewater treatment plants Microbiological industry Production biologically active substances Engineering eximology Use of enzymes of microbial, plant and animal origin in biochemical processes
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In the twentieth century, there was a rapid development of molecular biology and genetics using the achievements of chemistry and physics. The most important area of research was the development of methods for culturing plant and animal cells. And if quite recently only bacteria and fungi were grown for industrial purposes, now it is possible not only to grow food cells for biomass production, but also to control their development, especially in plants.
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GMO - genetically modified products are plants or animals whose hereditary characteristics have been changed using genetic engineering methods.
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Therefore, genetically modified products are often called transgenic products, or transgenes. The result is a new species, the emergence of which in nature is impossible. To make this change, fragments of the DNA of another organism are added to the DNA of one organism.
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One of the causes of diabetes is a lack of insulin, a pancreatic hormone, in the body. Injections of insulin isolated from the pancreas of pigs and cattle save millions of lives, but cause allergic reactions in some patients. The optimal solution would be to use human insulin. Using genetic engineering methods, the insulin gene was inserted into the DNA of Escherichia coli. The bacterium began to actively synthesize insulin. In 1982, human insulin became the first pharmaceutical drug produced using genetic engineering methods. The main effect of insulin is to reduce the concentration of glucose in the blood. Insulin increases the permeability of plasma membranes to glucose, activates glycolytic enzymes, stimulates the formation of glycogen from glucose in the liver and muscles, and enhances the synthesis of fats and proteins. In addition, insulin inhibits the activity of enzymes that break down glycogen and fats. Thus, insulin has a multifaceted effect on metabolic processes in almost all tissues.
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Genetic and cellular engineering are the most important methods (tools) underlying modern biotechnology. Cell engineering methods are aimed at constructing new types of cells. They can be used to recreate a viable cell from individual fragments of different cells, to combine whole cells from different species to form a cell that carries the genetic material of both original cells, and other operations.
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Genetic engineering has found its greatest application in agriculture and medicine. Genetic engineering makes it possible to obtain specified (desired) qualities of variable or genetically modified organisms or so-called “transgenic” plants and animals. Genetic engineering methods are aimed at constructing new combinations of genes that do not exist in nature. As a result of the use of genetic engineering methods, it is possible to obtain recombinant (modified) RNA and DNA molecules, for which individual genes (encoding the desired product) are isolated from the cells of any organism. After certain manipulations with these genes are carried out, they are introduced into other organisms (bacteria, yeast and mammals), which, having received a new gene (genes), will be able to synthesize final products with properties changed in the direction desired by a person.
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It is important to note that during traditional breeding it is very difficult to obtain hybrids with the desired combination of useful traits, since very large fragments of the genomes of each parent are transmitted to the offspring, while genetic engineering methods most often make it possible to work with one or several genes, and their modifications do not affect the functioning of other genes. As a result, without losing other useful properties of the plant, it is possible to add one or more useful traits, which is very valuable for creating new varieties and new forms of plants. It has become possible to change, for example, plants' resistance to climate and stress, or their sensitivity to insects or diseases common in certain regions, to drought, etc.
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Genetic engineering work in animal husbandry has a different task. A completely achievable goal with the current level of technology is the creation of transgenic animals with a specific target gene. For example, the gene for some valuable animal hormone (for example, growth hormone) is artificially introduced into a bacterium, which begins to produce it in large quantities. Another example: transgenic goats, as a result of the introduction of the corresponding gene, can produce a specific protein, factor VIII, which prevents bleeding in patients suffering from hemophilia, or an enzyme, thrombokinase, which promotes the resorption of blood clots in blood vessels, which is important for the prevention and treatment of thrombophlebitis in of people. Transgenic animals produce these proteins much faster, and the method itself is much cheaper than the traditional one. Fast-growing transgenic salmon will displace natural salmon
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At the end of the 90s of the XX century. US scientists have come close to producing farm animals by cloning embryonic cells, although this direction still requires further serious research. But in xenotransplantation - the transplantation of organs from one type of living organism to another - undoubted results have been achieved. The greatest successes have been achieved by using pigs with transferred human genes in their genotype as donors of various organs. In this case, there is a minimal risk of organ rejection.
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Scientists also suggest that gene transfer will help reduce human allergies to cow's milk. Targeted changes in the DNA of cows should also lead to a decrease in the content of saturated fatty acids and cholesterol in milk, making it even more healthy. The potential danger of using genetically modified organisms is expressed in two aspects: food safety for human health and environmental consequences. Therefore, the most important step in creating a genetically modified product should be its comprehensive examination in order to avoid the danger that the product contains proteins that cause allergies, toxic substances or other - new dangerous components.
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Since the Stone Age, people have selected plants with characteristics that suited them and saved their seeds for the next year. By selecting the best seeds, the first agronomists carried out the primary genetic modification of plants and thus domesticated them long before the basic genetic patterns were discovered. For hundreds of years, farmers and plant breeders have used crossbreeding, hybridization, and other genome modification approaches to increase yields, improve product quality, and make plants more resistant to insect pests, pathogens, and environmental stress.
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As knowledge about plant genetics deepened, people began to carry out targeted crossbreeding (crossbreeding) of plant varieties with desired characteristics or without undesirable characteristics and interspecific hybridization in order to obtain new varieties that retained the best qualities of both parental lines. Nowadays, almost every crop is the result of crossbreeding, hybridization, or both. Unfortunately, these methods are often expensive, time-consuming, ineffective, and have significant practical limitations. For example, using traditional crossbreeding to create a corn variety that is resistant to certain insects, it would take decades, with no guaranteed results. slide
Biotechnology as a field of knowledge and a dynamically developing industrial sector is designed to solve many key problems of our time, while ensuring the preservation of balance in the system of relationships “man - nature - society”, because biological technologies (biotechnologies), based on the use of the potential of living things, are by definition aimed at friendliness and harmony of a person with the world around him. Green biotechnology covers an area of relevance to agriculture. These are research and technologies aimed at creating biotechnological methods and preparations for controlling pests and pathogens of cultivated plants and domestic animals, creating biofertilizers, increasing plant productivity, including using genetic engineering methods. “White” biotechnology includes industrial biotechnology, focused on the production of products previously produced by the chemical industry - alcohol, vitamins, amino acids, etc. (taking into account the requirements of resource conservation and environmental protection). Currently, biotechnology is divided into several most significant segments: these are “white”, “green”, “red”, “gray” and “blue” biotechnology.
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Modern biotechnology is one of the priority areas of the national economy of all developed countries. The way to increase the competitiveness of biotechnological products in sales markets is one of the main ones in the overall strategy for the development of biotechnology in industrialized countries. A stimulating factor is specially adopted government programs for the accelerated development of new areas of biotechnology. Blue biotechnology is mainly focused on the efficient use of ocean resources. First of all, this is the use of marine biota to obtain food, technical, biologically active and medicinal substances. Gray biotechnology develops technologies and drugs to protect the environment; these are soil reclamation, wastewater and gaseous emissions treatment, industrial waste disposal and toxicant degradation using biological agents and biological processes. Red (medical) biotechnology is the most significant area of modern biotechnology. This is the production of diagnostics and drugs using biotechnological methods using cellular and genetic engineering technologies (green vaccines, gene diagnostics, monoclonal antibodies, tissue engineering designs and products, etc.).
History of biotechnology: 1917 - Karl Ereki “biotechnology” of the year A.M. Kolenev. A.N.Bach. Technology improvement year - Penicillin
Cellular engineering Cellular engineering is an unusually promising area of modern biotechnology. Scientists have developed methods for growing animal and even human plant cells under artificial conditions (cultivation). Cell cultivation makes it possible to obtain various valuable products that were previously obtained in very limited quantities due to the lack of sources of raw materials. Plant cell engineering is developing particularly successfully.
Transgenic animals and plants: Transgenic animals, experimentally obtained animals containing in all cells of their body additional integrated with chromosomes and expressed foreign DNA (transgene), which is inherited according to Mendelian laws. Transgenic plants are those plants to which genes have been transplanted
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Presentation on the topic: Biotechnology
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Biotechnology BIOTECHNOLOGY is the industrial use of biological agents (microorganisms, plant cells, animal cells, cell parts: cell membranes, ribosomes, mitochondria, chloroplasts) to obtain valuable products and carry out targeted transformations. Biotechnological processes also use biological macromolecules such as ribonucleic acids (DNA, RNA), proteins - most often enzymes. DNA or RNA is necessary for the transfer of foreign genes into cells.
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History of Biotechnology People have acted as biotechnologists for thousands of years: they baked bread, brewed beer, made cheese, and other lactic acid products, using various microorganisms and without even knowing about their existence. Actually, the term “biotechnology” itself appeared in our language not so long ago; instead, the words “industrial microbiology”, “technical biochemistry”, etc. were used. Probably the oldest biotechnological process was fermentation. During excavations in Babylon, on a tablet that dates back to approximately the 6th millennium BC. e. In the 3rd millennium BC. e. The Sumerians produced up to two dozen types of beer. No less ancient biotechnological processes are winemaking, bread baking and the production of lactic acid products. In the traditional, classical sense, biotechnology is the science of methods and technologies for the production of various substances and products using natural biological objects and processes.
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Introduction: An important part of biotechnology is genetic engineering. Born in the early 70s, she has achieved great success today. Genetic engineering techniques transform bacterial, yeast and mammalian cells into “factories” for the large-scale production of any protein. This makes it possible to analyze in detail the structure and functions of proteins and use them as medicines.
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The main tasks of genetic engineering: 1. Obtaining an isolated gene. 2. Introduction of the gene into a vector for transfer into the body. 3. Transfer of the vector with the gene into the modified organism. 4. Transformation of body cells. 5. Selection of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and elimination of those that have not been successfully modified.
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The concept of genetic engineering Genetic engineering (genetic engineering) is a set of techniques, methods and technologies for obtaining recombinant RNA and DNA, isolating genes from an organism (cells), manipulating genes and introducing them into other organisms. Genetic engineering is not a science in the broad sense, but is a tool of biotechnology, using methods of biological sciences such as molecular and cellular biology, cytology, genetics, microbiology, virology.
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Development In the second half of the twentieth century, several important discoveries and inventions were made that underlie genetic engineering. Many years of attempts to “read” the biological information that is “written” in genes have been successfully completed. This work was started by the English scientist F. Sanger and the American scientist W. Gilbert (Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1980). As is known, genes contain information-instructions for the synthesis of RNA molecules and proteins, including enzymes, in the body. To force a cell to synthesize new substances that are unusual for it, it is necessary that the corresponding sets of enzymes be synthesized in it. And for this it is necessary to either purposefully change the genes located in it, or introduce new, previously absent genes into it. Changes in genes in living cells are mutations. They occur under the influence, for example, of mutagens - chemical poisons or radiation. But such changes cannot be controlled or directed. Therefore, scientists have focused their efforts on trying to develop methods for introducing new, very specific genes needed by humans into cells.
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Human Genetic Engineering When applied to humans, genetic engineering could be used to treat inherited diseases. However, technically, there is a significant difference between treating the patient himself and changing the genome of his descendants. Although on a small scale, genetic engineering is already being used to give women with some types of infertility a chance to get pregnant. For this purpose, eggs from a healthy woman are used. As a result, the child inherits the genotype from one father and two mothers. With the help of genetic engineering, it is possible to obtain offspring with improved appearance, mental and physical abilities, character and behavior. With the help of gene therapy, it is possible in the future to improve the genome of living people. In principle, it is possible to create more serious changes, but on the path of such transformations, humanity needs to solve many ethical problems.
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Economic significance Genetic engineering serves to obtain the desired qualities of a modified or genetically modified organism. Unlike traditional selection, during which the genotype is subject to changes only indirectly, genetic engineering allows direct intervention in the genetic apparatus using the technique of molecular cloning. Examples of applications of genetic engineering include the production of new genetically modified varieties of grain crops, the production of human insulin using genetically modified bacteria, the production of erythropoietin in cell culture or new breeds of experimental mice for scientific research.
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Gene knockout To study the function of a particular gene, gene knockout can be used. This is the name for the technique of removing one or more genes, which allows one to study the consequences of such a mutation. For knockout, the same gene or its fragment is synthesized, modified so that the gene product loses its function. To produce knockout mice, the resulting genetically engineered construct is introduced into embryonic stem cells, where the construct undergoes somatic recombination and replaces the normal gene, and the altered cells are implanted into the blastocysts of the surrogate mother. In the fruit fly Drosophila, mutations are initiated in a large population, from which offspring with the desired mutation are then searched. In a similar way, knockouts are obtained in plants and microorganisms.
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Artificial expression A logical addition to knockout is artificial expression, that is, adding a gene to the body that it did not previously have. This genetic engineering technique can also be used to study gene function. In essence, the process of introducing additional genes is the same as for knockout, but existing genes are not replaced or damaged.
Slide no. 13
Slide description:
Visualization of gene products Used when the task is to study the localization of a gene product. One of the tagging methods is to replace the normal gene with one fused with a reporter element, for example, with the green fluorescent protein gene. This protein, which fluoresces in blue light, is used to visualize the product of genetic modification. Although this technique is convenient and useful, its side effects may be partial or complete loss of function of the protein of interest. A more sophisticated, although not so convenient, method is to add smaller oligopeptides to the protein being studied, which can be detected using specific antibodies.
Slide no. 14
Slide description:
Study of the mechanism of expression In such experiments, the task is to study the conditions of gene expression. Expression features depend primarily on a small piece of DNA located in front of the coding region, called a promoter, which serves to bind transcription factors. This section is introduced into the body, followed by a reporter gene, for example, GFP or an enzyme that catalyzes an easily detectable reaction, instead of its own gene. In addition to the fact that the functioning of the promoter in certain tissues at one time or another becomes clearly visible, such experiments make it possible to study the structure of the promoter by removing or adding DNA fragments to it, as well as artificially enhancing its functions.
Slide no. 15
Slide description:
Slide 2
Biotechnology is a discipline that studies the possibilities of using living organisms, their systems or products of their vital activity to solve technological problems, as well as the possibility of creating living organisms with the necessary properties using genetic engineering.
The possibilities of biotechnology are unusually great due to the fact that its methods are more profitable than conventional ones: they are used under optimal conditions (temperature and pressure), are more productive, environmentally friendly and do not require chemical reagents that poison the environment, etc.
Slide 3
The term “biotechnology” was first used by the Hungarian engineer Karl Ereky in 1917.
Biotechnology often refers to the application of genetic engineering in the 20th and 21st centuries, but the term also refers to a broader set of processes for modifying biological organisms to meet human needs, starting with the modification of plants and domesticated animals through artificial selection and hybridization. With the help of modern methods, traditional biotechnological production has the opportunity to improve the quality of food products and increase the productivity of living organisms.
Slide 5
Biotechnology is based on genetics, molecular biology, biochemistry, embryology and cell biology, as well as applied disciplines - chemical and information technologies and robotics.
Slide 6
The objects of biotechnology are numerous representatives of groups of living organisms - microorganisms (viruses, bacteria, protists, yeast, etc.), plants, animals, as well as cells and subcellular structures (organelles) isolated from them. Biotechnology is based on physiological and biochemical processes occurring in living systems, which result in the release of energy, synthesis and breakdown of metabolic products, and the formation of chemical and structural components of the cell.
Slide 7
History of biotechnology Certain biotechnological processes used in everyday human activity have been known since ancient times. These, for example, include bread baking, winemaking, and the preparation of fermented milk products. However, the biological essence of these processes was clarified only in the 19th century.
Slide 8
In 1814, academician K.S. Kirchhoff discovered the phenomenon of biological catalysis, and he attempted to biocatalytically obtain sugar from available domestic raw materials (until the mid-19th century, sugar was obtained only from sugar cane).
Slide 9
And in 1891 in the USA, the Japanese biochemist Dz. Takamine received the first patent for the use of enzyme preparations for industrial purposes. The scientist proposed using diastase to saccharify plant waste. Thus, already at the beginning of the 20th century there was an active development of the fermentation and microbiological industries. During these same years, the first attempts were made to use enzymes in the textile industry. Takamine
Slide 10
In 1916-1917, Russian biochemist A. M. Kolenev tried to develop a method that would make it possible to control the action of enzymes in natural raw materials during the production of tobacco. A certain contribution to the development of practical biochemistry belongs to Academician A.N. Bach, who created an important applied area of biochemistry - technical biochemistry.
Slide 11
A.N. Bach and his students developed many recommendations for improving technologies for processing a wide variety of biochemical raw materials, improving technologies for baking, brewing, winemaking, tea and tobacco production, as well as recommendations for increasing the yield of cultivated plants by controlling the biochemical processes occurring in them. All these studies, as well as the progress of the chemical and microbiological industries and the creation of new industrial biochemical production, became the main prerequisites for the emergence of modern biotechnology. In production terms, the microbiological industry became the basis of biotechnology in the process of its formation.
Slide 12
The first antibiotic, penicillin, was isolated in 1940. Following penicillin, other antibiotics were discovered (this work continues to this day). With the discovery of antibiotics, new tasks immediately appeared: establishing the production of medicinal substances produced by microorganisms, working to reduce the cost and increase the availability of new drugs, and obtaining them in very large quantities needed by medicine.
Slide 13
The following main stages in the development of biotechnology can be distinguished: 1) Development of empirical technology - the unconscious use of microbiological processes (baking, winemaking) from approximately the 6th thousand years BC.
2) The origin of fundamental biological sciences in the XV-XVIII centuries.
5) The emergence of biotechnology itself as a new scientific and technical branch (mid-20th century), associated with the mass profitable production of drugs; organization of large-scale production of protein from hydrocarbons. 6) The emergence of the latest biotechnology associated with the practical application of genetic and cellular engineering, engineering enzymology, and immune biotechnology. microbiological production - production of a very high culture. Its technology is very complex and specific; servicing the equipment requires mastering special skills. Currently, with the help of microbiological synthesis, antibiotics, enzymes, amino acids, intermediates for the further synthesis of various substances, pheromones (substances with which the behavior of insects can be controlled), organic acids, feed proteins and others are produced. The technology for the production of these substances is well established; obtaining them microbiologically is economically profitable.
Slide 15
The main directions of biotechnology are: 1) production, using microorganisms and cultured eukaryotic cells, of biologically active compounds (enzymes, vitamins, hormonal drugs), medications (antibiotics, vaccines, serums, highly specific antibodies, etc.), as well as proteins, amino acids , used as feed additives; 2) the use of biological methods to combat environmental pollution (biological treatment of wastewater, soil pollution, etc.) and to protect plants from pests and diseases; 3) creation of new useful strains of microorganisms, plant varieties, animal breeds, etc.
Slide 16
The task of breeders in our time has become to solve the problem of creating new forms of plants, animals and microorganisms that are well adapted to industrial production methods, can withstand unfavorable conditions, effectively use solar energy and, most importantly, make it possible to obtain biologically pure products without excessive environmental pollution. A fundamentally new approach to solving this fundamental problem is the use of genetic and cellular engineering in breeding. Objectives and methods of biotechnology
Slide 17
– for food production (baking, production of lactic acid products); – for the production of alcoholic beverages (brewing, winemaking); – for the production of industrial goods (leatherworking, textile production); – to increase soil fertility (use of organic and green fertilizers). Traditional biotechnologies have developed on the basis of the empirical experience of many generations of people; they are characterized by conservatism and relatively low efficiency. However, during the 19th–20th centuries, on the basis of traditional biotechnologies, higher-level technologies began to emerge: technologies for increasing soil fertility, technologies for biological wastewater treatment, technologies for the production of biofuels. Traditional biotechnologies, which have been around for thousands of years, use microorganisms that exist in nature...
Slide 18
Genetic engineering (a section of biotechnology associated with the targeted construction of new, non-existent in nature, combinations of genes introduced into living cells capable of synthesizing a certain product) Cellular engineering (a method for constructing a new type of cell) Biological engineering (methods of using microorganisms as bioreactors to produce industrial products)
Slide 19
Combinations of genes designed by genetic engineers function in the recipient cell and synthesize the necessary protein. Of particular practical interest is the introduction of various gene constructs into the genome of animals and plants: both synthesized and genes of other animals, plants and humans. Such plants and animals are called genetically modified, and their processed products are called transgenic products. Transgenic corn is added to confectionery and bakery products, soft drinks; Modified soybeans are included in refined oils, margarines, baking fats, salad sauces, mayonnaise, pasta, boiled sausages, confectionery products, protein supplements, animal feed and even baby food. Using the achievements of genetic engineering, scientists have learned to transplant genes from cells to others. And since the germ cells of living organisms are used for this, the genes are arranged into the hereditary apparatus of the new host
Slide 20
Cell culture allows you to maintain their viability outside the body in artificially created conditions of a liquid or solid nutrient medium. Such clones are used as original factories for the production of biologically active substances, for example, the hormone erythropoietin, which stimulates the formation of red blood cells. Dolly the sheep is the world's first cloned animal. Embryonic stem cells - the genetic information contained in their nuclei - are in a state of rest. They can accept any program and develop into one of 150 possible types of germ cells. Novartis breeds pigs to use their organs in human transplants. A number of Western companies are concerned about the problem of growing special transgenic animals that, in addition to milk, meat and organs for transplantation, can also “produce” medicines.
Slide 21
This section of biotechnology is especially important for Russia, which, unfortunately, lives mainly through the sale of resources. The average return of our oil fields does not exceed 50%. The Tatneft company, using a new unique microbiological technology for regulating the microflora of oil reservoirs, received an additional half a million tons of oil from the Bashkortostan field. Pictured is a bioreactor at an oil refinery in Indonesia.
Slide 22
Microorganisms have long been used in the production of organic fertilizers (composts) by processing biological waste. A special group consists of nitrogen-fixing microorganisms: free-living and symbiotic. For example, cultures of symbiotic bacteria of the genus Rhizobium in the form of bacterial fertilizers (nitragin and rhizotorphin) are introduced into the soil when sowing legumes (alfalfa, clover, lupine). Subsequently, bacteria in the nodules ensure the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen and its accumulation in the soil. Engineered strains of microorganisms are not competitive with their “wild” relatives, so they need to be bred under artificial conditions and added to the soil annually. Using microorganisms to improve soil fertility
Slide 23
Since the beginning of the twentieth century. microorganisms in combination with chemical methods are used for biological wastewater treatment. Intensive cleaning is carried out in special containers: aeration tanks, digesters. There are two mineralization technologies (water purification from organic pollutants): aerobic and anaerobic. During aerobic mineralization in aeration tanks, activated sludge containing bacteria and unicellular heterotrophic eukaryotes is used. As a result of such purification, complete oxidation of organic substances occurs. During anaerobic mineralization in digesters, organic substances are fermented to form methane, which is subsequently used as fuel (biogas). To decompose synthetic organic substances (for example, detergents), bacteria obtained by artificial mutagenesis are used. Some microorganisms are used for the selective accumulation of individual chemical elements: diatoms for the accumulation of silicon, iron bacteria for the accumulation of iron, etc. The same microorganisms are used to enrich metallurgical raw materials. Biological wastewater treatment
Slide 24
Biological fuels include hydrocarbons and alcohols obtained by processing various organic wastes with the help of microorganisms. For example, waste from starch and sugar production, textile and wood processing industries serve as raw materials for the production of alcohol and biogas - cheap fuel for car engines and other power plants. Note that alcohols and biogas are environmentally friendly fuels - when they are burned, fully oxidized compounds are formed. Biofuel production
Slide 25
Achievements of cell engineering 1. The use of cell cultures allows one to overcome many problems of bioethics (biological ethics) associated with the killing of animals. Therefore, cell cultures are widely used in scientific research. 2. In culture, strictly defined cells can be grown in unlimited quantities. Therefore, cell and tissue cultures isolated from natural materials are widely used in the industrial production of biologically active substances. In particular, ginseng, Rhodiola rosea and other medicinal plants are grown at the cellular-tissue level. 3. From apical meristems, by microcloning, planting material of valuable plant varieties is obtained, free from many diseases (for example, viruses and mycoplasmas), in particular, virus-free planting material of flower and fruit crops. Callus tissues are also propagated on a nutrient medium, which are subsequently differentiated to form whole plants.
Slide 26
4. The problems of obtaining distant plant hybrids are being solved. Firstly, through somatic hybridization it is possible to cross plants that cannot be crossed in the usual way. Secondly, the resulting distant hybrids can be reproduced, bypassing seed propagation and the meiotic filter. 5. Vaccines are produced using cell cultures, for example, against measles and polio. The issue of large-scale production of monoclonal antibodies based on hybridoma cultures is currently being addressed. 6. By preserving cell cultures, it is possible to preserve the genotypes of individual organisms and create gene pool banks of individual varieties and even entire species, for example, in the form of mericlones (meristem cultures). 7. Manipulation of individual cells and their components is used to clone animals. For example, nuclei from tadpole intestinal epithelial cells penetrate into enucleated frog eggs. As a result, individuals with genetically identical nuclei develop from such eggs.
Slide 27
Achievements of genetic engineering 1. Gene banks, or clone libraries, which are collections of bacterial clones, have been created. Each of these clones contains fragments of DNA from a specific organism (Drosophila, human, and others). 2. On the basis of transformed strains of viruses, bacteria and yeast, the industrial production of insulin, interferon, and hormonal drugs is carried out. The production of proteins that help preserve blood clotting in hemophilia and other drugs are at the testing stage. 3. Transgenic higher organisms (some fish and mammals, many plants) have been created in whose cells the genes of completely different organisms successfully function. Genetically modified plants (GMPs) that are resistant to high doses of certain herbicides, as well as Bt-modified plants that are resistant to pests, are widely known.
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