Morphological characteristics of the form used. Morphological characteristics of parts of speech. Linguistic means characteristic of colloquial speech
Would they come I. Verb; denotes action; answers the question what would you do? II.
N. f. - come. Morphological characteristics: A) Constant morphological characteristics: 1) perfect appearance; 2) non-refundable; 3) intransitive; 4) I conjugation. B) Variable morphological characteristics. Used in the form: 1) conditional mood; 2) plural. III. It is a predicate in a sentence. Would strike I. Verb; denotes action; answers the question what would do? II. N. f. - to hit. Morphological characteristics: A) Permanent morphological characteristics: 1) perfect appearance; 2) non-refundable; 3) transition; 4) II conjugation. B) Variable morphological characteristics. Used in the form: 1) conditional mood; 2) singular; 3) neuter. III. It is a predicate in a sentence. Take a closer look I. Verb; denotes action; answers the question what should you do? II. N. f. - take a closer look. Morphological characteristics: A) Constant morphological characteristics: 1) perfect view; 2) returnable; 3) intransitive; 4) II conjugation. B) Non-permanent morphological signs. Used in the form: 1) imperative mood; 2) plural; 3) 2nd person. III. It is a predicate in a sentence. Covered I. Verb; stands for action; answers the question what did it do? II. N. f. - cover by. Morphological characteristics: A) Permanent morphological characteristics: 1) perfect appearance; 2) non-refundable; 3) transitional; 4) I conjugation. B) Variable morphological characteristics. Used in the form: 1) indicative mood; 2) past tense; 3) singular; 4) neuter. III. It is a predicate in a sentence. Left I. Verb; denotes action; answers the question what did you do? II. N. f. - leave. Morphological characteristics: A) Constant morphological characteristics: 1) perfect view; 2) non-refundable; 3) transition; 4) II conjugation. B) Variable morphological characteristics. Used in the form: 1) indicative mood; 2) past tense; 3) plural numbers. III. It is a predicate in a sentence. She took refuge I. Verb; denotes action; answers the question what did it do? II. N. f. - take cover. Morphological characteristics: A) Constant morphological characteristics: 1) perfect appearance; 2) returnable; 3) intransitive; 4) I conjugation. B) Variable morphological characteristics. Used in the form: 1) indicative mood; 2) past tense; 3) singular; 4) neuter. III. It is a predicate in a sentence. part of speech three part of speech including
Introductory theme
Morphology (from the Greek morphe “form” and logia “study”). Literally: the study of form. This is a section of grammar in which a word is studied in terms of its grammatical properties. Morphology studies the rules for changing words, knowledge of which is necessary to construct a sentence. We will study the grammatical structure of the Russian language. Its feature:
On the one hand, the language very clearly distinguishes between morphology (M) and syntax (S),
On the other hand, M. and S. are closely interconnected and interdependent.
Morphology examines a word in the totality of its forms, while studying not only the mechanism (model) of inflection, but also the nature of its participation in the organization of communicative units. Ex: in Morphology, on the one hand, it is determined how nouns change according to cases, and on the other hand, it is established which meanings in English can be expressed through one or another case.
Morphology studies the forms of words and their semantics, which is usually called grammatical (grammatical semantics = grammatical meaning).
In Morphology, parts of speech are also defined and described, because The nature of inflection in RN is closely related to the part-speech nature of the word. Ex: only the verb changes according to declensions, cases and persons. By gender, number and case: adj., parable, order. numbers Only by case do quantities change. numbers Specifics: there are a number of GCs (morphological features) that can be inherent not in one, but in several parts of speech. Ex: verb, adj., noun change according to numbers. and etc. In addition, there are unchangeable parts of speech in the Russian language. Therefore, when defining and characterizing, you should not rely only on the nature of inflection.
Unchangeable PDs: adverb, gerund, auxiliary (preposition, conjunction, particle, interjection).
The grammatical properties of a word are 1) its part-verbal affiliation, 2) the ability to change in a certain way or be unchangeable, 3) the grammatical meanings of the word.
As a result, Morphology can be defined as a branch of grammar that describes the parts of speech, their grammatical (morphological) forms and grammatical meanings. Vinogradov called this Morphology “the grammatical doctrine of the word.”
Basic concepts of morphology
I. Morphological form of the word.
Linguist Smirnitsky drew attention to the fact that each word represents the unity of the lexical and grammatical. Each word is defined in one way or another in accordance with the grammatical structure of the language. In this sense, each word has a linguistic (grammatical) form. No form - no word. Not all words have a morphological form, but only those words that change.
MFS is a change in a word that preserves its TL. Ex: student, student, students. These are all different forms of one word, one lexeme. Because the lexical meaning is the same. The forms of one word differ in grammatical content (GC). In this regard, two terms are used in Morphology: “word inflection” and “shape formation”. The term “formation” is used both as a synonym for the term “inflection” and more broadly, that is, to designate any morphological forms. In most cases, morphological forms (MF) are combined into one lexeme quite obviously (smart, smart), but there are such changes in words when the identity of the LZ (not all scientists agree with this) with a grammatical difference does not prevent us from considering the forms as different lexemes, and determining the nature of the corresponding formation turns out to be not an easy task.
Ex: eat - eat; erase - erase. Are these forms of one word or words with different LZ?
Some scientists believe that verbs of different types are different words and they have different LEs, while others believe that these are forms of the same word. The above example indicates that the boundary between morphology and word formation in a language is not always clearly marked.
The grammatical form is the unity of the GC and the MP expressing it (GF = GC/MP).
Ex house – houses: house – singular h/ð, houses – plural h/a
Synthetic and analytical forms
1. Synthetic forms – these are forms that contain synthetic MP in their composition. A synthetic material indicator (SMP) is an MP that is part of the sound shell of a word. In RL, the main MP is the ending, less often the formative suffix (suffix of past tense verbs -l-; suffixes of degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs). Because the most frequent SMP in the Russian language is the ending, then the Russian language is called a language of synthetic type.
The formation of synthetic forms can be accompanied by various kinds of accompanying phenomena that take part in the expression of GE:
a) morphonological alternations in the area of vowels and in the area of consonants. Ex: drive – drive; oven - bake; calling - calling; finger - finger.
b) changing the place of stress: hand - hands, grass - grass.
c) extension, truncation of a stem or change of a suffix in a stem: chair - chair[ j a] – increment; dry Well– sokh - truncation; tel puppy– tel yata – suffix change
d) suppletivism, i.e. root changes: I - me, go - walked, child - children, person - people. These pairs contain forms of the same word, but formed from different roots.
*Synthetic forms are primarily created by morphemes (ð and Ù)
2. Analytical forms - these are forms in which the material indicator is located outside the sound shell of the word. Analytical material indicators (AMPs) are auxiliary words that function similarly to morphemes that form synthetic forms. This:
Complex form of future tense (will laugh);
Complex forms of degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs (most Beautiful, more interesting);
Conditional verb form (did would) ;
When identifying analytical forms (AF), it should be borne in mind that the analytical expression of a certain GB cannot always be identified with the formation of a morphological form. In order for a combination of elements to receive the status of a morphological form (MF), at least two conditions are necessary, namely:
a) The regularity of the use of the combination to express a given meaning.
b) The service element (auxiliary word) does not have a separate (its own) LZ.
*Not all linguists classify the comparative degree of adjectives as analytical forms, because the element “more”, in their opinion, retains its LS. The word “more” enters into an antonymic relationship with the word “less” in the RN ®, which means it has a LZ. Those who believe that this is still an analytical indicator believe that this is a residual phenomenon and that soon the word “more” will lose its usefulness.
II. The concept of the morphological paradigm (MPS)
Paradigmatic relations are relations that manifest themselves at all levels of language.
A morphological paradigm is a set of forms of one word. Ex:: the noun has 12 (6 singular case forms and 6 plural case forms); at adj. 24 case forms (6 zh.r., 6 sr.r., 6 m.r., 6 plural). The number of forms in the morphological paradigm of different parts of speech is different, and can also change within the Czech Republic.
Why is a system of word forms called a paradigm? The essence of paradigmatic relations is that the elements of a series are united and opposed at the same value. In the lexical paradigm, the elements of a series are combined and contrasted according to TL, and in the morphological paradigm - according to grammatical meaning.
Morphological paradigms are of two types: general paradigms and private ones:
a) General paradigms include all morphological forms of a word;
b) Particular paradigms combine forms based on one GC. Ex: paradigm of case or number of nouns.
*How many particular paradigms are there in the general verb paradigm? Time, number, mood, person, gender ® 5.
CR system
The modern idea of the Russian language has been formed over a very long time, one might say throughout the development of the science of the grammatical structure of the Russian language. Starting literally from the very first “Grammar” by Lomonosov (this is the first scientific description of RY), and ending with AG-70, AG-80, parts of speech have always been the object of description.
At the moment, the nomenclature of the CR has been defined, which includes the following names of the CR: nouns, adjectives, numerals, pronouns, adverbs, state category, verb, participle, gerund, modal words, prepositions, conjunctions, particles, connectives, interjections, onomatopoeia. These terms are found in different classifications. However, the number of PDs in different works, including different educational literature, is not the same (textbooks - 9, 11, 13). Problem groups: condition words, modal words, gerunds and participles (AG-80 – participles and gerunds: verb forms, modern textbooks - separately). This is explained by the fact that the above-mentioned syncretic categories of lexemes and word forms with part-speech characteristics receive different interpretations. Syncretic categories - combine the characteristics of different parts of the word (participle - the characteristics of a verb and an adjective). Adjective importance: "in cold you can't swim in the water", "he caught her sad"(the meaning is distorted if the adjectives are removed).
The idea of PD as classes obtained on the basis of a set of characteristics was consolidated and became widely accepted after the works of the classic of grammar V.V. Vinogradov (the ability to generalize and classify everything - the works are deep and quite understandable). Based on previous experience and, first of all, on the ideas of Academician Shakhmatov (“Syntax of RY” - looks at CR from the point of view of syntax), L.V. Shcherby (“About the Chechen Republic in the Republic of Yamburg”). Reliance on these basic works and others allowed Vinogradov to take an integrated approach to the distribution of words across the Czech Republic and allowed him to show the need for a comprehensive analysis of a word with its part-speech characteristics. The CR system described by Vinogradov in his book "RYA" is taken as the basis in most modern morphological descriptions of the CR.
At the first stage of classification of the Czech Republic we can distinguish four semantic-grammatical types of words, that is, we base it on grammatical semantics and grammatical characteristics. This:
1. Independent CR (significant, meaningful). Specificity:
a) they express concepts
b) they are morphemic (they have patterns of inflection and morphological methods of formation)
c) they are members of a sentence and form syntactic connections
d) they cannot be given in closed lists (number of words that cannot be counted)
2. Service CR (non-independent, according to Vinogradov, following Shcherba, are particles). Specifics:
a) they do not express concepts. Their meaning is formed on a syntactic basis, and not on the basis of a nominative sign function. Ex: Preposition "S" - with R.p. - conveys the meaning of the spatial relationship (from the mountain) with V.p. - comparative meaning (a cone the size of a nut), with etc. - the meaning of compatibility, etc. The meaning that a preposition will have is influenced by its syntactic functioning.
b) they do not have morphological forms and are not formed by morphological means
c) they are not members of a sentence and do not form syntactic connections, although they are used like a morpheme as a linguistic means of expressing syntactic relationships.
d) function words can be given in closed lists
3. Modal words . According to the characteristics indicated by letters b, c, d similar to auxiliary parts of speech (V.V. Vinogradov noted the closeness of modal words to some modal particles). But they differ from function words in the nature of their language. “Modal words determine the point of view of the speaking subject on the relationship of speech to reality or on the choice of their functions of individual expressions in the composition of speech. In this regard, a feature of the semantics of most modal words is that they are so-called collapsed sentences of a modal nature” (Vinogradov) . Ex: “in my opinion” = “I think.” “I suppose” = “I suppose”, “it seems” = “I suppose”. LZ of modal words indicates that in RL, on the basis of the syntactic function of introductoryness, a special type of lexical semantics is formed. “Modal words lie, as it were, on a different grammatical and subjective-stylistic plane compared to all other elements of the utterance” (Vinogradov).
4. Interjections accompanied by onomatopoeias . They form a special and very specific type of words, located on the periphery of the part-speech system of the language. Reason: interjections, unlike other CRs, are not named, but depicted. Considering their function in language, there is a very specific type of words in RL, located on the periphery of the part-speech system (because the main function is naming, language is communication). We supplement speech with them. They do not express concepts, they are signs of emotions Ex: "oh" - fright, amazement, annoyance." There may be diametrically opposed meanings, depending on intonation ("eh"). Onomatopoeias are not distinguished as CR, they are a specific lexical group of words that is adjacent to interjections; onomatopoeic words imitate and depict sounds. Shchebra, calling interjections “an unclear and foggy category,” reduced their formal, that is, categorical feature, to complete syntactic isolation, the absence of any connections with previous and subsequent elements in the flow of speech.
*When determining the boundaries of the fourth semantic-grammatical class of words, it must be borne in mind that Vinogradov uses the term “interjections” broadly, denoting by it different (peripheral) groups of words, united by the fact that they do not have 1) conceptual semantics and 2) a specific grammatical formality.
**Swearing is very close to interjections.
***To differentiate functional homonyms!!
Further breeding of PD is carried out within the identified four types and in each type it is carried out on different grounds. As for modal words, interjections and onomatopoeias, they are divided into groups only according to LZ.
*Vinogradov relied on a system of word classes
Composition of independent Czech Republics
Independent words are divided into PDs taking into account their semantics (grammatical - the meaning of PDs), morphological forms (+system of paradigms), structural and word-formation features (specific ways of word formation of a particular PD), syntactic functions and syntactic connections. It is possible to identify, with varying degrees of validity, the PD indicated on the diagram of the PD system (the pronoun in AG is considered in the adjective section; adj and number - in AG-3 as counting adj, the problem of assigning pronominal adverbs). There are problems with the scope of concepts (some understand the concept of an adjective narrower, others more broadly). But no one denies the existence of these parts of speech.
In many grammars, following Shcherba and Vinogradov, the “Category of State” (“predicative adverbs”, “predicatives”; predicate = predicate) is singled out as an independent part of speech. At the same time, there is a broad and narrow understanding of this part of speech. In a broad sense, the state category includes all lexemes that, without being verbs, are used only as a predicate (glad, must, obliged, impossible, possible, etc.). In the second case, in the case of a narrow understanding, the composition of words is limited to the function of the predicate in an impersonal sentence, and those sentences in which one main member is expressed by an infinitive are also considered impersonal (“you can’t be silent”, “it’s hard to understand”, “it’s warm outside”, “it’s sunny outside”, “I don’t have time”). A narrower understanding has more adherents. The grammatical features of the state category are considered to be the semantics of the state (semantics of the inactive (!) state), and the use in position during the connective. With a narrow understanding, these characteristics are supplemented by the attribute of immutability. There are non-verbs in the language that take on the function of the verb to be predicated. But identifying words of the state category as separate PDs is still problematic. There are reasons to correlate the concept of a predicate (state category) with the syntactic function of non-verb word forms. These reasons are as follows:
1. There are few predicatives that would not be homonymous with the SF of other parts of speech in the language.
2. The position of the link from the point of view of delimiting the PD does not have a differentiating property. It cannot be replaced by a finite form of the verb and a non-prepositional V.p with the meaning of an object. Use with a copula does not change the part-speech affiliation of the SF, because without a copula a variety of PDs can be used. All nominal HRs as part of a nominal predicate can be used without a copula, and an infinitive can be used without it. Ex “All Mr. Golyadkin’s efforts were to wrap himself (!) in his greatcoat as tightly as possible” – “To wrap himself up” works with the connective, but remains a verb. "Poems? The devil knows what it is" - "the devil knows what it is" - an interjection with a connective).
3. The position of the connective does not create conditions for the formation of the meaning of the state as a special type of categorical semantics. In general, SFs with indicative meaning are combined with the copula; the same SF with the same attribute meaning can be used both in conjunction and in other syntactic places, that is, with a noun, with a verb (Ex: “It’s quiet in the next room” - verb condition, “The wind quietly sways the branches of the birch trees - adverb). The categorical semantics allocated for all independent PDs in the state category is essentially absent (debatable). Many linguists, namely Galkina-Fedoruk, Zolotova, Meshchaninov, Raskopov, note the lexical-semantic heterogeneity of Predicates, which can denote a state as such, and various kinds of relationships, namely modal, spatial, temporal. Vinogradov, describing different types of LZ in a word, noted that the position of the nominal predicate contributes to the development of evaluative semantics in the word (predicative-evaluative type of meaning), which usually does not lead to the formation of homonyms Ex: “The hat is a sight for sore eyes” (noun). According to the observations of Voinkova and Zolotova, among the words classified as state, a large array is formed by evaluative units that are more likely to correspond to short adjectives than to adverbs. Evaluative predicates differ from lexemes with state meaning and constructive-syntactic properties. They express evaluation of the attitude in an action called the infinitive; Moreover, often, as Zolotova showed, they cannot be used as an adverbial definition of the same action. Ex: “It’s interesting to study,” but not “He studied interestingly,” “It’s a sin to complain, but not “He was a sinner to complain.” “It’s useful to go for a walk,” but not “he took a useful walk.” Dividing the categories of state into three groups: 1) words starting with -o (with the meaning of the state of a person or environment); 2) words with the meaning of evaluation 3) words with modal meaning - And in addition, having assessed the role of each group in the organization of the sentence, Zolotova came to the general conclusion that these groups cannot belong to the same lexical-grammatical class (to the same CR).
4. Immutable predicatives that do not have homonyms in other parts of the word, that is, lexemes that are the formal basis of the category of state (it’s impossible, it’s necessary, it’s a pity, it’s possible)- they depict not a state, but a modal assessment. The composition of the SF in sentences like “It was a sin not to help” does not mean that the nouns lose their grammatical properties, since the copula here is conditionally consistent with the infinitive, which occupies the position of an independent main member. The evaluative meaning of nouns is associated with the obligatory choice of an idiom, but this is also observed in other cases of expressing the evaluative-predicative semantics of substantives. Ex: “You are not a hero, but a hat”, “Masha was such a crow.” L.V. Shcherba, who proposed the term “state category” and for the first time described in sufficient detail the words of this group, was not very sure of the correctness of his opinion: “Maybe we are dealing here with a special category of states.”
& Babaytseva introduces the term “state categories” into the textbook. Failure to recognize part-verbal status for the category leads to the need to identify individual lexemes in non-verbs that do not have a main function.
& Analysis of the concept of part of speech
*More difficult to apply to functional parts of speech.
**Analysis of textbooks should be comparative.
***Any phenomenon of reality, including linguistic, can be assessed from three sides:
Essence, content - Civil Code
Plan for the expression of civil law
Functional plan - the functions of a linguistic phenomenon in speech or in some larger unit.
****In a traditional textbook - point by point, Babaitseva has everything in the text - a separate paragraph.
| Traditional textbook | Educational and methodological complex Babaytseva | |
| 1. Determination of the place of a given HR in the system of language units and in the HR system. | Before characterizing the signs of PD, taken separately, a small definition is given: | |
| Noun - CR: that is, the authors of the textbook determine the place of a given language unit in the system of language units. This is precisely a HR, and not a phoneme, lexeme, etc. | Noun - independent CR. Adding “independent” - determines the place of this CR among the CR (independent, not service). | |
| The questions that this CR answers are immediately given: “who?”, “what?” etc. This is not a sign, but a question-based method of distinguishing a given PD from others (can be used as the main one). | ||
| 2. PS (GZ) | The characteristics of the part-verbal meaning of a noun are given: objectivity | |
| A noun names an object | The GZ of a noun is the meaning of the subject. A subject in grammar is anything about which you can ask “who is this?” or “what is this?” Only Babaytseva explains what an object is in grammar. This is good, because for children such a distinction is very important so that they do not confuse a grammatical subject and a subject in life (+ deepening the concept of “subject” in secondary school) | |
| Non-specific nouns are studied (i.e. real, collective, abstract) | ||
| All these categories of nouns are given when characterizing the GZ of a noun (objectivity). That is, the authors insist that these categories be considered as varieties of objective meaning (subtypes of objective semantics). | ||
| 3. PV (for CR – morphological characteristics) | They are given in the same way (set, character, examples), there are no fundamental differences. | |
| A more insistent distinction is made between the classifying category of a noun (constant features) and inflectional categories (non-constant features), | ||
| 4. Functional plan | Syntactic features of CR + characteristics of the main syntactic functions of the noun (subject, object) are given | |
| Syntactic valence is considered, i.e. the ability of the PD to be distributed by dependent elements (adjective + other nouns in oblique cases). The compatibility with adjectives was noted by the authors not by chance: this is a differential feature. |
NOUN
ADJECTIVE
Adjective like CR
Yakubinsky said that the part of speech closest to a verb is an adjective, because it, like a verb, is capable of conveying dynamics. You can say “the table was red” and “the table is red”, “the table will be red when we paint it.” At school - an adjective - for special expressiveness of our speech. But besides this, the adjective performs another important function - clarifying (the girl in the blouse - in a striped blouse)! The main function of an adjective is to clarify the concept of a subject. The topic is very complex - that’s why there is little literature.
An adjective is a nominal part of speech.
Partial meaning. The general categorical and grammatical meaning of an adjective as a part of speech is characteristic. V.V. Vinogradov: “The semantic basis of an adjective is the concept of quality.” But in RL, not only an adjective denotes the quality of characteristics - there is a group of characteristic words (adjectives, participles, ordinal numbers). They all denote some characteristic and change in the same way. All adjectives, like any attribute word, denote a characteristic of an object, but differ from other attribute words in that they denote a attribute inherent in the nature of the object. At school, this characteristic is called a “permanent attribute.” Fifth (ordinal number - quantitative relationship between objects, but does not indicate the properties of houses) house. A house under construction (participle - denotes a non-permanent feature, that is, a feature that appears in an object at a certain point in time). High (adjective - denotes a feature that is constantly inherent in an object, that is, inherent in its nature) house. Peshkovsky once wrote that an adjective denotes characteristics inherent in the nature of an object and always preserved by the bearer. And he said that this special characteristic is especially visible in verbal adjectives. A fidgety child (from fidgeting) - if he gets sick - will not fidget at this time, but this sign is characteristic of this nature, even if he does not show it at the moment. Hot-tempered and so on. There are nuances - a group of words that fully demonstrate qualities, but there are words that are on the periphery of the CR. But if you look at how an adjective works in a sentence, they are heterogeneous.
*to differentiate functional homonyms.
NUMERAL
Formation of the Numeral Name. Development trends (+ textbook).
PRONOUN WORDS.
ADVERB
Adverb as CR
An adverb is an independent expression that denotes a secondary feature; therefore, this expression does not change and in the vast majority of cases it performs the syntactic function of an adverb in a sentence. The term “adverb” was defined as an independent phrase in ancient grammar, and the term “adverb” in translation means “with the verb.” It was primarily understood as a verbal determiner (in Latin grammar). It was perceived in the same meaning by Roman grammarians, and then passed into European grammars with the same meaning.
But even the linguist Barsov in the 18th century noted that the etymological meaning of the term adverb does not correspond to the later functions of this category, because in later times the adverb refers not only to the verb, but also to other PDs (for example, to an adjective - especially the group of power adverbs, less often adverbs refer to nouns - soft-boiled egg).
However, when interpreting the category of adverb, different researchers proceeded from different bases. Until the mid-19th century, adverbs based on one feature, namely paradigmatic invariability, were combined with service PDs into one broad category of particles. Buslaev adhered to this point of view. In the second half of the 19th century, the syntactic criterion gained predominance in views on adverbs (Aksakov, Potebnya, Shakhmatov). The syntactic point of view on the nature of the adverb in RL was contrasted with the morphological one. The essence of the morphological theory is that all adverbs were divided into two categories:
Grammatical adverbs with inflectional forms
Ungrammatical adverbs without inflectional forms
Goes back to the teachings of Fortunatova. Another name is formal.
There have been attempts to define an adverb as a negative category. The essence of this approach: an adverb is every word that is neither a name nor a verb (Karcepski).
An adverb is a special, specific CR; this specificity is given a special connotation by the fact that the adverb is a CR, which was formed later than other CRs. This determines its properties. Definition of V.V. Vinogradova ("Russian Language") - "An adverb is a grammatical category under which non-inclinable, non-conjugated and non-conjugate words are included, adjacent to a verb, to the category of state, to nouns, adjectives and derivatives from them (for example, the same adverbs) and acting in the syntactic function of a qualitative definition or adverbial relation. Adverbs are morphologically correlated with nouns, adjectives, verbs, pronouns and numerals."
Problems: scope of the concept of adverb is currently understood differently - narrowly or broadly. There are different versions of scientists.
1) The problem is whether to consider it as part of adverbs pronominal adverbs (somewhere, sometime, ever, etc.). Even school textbooks convey this information differently - some pronominal adverbs are considered as adverbs, others as pronouns
2) How to treat status words .
Also L.V. Shcherba said that the words of the state are an independent CR. Where should they be classified - as adverbs or identified as a separate expression?
AG-3 considers predicative adverbs (state words) as part of adverbs. School textbooks also treat this problem differently.
Educational and methodological complex of Babaytseva-Chesnova in the list of significant CRs there is no such CR as a word of condition. The material about state words is considered after adverbs, but the first phrase in the paragraph about state words “should not be confused with state words with adverbs.” It turns out that although the CR is not on the list, this group of words has a special status. The idea of the team of authors: Babaytseva and Chesnokova, when publishing the textbook, tried to give us a language as a living, dynamically developing system. And since everything lives and develops in language, then we can assume that the human resource system is also alive and also developing. It turns out that there are PDs that arose a long time ago and their features do not overlap with the features of other PDs (nouns and verbs). On the basis of these PDs, other PDs (adjective, numeral, etc.) arose and these connections can be established. But these CRs also arose a long time ago, and even adverbs in this historical perspective can be attributed to CRs, which appeared in the language quite a long time ago. And later, PDs arose on the basis of existing ones, in which we can easily see signs of different PDs (participles and gerunds) - using their example, it is easy to understand how PDs arise (based on other PDs + something specific, at least a meaning, a syntactic function). In Babaytseva, even the paragraphs devoted to participles are called “signs of the verb in participles”, “signs of adjectives in participles” - that is, the secondary nature is emphasized and on the basis of which they arose.
Today, according to the State Standard in the school textbook, participles and gerunds (although in science this is a problematic issue) are considered as separate CRs. Therefore, the old, traditional textbook in its latest editions says that the sacrament is an independent CR. It turns out: PDs that arose first ® then PDs that arose on their basis (they arose a long time ago, but we can still see how they arose) ® logically this chain is completed by the category - words of state. They were not included in a separate CR, and in the paragraph itself they are not classified as adverbs. That is, these are Czech Republics that, on the one hand, have already gone more than halfway and there is no turning back, but apparently there are still problems, this is a Czech Republic that has not yet been fully formed.
There are other positions. In Babaytseva’s textbook (grades 5-8) - in it she introduces the words state into the list of independent CRs and characterizes them as an established independent CR.
Conclusion: the problem of the scope of the concept of an adverb as a CR.
*see seminar on status words
Adverb like CR means not a procedural sign , that is:
1) a sign of an action or state named by a verb (gets old early, writes beautifully)
2) a sign of a state called the word state (it’s hot outside in the south)
3) a sign of quality, named by an adjective or participle (too cold, loudly singing nightingale)
4) a sign of a characteristic named by the adverb (smells very nice)
5) a sign of a gerund (saying a friendly goodbye)
6) a sign of an object named by a noun (soft-boiled egg)
VERB
“In verbs, our types and inextricably linked combinations of verbs with prepositions give the Russian verb such liveliness and definiteness of shade in relation to the manner of action that no language known to us is able to express.”
N.G. Chernyshevsky
Verb classes
The class of verbs is verbs united by the nature of the relationship between stem variants. For example, worse t - lose weight wow, more t - pain y, sorry t - sorry y, etc. Verbs that have the same ratio of stem endings constitute a class of verbs. There are classes of verbs:
1)Productive verb classes are characterized by such a ratio of formative bases that is used today in the formation of new verbs.
2)Unproductive verb classes are characterized by a ratio of stems with which new verbs are not formed.
Productive classes of verbs.
1) ratio of base options a-ah(read - read, mature - mature, be late - late)
2) ratio of bases e-ey-y(to be able to - they will be able to, to be in time - they will have time,
3) ova (eva) - uh(draw - draw, wander - wander, grieve - grieve)
4) well - n(shout - I’ll shout, push - I’ll push)
5) t"and - t"(to feed - I feed, to love - I love
Given the class of the verb, the conjugation can be determined. Verbs from the first to the fourth productive class will belong to the I conjugation. Verbs of the fifth class will belong to the second conjugation. For unproductive verbs with a stressed ending, the conjugation is determined by the ending. Unproductive verbs with an unstressed ending will have I conjugation, except for 11 exception verbs and their prefix formations.
Abstraction in language generally presupposes broad generalization. Verbal categories are very generalized, that is, they do not reflect real meaning.
Ex. Tell – swim – jump out. All these verbs have different LZ, that is, they differ from each other in LZ, but they will all be united by aspectual semantics, in this case, the meaning of effectiveness.
Ex-2. Thought - would think - think. Verbs are different, each has its own LZ, but all verbs, without exception, can take the form of any mood, correlating the action with reality.
Words differ from each other not only in lexical meaning. All of their many are usually divided into groups - parts of speech. This gradation occurs on the basis of the grammatical meaning of words and their special features - morphological.
Morphology - section of the Russian language
A whole branch of science called morphology deals with the parts of speech. Any word has its own characteristics: general meaning, grammatical meaning, as well as morphological and syntactic features. The first indicates the same meaning of a particular part of speech. For example, designating an object with nouns, its attribute with adjectives, verbs - action, and participles - attribute by action.
Syntactic features are the role of a particular part of speech in a sentence. For example, verbs, as a rule, are predicates, less often - subjects. Nouns in a sentence can be objects, adverbs, subjects, and sometimes predicates.
What are the morphological characteristics
A much more extensive group of morphological characteristics, permanent and unstable. The first characterize the word as a specific part of speech. For example, a verb is always determined by its conjugation, aspect, and transitivity. Variable morphological features indicate that a part of speech has the ability to change. For example, a noun changes according to cases and numbers - these will be its unstable characteristics. But adverbs and gerunds are unchangeable parts of speech; accordingly, they only need to indicate constant signs. The same goes for auxiliary parts of speech and interjections.
Before analyzing the morphological characteristics of parts of speech, it is worth noting that it is necessary to distinguish between a word and its form. Words differ from each other in lexical meaning, and when they change, their forms are formed. For example, the word “plot” has the lexical meaning of “fenced part of the area”, and its forms will be changed by case: plot, plot, plot, about the plot.
Noun
By indicating the constant morphological characteristics of a noun, we say whether it is a common noun or a proper noun, animate or inanimate, and we also determine the type of its declension and gender.
Common nouns denote a collection of objects without highlighting their individual features. For example, by the word “river” we mean all rivers: large and small, northern and southern, full-flowing and not so deep. But if we indicate a specific river, one of a kind, for example, the Neva, the noun will be proper.
Objects of living nature are classified as animate nouns, all others are classified as inanimate. These are constant morphological features of a noun. Dog (who?) - animate; table (what?) - inanimate. Also, nouns of these categories differ in the forms of the accusative and genitive cases. The endings in the genitive and accusative cases of the plural coincide for animate ones, and for inanimate ones - accusative and nominative.
Let's give an example. Genitive case: there are no (who?) cats; accusative: I see (who?) cats. Let's compare: I see (what?) chairs; there are (what?) chairs.
The following genders are distinguished: male, female and neuter. To determine these morphological features of a noun, it is necessary to substitute the pronouns my - my - mine respectively.
We present the declension of nouns in the table:
Variable morphological features of a noun are its case and number. These categories form the forms of the word-noun.
Adjective
Just like a noun, the morphological features of an adjective are divided into constant and inconstant.
The first are its category, degree of comparison and form, full or short.
Adjectives are divided into qualitative, relative and possessive. The subject may have the former to one degree or another; they can appear in full or brief form, and also form degrees of comparison. For example: beautiful is a qualitative adjective. Let's prove it. It is characterized by such morphological features of the adjective as degree of comparison (more beautiful, most beautiful) and short form (beautiful). Relative adjectives cannot have these categories (golden, hazy, razor). Possessives denote ownership; they answer the question “whose?”
Degrees of comparison are divided into comparative and superlative. The first shows a greater or lesser degree of any quality: tea is sweeter - less sweet - sweeter. The superlative degree denotes the highest or lowest degree of a characteristic: the shortest, the funniest, the smallest.
The full and short forms are inherent in qualitative adjectives. It should be remembered that short ones do not decline, but they can be changed according to numbers and genders: cheerful (full form) - cheerful (m.gen., singular) - cheerful (f.r., singular) - cheerful (plural ).
Variable morphological features of an adjective are the forms of case, number and gender in which it is used. The category of gender can only be determined for adjectives in the singular.
Numeral
The constant morphological characteristics of a word that is a numeral are its category and structural characteristics.
There are quantitative and ordinal numerals. The first require an answer to the question “how much?” (ten, fifteen, twenty-five), the second - “what is the count?” (tenth, fifteenth, twenty-fifth).
- Simple (five, second).
- Difficult (thirteen, fifteenth).
- Compounds (twenty-two, three hundred and forty-one).
The inconsistent features of a numeral name are largely determined by its rank. Thus, cardinal numbers are characterized by changes only in cases. Ordinal numbers are similar in grammatical parameters to adjectives, therefore they can form case forms and change in number and gender.
Pronoun
If we talk about a pronoun, then its morphological characteristics largely depend on which part of speech it is close in grammatical meaning. They can gravitate towards a noun, adjective or numeral. Let's look at pronouns and their morphological features in this context.
Pronouns-nouns are characterized by unchangeable categories of person (personal) and formative gender, number, and case.
Adjective pronouns can also be changed by gender, number and case. The exception is words her, him, them- they do not change by case.
Only pronouns - numerals - have a case form.
So, when determining what morphological characteristics a pronoun has, you first need to look at the category and indicate the remaining characteristics accordingly.
Verb: constant signs
The constant morphological features of a verb are its aspect, transitivity, reflexivity and conjugation.
Verbs come in two types, perfect and imperfect. The first involves the question “what to do?”, the second - “what to do?”. For example, move (what to do?) - perfect form; move (what to do?) - imperfect form.
The transitivity category assumes that the verb controls a noun in the accusative case without a preposition. All other verbs will be intransitive. Let's give an example: hate (who, what?) enemy, lie, fog - a transitive verb. To go into the house, fly through the sky, jump over a step, get a sore throat - these verbs are intransitive, nouns with prepositions, and the accusative case cannot be formed.
The reflexive verb has the suffix -sya (-s): to bathe, bathe (reflexive); bathe - non-refundable.
We present the verb conjugation in the table:
Verb: inconstant signs
Variable morphological features of a verb are its number, mood, gender, tense and person. These categories are largely determined by others. For example, verbs in the indicative mood change over time. Imperfective verbs are the only ones that have three forms of tense.
Verbs in the Russian language have three forms of mood: indicative (I bake, I will bake, I baked), imperative (bake) and conditional (bake).
Verbs also change according to gender: he swam, she swam, it swam. This category is typical for past tense verbs.
The person of the verb indicates who is performing the action: the speaker himself (I am cleaning), the interlocutor (you are cleaning) or the subject/person of the conversation (she is cleaning).
As with a pronoun, you first need to look at the category and indicate the remaining characteristics accordingly.
Participle
The constant morphological features of the participle are aspect, transitivity, reflexivity, voice and tense.
Just like verbs, participles come in perfect and imperfect forms: working (what to do? work) - imperfect form; built (what to do? build) - perfect form.
If the participle is formed from a transitive or reflexive verb, the same features will be preserved in it. For example, from the transitive verb “to lock” the participle “locking” (locked) is formed - it also has this category. From the reflexive verb “to lock” the participle “locked” is formed, which is therefore also reflexive.
Participles can be active (the attribute is performed by the object itself: the thinker is the one who thinks) and passive (the object experiences the effect of the attribute: a written book is a book that was written by someone).
Two forms of tense can be distinguished for participles: present (player) and past (played).
The inconsistent morphological features of a participle are similar to an adjective: gender, number, case, form (short or full).
Participle
The participle is an unchangeable part of speech, therefore it has exclusively constant characteristics:
- View. Perfect (by doing what? - reading) and imperfect (by doing what? - reading).
- Transitivity. It is transmitted from the verb: having decided (decide is a transitive verb); going (go is an intransitive verb).
- Returnability. Distributed - reflexive gerund; having distributed - irrevocable.
Adverb
Just like a gerund, an adverb does not form a form. Thus, only constant morphological features are indicated: rank in meaning and if the adverb is qualitative, i.e. formed from an adjective, indicate the degree of comparison.
For example, the adverb “fun” is formed from the adjective cheerful, therefore it is possible to form degrees of comparison: cheerfully (positive); more fun (comparative); the most fun of all (excellent).
In Russian, the verb is characterized by constant and variable features. The article describes these features in detail, indicating which verb forms they correspond to. Illustrative examples are also given to test the material learned.
Morphological features are a number of grammatical categories inherent in a certain part of speech. Morphological features of a verb in Russian are: permanent And changeable.
Constant morphological features of verbs
Constant grammatical features of verbs are inherent in all forms of the verb, regardless of the speech situation in which the word is used. They are typical for conjugated forms of verbs, infinitives, participles and gerunds.
- View– perfect (examples: subtract, collect) and imperfect (read, run);
- Repayment– returnable (share, gather), non-refundable (stand up, speak);
- Transitivity– transitional (take, meet) and intransitive (go, make noise);
- Conjugation type–I (work, grow) and II conjugation (feed, stand).
Variable morphological features of verbs
Inconstant grammatical categories of verbs are inherent only in conjugated forms of verbs and participles. These morphological features depend on the specific speech situation.
TOP 2 articleswho are reading along with this
- Mood– indicative (examples: read, love), imperative (read, love) and conditional (I would read it, I would love it); inherent in conjugated forms of verbs;
- Number– plural (drew, made) and the only thing (draw, done); characteristic of conjugated forms and participles;
- Time– the category is inherent in conjugated forms of the indicative mood (did, am doing, will do, taught, teach, will teach);
- Face– the feature is characteristic of conjugated forms of the present indicative mood (I buy, she buys) and future tense (you will buy, you will buy), as well as imperative mood (buy, buy);
- Genus– the category is inherent in participles (remade, specified), as well as conjugated forms of the past tense singular of the indicative mood (remade, pointed) and conditional mood (I would redo it, it would indicate).
