Travel insurance for climbers. Top belay Mountaineering belay insurance company
But even the use of certified equipment does not provide guarantees - the use of equipment with errors or the use of erroneous techniques is also very dangerous. Let's consider the forces that act on different elements of the safety chain during a fall. Attention!
In all calculations, we assume the weight of the person who has fallen is 80 kg, but we must remember that if the weight of the person who has fallen is greater than 80 kg, the efforts will increase significantly. For example, if the jerk with a fall weight of 80 kg and a jerk factor of 1.7 (this is the standard for testing according to the UIAA) is 8.3 kN, then with a fall weight of 114 kg and similar other conditions, the jerk will be 11.1 kN, which is very close to the established The UIAA safety limit for a breakaway is 12 kN. And the main thing is that in this case, a force of more than 18 kN will be applied to the intermediate belay point, which is far beyond the strength limit for any belay equipment except stationary (bolt) hooks.
Therefore, you should pay the most serious attention to the weight of the leader, and give yourself a truthful answer - how much you weigh with all your clothes, backpack, equipment, bivouac, etc. Your safety directly depends on this answer. By assessing the weight of the person who has fallen off, you can estimate the maximum jerk factor, a fall with which will not injure the person who has fallen off and will not lead to the destruction of the safety chain.
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Today this is one of the most reliable parts of the safety chain; modern standards do not even stipulate its strength; the strength of the maximum jerk is a much more important factor. All modern ropes guarantee that the load on the person who has fallen off the hook with a load weight of 80 kg and a jerk factor of 1.77 is no more than 9 kN, which leaves a reserve for the aging of the rope, its getting wet, etc., in any conditions the jerk will not exceed the established one UIAA safety limit of 12 kN. According to independent tests, the strength of modern static and dynamic ropes is at least 15 kN with a figure eight knot. Which again gives an almost double safety margin. When using ropes like Half(double, half) or Twin(double) also increases the reliability of the safety chain from breaking the rope with stones or from breaking on a sharp edge. Strength and dynamic characteristics of Half and Twin are not inferior to the characteristics of single ropes. Forces acting on the intermediate belay point.
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This factor makes the upper intermediate point the most loaded and, accordingly, the weakest link in the safety chain. Look at your equipment, you do not have any of the devices for organizing intermediate belay points (with the exception of ice screws) that can withstand a jerk of 15 kN, which occurs at the intermediate point with a jerk force of 9 kN. And these are only the passport characteristics of the equipment, which do not take into account the fragility of the rock and errors when installing equipment on the terrain.
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Based on this knowledge, failures with a jerk factor > 1 are possible only when using stationary (bolt) hooks, the strength of which is in the range from 18 to 22 kN, as intermediate belay points. Climbing carabiners, loops and quickdraws withstand a load of at least 22 kN, which is sufficient for use anywhere in the safety chain.
Attention!
Despite the fact that loops and guys have the necessary safety margin, it should be remembered that their dynamic characteristics differ little from those of a steel cable. This is especially noticeable on short guy ropes, the main length of which is made up of stitching in three layers of tape and safety stations, in which the loops are used folded 2, 4 or even 6 times. An increase in the number of simultaneously loaded branches leads to a significant decrease in the dynamic characteristics of the loop. Safety device.
Standard for belay/belay devices UIAA introduced only in 2012; devices released before that time were tested only by the manufacturer. Independent tests have shown that a regular “eight” can withstand a load of more than 30 kN; devices such as the reverse and Sticht washer also have the necessary safety margin. To date UIAA recommends for mountaineering devices based on the Sticht Washer principle (glass, basket, reverse, ATX-XP, ATX-XP Guide etc.), devices of the “eight” type are considered “old school” devices in the catalogs of many companies.
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On the contrary, in the practice of using figure eights in Russia, a very dangerous stereotype has developed - the figure eight rope is threaded through a carabiner, and not through the “neck” of the device.
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The main quality of a belay station is its reliability - the ability to withstand a jerk of the maximum possible force. This characteristic is achieved by distributing the load over several insurance points and the presence of duplication/safety - which ensure that the station performs its functions in the event of failure of one or more elements. Organizing stations at one point is possible only if it is an absolutely reliable point - a monolithic rocky ledge, a reliable living tree, etc.
Organizing the station on one stationary hook (bolt) is unacceptable! Recommendations for organizing a belay station are set out in sufficient detail in the work “Organization of belay stations” in accordance with the recommendations thereof. Mountaineering Union DAV" and many other manuals. You can see
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Let's consider several situations with different methods of securing a belay device.
Situation 1.The leader falls and hangs on the rope, which passes through the intermediate belay point. The belay device is fixed to the station. In this case, a force equal to 0.66 of the force on the person who has fallen (up to 6 kN) acts on the safety device and, if it is attached to the station, then on the station in the UP direction. Usually a leader, when organizing a station, expects it to apply a load in the opposite direction - DOWN, which is understandable - he needs to organize self-insurance, insure the second and the worst case for which the station is designed is a fall with a jerk factor of 2 directly onto the station (if there are intermediate points no, or they will not withstand), all these forces are directed DOWN. When such a station is loaded UP, with a high degree of probability, its destruction will occur under minor loads - the embedded elements are very sensitive to the direction of application of force, the same applies to stations on rock ledges and hooks. And if after this there is a failure of the intermediate point, then a complete loss of insurance is possible.
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The main way to avoid such a development of events is to install the first intermediate belay point in the immediate vicinity of the station. If there is such a possibility, the leader sets this point without yet unfastening the lanyard or without releasing the station loop from his hands. There is also a tactical move for safely organizing the first intermediate point.
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With such a jerk, the load on the point will exceed 15 kN; no standard climbing equipment for organizing belay points on rocky terrain can withstand such loads. The use of this method can be justified only when organizing a station on stationary bolts, to eliminate friction of the ropes at the station and to slightly reduce the jerk factor. Also in these figures, the first principle of organizing a safety station is violated - there is no load distribution over several points. When attaching a belay device to a station when belaying a second person or when belaying on a descent, the belay device is attached to the station as shown in the figure. With this method, the braking in the device is insufficient and in the event of a strong jerk or the need to hold for a long time, problems may arise. This method is almost similar to belaying with a carabiner. When using reverse-type devices in the auto-locking mode, belaying the second becomes very simple, the device automatically fixes the rope, the belayer only has to choose the rope. Tests of such devices in auto-locking mode have shown that they can withstand a load of only up to 6 kN without damaging the rope, which means that the rope must be selected carefully, avoiding sagging, in order to prevent a fall with a jerk factor other than 0. An additional note about stalling with a jerk factor of 0.
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Self-belay when climbing in a pair. The leader and the belayer are tied to the rope and the self-belay is organized from the safety rope using a stirrup knot.
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Instilled " the lanyard must be made from the main dynamic rope" is absolutely true and relevant. But such lanyards and especially the nodes at its ends turn out to be quite bulky and not very convenient to use and adjust. Adjusting the length of the lanyard is possible either by tying knots on it or using a grasping knot. It should be recalled that, according to the recommendations of the UIAA, to tie a grasping knot, a Prus knot is tied in three turns from a cord with a diameter of 7 mm.
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When using these lanyards, you should remember their potential danger and follow the following rules - correctly attach the safety carabiner, correctly shorten the lanyard and, most importantly, avoid a situation in which a failure may occur with a factor greater than or equal to 1 on the lanyard. The main rule is The lanyard must be taut at all times ! Unfortunately, when working in a large group, climbing with novice climbers, and especially when carrying out rescue operations, it is not possible to follow this rule. Therefore, such self-insurance is not applicable for these types of activities. A standard situation is that there are 6 people at the station, the leader asks to unfasten his lanyard and starts moving. But they do not unfasten it, but another lanyard and, having made the first movement, the leader “rests” against the tense lanyard and breaks away with a jerk factor of 2 to the station.
We have already discussed the danger of such a breakdown above. This is a more than common situation.
When carrying out rescue operations, the situation is even more dangerous - rescuers actively move around the station and work with heavy loads, all these actions often take place in the dark and in conditions of some confusion. The danger of going out on a lanyard above the station and falling with a high jerk factor during RPS is very high. The use of adjustable self-belays for aided equipment - cliffs - for self-belaying poses a great danger.
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But the rules of use remain the same - The lanyard must be taut at all times ! A fall with a jerk factor of more than 1 is dangerous on any lanyard! One of the most convenient and functional lanyards of this type is the Beal Dinaconnexion model and similar models from other manufacturers. Made by stitching from a rope with a diameter of about 8 mm, this lanyard provides two attachment points, which allow you to organize lanyards and rappelling with great convenience.
On the descent, a descending device is attached to the middle point of the self-belay - at a distance of 40 cm from the climber, and a long lanyard - 80 cm is attached to the station. This configuration is very convenient when using a descent with belay using an automatic block unit.
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The bottom belay is carried out through a belay device attached to the belayer.
The top belay is carried out through a belay device attached to the station.
The first intermediate belay point should be organized in the immediate vicinity of the station, the second point should exclude the possibility of falling onto the first point with a high jerk factor.
Give eights, daisy chains and sling self-fears to your enemies.
Always (even when climbing with a top rope) tie the rope to the gazebo with a figure eight knot; using a carabiner is unacceptable. We will consider the issues of organizing belay points, the equipment used, components and errors in their organization in the next article.
If you earn your living by performing high-altitude work using industrial mountaineering, then one of the most important issues for you is the issue of safety. If it is not important to you, then the effectiveness of this work will most likely not be obvious as a result, since you will need to spend quite a lot of money on treatment or funeral. In this article I will try to convey the main aspects of this philosophy in the simplest approximation and for the basic and simple version, working in unsupported space.
Yesterday I once again talked with the boobies who have a wrong understanding of the issue of ensuring personal safety and this is not the problem, but the fact that the boobies consider themselves to be quite successful and accomplished professionals. In addition, yesterday, hurray, I received a sample of a new belay device from CAMP, called .
In this article, I immediately want to outline the framework, we are talking about working on a rope in an unsupported space, that is, a system when the descent and safety rope are fixed at the top and you use this rope (or ropes if horizontal movements are necessary) to descend or ascend, performing insurance for a separate rope (or ropes in case of significant separation of the descents). Providing insurance when working in a support space requires a different theory and description.
Obvious
To begin with, I will once again reveal obvious and already boring, of course, banal truths.
- The safety rope should always be there, no matter 300 meters below you or 3
- The panic reflex is a reality, not a made-up theory. The greatest danger in insurance methods is associated with this concept.
- A safety rope should almost never be used for purposes other than belaying unless absolutely necessary. There are exceptions, but they are not discussed within the scope of this article. The safety rope must fulfill a strictly defined role assigned to it.
- The safety rope should not be dynamic (with an elongation greater than 6 percent at a load of 80 kg), nor should it be superstatic with an elongation less than 3 percent.
- If the main one breaks, the belay rope should not launch you into an exciting flight with an unknown pendulum ending, because it was secured to the side of the main one.
- The promalp must clearly understand what happens and happens when the main rope breaks. Most often, accidents occur at low altitudes, when the depth of the fall is greater than the reaction depth of the belay device.
Reasonableness (I urge you to turn on your brain)
You can ensure safe work using almost any type of insurance. You can successfully belay yourself using a prusik made from an 8-mm cord, properly tied to a rope, a jumar, or numerous cheap drop-type clips, which, of course, I do not encourage you to do. This is acceptable in extreme cases, it seems to me, but if this is the norm and not the exception, this method is completely ineffective from the point of view of work productivity and is dangerous because of the constant temptation to break the rule. By understanding what happens when a dynamic load occurs on the safety rope and clamp, there is every chance of remaining on the list of alive and healthy people.
Understanding the dangers of such an effect as the panic reflex gives all the advantages in the game that we all play from birth to death. The illusion of reliability is very high. There is not a single chance that if the rope breaks, you will let go of the belay device, and this fact is no longer theoretical.
Using dynamics for insurance. You can just do the math. 100 meters above you. Below you is 10 to the ground. Your weight is 80 kg. You are using ASAP, which does not cause unnecessary slippage. A break in the main rope sends you into a fall. Dynamics is an elastic band, so by the time it begins to try to arrest the fall, you will have accumulated enough kinetics. Dynamic elongation is usually 7-9 percent for a load of 80 kg. That is, even without taking into account the kinetics of the fall in a static state, you will hang 1-3 meters from the ground. But this will not happen, because you are not made of cotton wool, but of meat, and the meeting with the earth will be such that it will not leave you a chance to walk home on your own two feet.
The use of superstatic materials made from the strongest aramid, Kevlar, Dyneema and other materials is also unacceptable. Insurance triggering is always a dynamic process. Therefore, the loads when triggered on superstatics will be prohibitive for the attachment point, the device and you. The result may not be very good.
Trump ASAP
Released by Petzl not long ago with the claim of being the ideal belay device. It is mandatory with a 20 or 40 cm shock absorber when used, contrary to the common belief that it is normal without a shock absorber. ASAP solves the main problem in ensuring safety - eliminating the panic reflex. Fixation will happen in any case, whether you grab it or not. The operating depth, as far as I know, is about a meter in practice. That is, if the rope breaks, you will fly the distance allowed by the length of the shock absorber and the position of the device at the moment of the fall and the depth of slipping until it is completely fixed.
It is also necessary to mention the problem of blowing out the rope at a time when there is a lot of it above you, but not so much below you. The wind can pull the rope out of the device and the more it is pulled, the greater the depth of the fall if this situation occurs.
To summarize, I want to convince you that even such an ideal device as ASAP does not allow you to forget about the constant monitoring of this link.
Sliding devices, try to overtake
The principle of the devices is that they slide along the rope and do not require participation during descent or ascent. Therefore, they are always below the point where the lanyard is attached to the system, so when triggered, a fall to a certain depth will always be ensured. The device is triggered by a slight acceleration of the rope passing through it. All devices of this kind have the ability to manually block free sliding, in which case it can be fixed above the point and ensure a minimum fall depth. At the same time, they all have a slippage along the rope before fixing, some more, some less. Therefore, the shorter the length of the lanyard, the better. The recommended length is 40 cm. This is a quite comfortable length, which allows you to avoid the inconvenience of the clamp getting in the way during operation and at the same time providing a small fall depth. Blowing out of the rope in these devices does not occur due to sensitive operation, which does not allow the rope to slip up. The panic reflex, as a possibility of bad developments, is minimized, despite the fact that this risk still exists. You can accidentally grab the device if you fall.
The current leader in quality and reliability is obviously from CAMP. Providing a minimum sliding depth, it is also designed for use with a load of up to 200 kg. The most popular is Kong BackUp, which has gained popularity due to its adequate cost and good characteristics. It has saved the lives of more than one of my friends, and precisely due to the device’s quick response to a fall.
Clamps that require discipline, which generally cannot be used, and yet everyone uses them
For many riggers, the use of clamps that need to be moved along the rope by hand has cost them life and limb. There are two reasons, or rather dangers. The first and most important is the panic reflex. If the main rope breaks while the hand is holding the clamp, a normal and healthy person will not let go. The instinct of self-preservation is the strongest of instincts, and overcoming it with awareness of the situation requires time many times greater than the time allotted for reaction. In practice, a person cannot even remember what happened if he, of course, is still alive. The second reason is that often the clamp is too low because the climber simply did not move it when climbing the rope. There is a high degree of bad developments in this situation. A person can fly to the ground if the height is not high. The rope may be bitten, melted, or the shirt may be removed from it. There are also clamps that have become deformed and broken in practice. The most common type in this numerous type are devices called drop
Some clamps can be pulled up the rope without assistance, if the weight of the rope going down allows it. Our most common one is, and his younger brother. You can use these clips quite safely for belaying, because they have very good dynamic and ergonomic properties. The main thing is to remember the panic reflex and when descending, move the device not by taking it with your hand, but by pinching the very bottom with your thumb and forefinger. When moving upward, in order to reduce the depth of a possible fall, in practice, I place the lanyard over the bend of the arm pushing the jumar. In this case, the clamp is always as high as possible. But these clips are not safety clips; they are designed for other purposes. I am writing about them now only because they are in any case better from a security point of view than those described in the last paragraph and that is why I am writing about them.
IRATA allows
And now the main class of devices, which is acceptable for insurance, subject to discipline and excluding the main danger in the form of a panic reflex. This is the practice of IRATA, an association that has never had a fatality in its history to my knowledge, and their philosophy of using towable devices.
There are several belay devices that allow you to pull them along the rope without touching the clamp itself with your hands. This is in particular Pezl Shunt, DMM Catch, recently appeared S.Tec Duck R. Also, a good device that works on this principle was proposed by the guys from Krok, who tested it for failure with factors 1 and 2. All these devices are united by the way they are used for insurance. They move by additional laces, which, if triggered, cannot be held by hand or snap off when broken. Therefore, using the example Petzl Shunt, a short cord is tied into the places intended for it and, when working, is held between the main and index fingers (and only this way). At the moment, as far as I know, Petzl officially says that Shant is not applicable for insurance, but to be honest, I don’t know whether IRATA is currently using it for insurance. I don’t see any significant differences in terms of security between the Shant and other devices in this class.
All the rest
All other insurance options are outside of this article; it seems to me that they are used by very brave people who obviously consider industrial mountaineering an extreme sport. I am writing this paragraph primarily to those guys who yesterday convinced me that they are absolutely confident in themselves when they work on two separated ropes using two inherently sports Gri-gri.
So it goes.
Timur Akhmedkhanov, industrial climber
Climbing insurance – first experience of communicating with insurance companies
Do you need climbing insurance? This question interested me in Soviet times, but then it seemed not very important. No, of course, in the event of death the family could receive some money, but this seemed to be little for the insured directly. I have been involved in mountain tourism for twenty years. And in my groups there were rescue operations, there were also in the groups of my friends, but somehow they all took place without the participation of official representatives. The group members pulled, the oncoming teams helped, but all this was on a voluntary, not official, and especially not monetary basis. Yes, I defended the route in the MKK, registered with the KSS, but I always clearly understood that they would not provide real assistance in the event of an emergency. No, the ICC usually has qualified people who can give a lot of useful advice on the route, but what can they do in case of an emergency? The maximum is to organize a search for bodies after the end of the control period.
The same applies to KSS. The only case of help from KSS was more like a curiosity. We did a foursome for the Moscow championship (Digoria, Tsei). The hike was very difficult, there were many passes, and on the descent from the last one, when grass was already visible on the horizon, I relaxed and began to vigorously explain to the first team that they should move faster or give way to us, as a result, I lost concentration, lost control and pulled my wife away. During the jerk, the rope caught her hand and broke her finger, so she could not hold me. Having safely flown over the Bergschrundt on the snow bridge, we stopped, injected Irina with a painkiller and, as best we could, fixed the finger that was broken at 90 degrees. Then I ran downstairs with her to look for a doctor. There were no doctors in two (!) alpine camps and I caught a car that took us to the hospital in Ordzhonikidze, now Vladikavkaz. While paying the driver, I was surprised to learn that he was from KSS. This was the only case of help from KSS during all my campaigns. No, the KSS probably saved someone, but most likely in crowded places, for example on Elbrus, and not in remote corners, where my hikes usually took place.
Real help always came from other groups, but not from everyone either. I noticed that our groups and groups from Eastern Europe always come to the rescue, but there is little hope for Westerners. Apparently they believe that rescue work is not their business, but the business of the rescuers. The understandable position is, of course, it is better when professionals are involved in the rescue, especially when they are in this place.
This year, when I decided to go to Mont Blanc, I remembered this feature of the behavior of Westerners. Of course, the Alps are the most salvageable region on the planet; real professionals work here, but they also receive real, not symbolic, salaries for this. And who will pay for such expenses if, God forbid, something happens? After all, regular insurance, without which you will not be allowed to go abroad, is not valid in the mountains. Thinking about this, I went to the insurance company where the French insured me when applying for a visa - to AVIKOS.
“There are no problems,” the smiling girl assured me. “You pay extra according to the risk factor and get the climbing insurance you need.” “Will you pay for a helicopter for rescue work?” – I ask, remembering the terrible sums that an hour of helicopter flight during rescue operations cost in Soviet times. “Of course, don’t worry, everything will be fine,” the girl answers and takes the money. Then he enters the required days into the insurance policy.
The thought vaguely creeps in that it would be nice to study the contract in detail. And it’s strange that the girl didn’t give me new documents, but simply wrote the words mountaineering on a standard form. But maybe this always happens, I haven’t had any experience taking out mountaineering insurance yet. And it’s hard to believe that such an event will happen, because we don’t go to the mountains to be rescued.
August 2003. In Europe there has been terrible heat for two months. The snow melted, cracks became exposed, the technical difficulty of the routes increased and, in addition, heavy rockfalls began. It rained very heavily during the climb from the Tet Rus hut to the Gute hut, in the so-called “couloir of death”. Irina was just watching the Macedonian when a large stone hit him. Death before our eyes is a great nervous shock, but in the morning we still got up and went to Mont Blanc. During the ascent, the situation worsened even more; rain fell not only in the couloir, but all over the slope; several people were killed and several were injured.
A rescue helicopter was constantly circling in the air. In the end, the French authorities decided that the number of victims was too high and closed the passage between the Gute and Tete Rus huts. The mayor of Le Zoucha opened an air corridor to the Gute hut to evacuate climbers stranded there.
Helicopters were lowering people all day and by the time we returned from the top, there was no one in the camp. What to do? The descent is closed, and it’s pouring so much that you don’t want to go there. Climb up Guta and follow the path of the pioneers across the Bosson Glacier? But everything there was so melted, such rubbish, that there were no traces of passage. Wait until the rockfalls stop? How long will we wait, will there be enough gas (we have to melt the snow) and food, and will we be able to catch the plane to Moscow?
There is only one thing left - a rescue helicopter, especially since the last one is leaving in an hour. This is an evacuation by order of the authorities and the tariff is reduced - 500 euros per board, but still the amount is not small. But why should I worry, I discussed exactly this situation with the insurance company.
I'm calling on my cell phone to Moscow. The polite boy replies that today is a day off and I need to call back tomorrow. “Tomorrow will be late, this is the last helicopter. Tomorrow there will be no corridor here and no one will be able to fly in.” “Okay, go down, but take all the documents.”
We quickly pack up and fly down. I take the bill, which says that I was evacuated from Mount Gute due to a threat to my life. I take copies of French newspapers describing the situation on Guta.
I'm calling Moscow. A less friendly voice on the phone explains to me that since I was not injured, then the insured event did not occur. However, come to the office in Moscow, we’ll sort it out.
Returning to Moscow, I go to the beautiful multi-story office of an insurance company. I am greeted by a completely unfriendly aunt. “What did you come for? You won't get any money. Look at the contract, clause such and such. There was no medical assistance, was there? But saving a life is not medical care. Did they kill people? And insurance does not cover mental injuries either.”
“And if I refused to evacuate and walked into a rockfall, would I receive insurance in case of injury?”
“No, because the descent was prohibited and this would be regarded as a deliberate creation of an insurance situation, almost like suicide”
“So I wouldn’t have received the money anyway?”
"Yes exactly".
What conclusions can be drawn from my first experience of such insurance?
Still, you need to insure yourself, but in some companies proven by climbers, it would be good to find out which ones, and best of all in those that pay bills on the spot, since it is much more difficult to get money back in Moscow. It is clear that it is difficult for a non-lawyer to immediately grasp all the pitfalls that the insurance company will rely on when refusing to pay you for rescue work, but still, you should not rely on a standard contract, and especially not take the word of pretty girls, but you should spend a few hours for a detailed study of the clauses of the contract. This will help you save money when climbing in Europe.
If you look at how ascents were made in the recent past, it is easy to see that significant changes are taking place. Scientific and technological progress is steadily changing the face of mountain climbing. The quality of mountain equipment is changing, new materials and technologies are being used, and this immediately affects the climbing technique. This article examines the issues of using ropes and belay techniques, which are the most important issues of ensuring safety in mountaineering, tourism, rock climbing and some other extreme sports.
Basic Concepts
Let’s immediately agree that in the future we will consider the belay technique as applied only to mountaineering. The use of insurance for other purposes is not fundamentally different and is not considered in this work.
So, the main concepts that we will encounter in this work:
Climbing- an unmotivated action taken by a group of people (from one to several hundred people), nevertheless having the goal of reaching the top of the mountain along a path they have chosen, more or less difficult, leaving a note there, and then going down as quickly as possible.
Bunch- two or more people tied with one rope.
Rope- a special rope certified according to the UIAA standard (details below), or in its properties as close as possible to this standard.
Insurance- a series of measures aimed at preventing the possibility of injury to climbers as a result of their falling from a greater or lesser height onto an unprepared mountain surface.
Base (or insurance point)- the most convenient place from which insurance is carried out. The base is equipped with reliable belay points (usually at least 2 belay points), which are interlocked with each other.
Belay point- a safety element fixed to mountainous terrain with maximum efficiency. The rope is snapped into the belay point using a carabiner. It is advisable to use guy ropes for freer movement of the rope.
Carbine- a metal product, steel, titanium or duralumin, with or without a coupling.
System- consists of a gazebo and harness, or only a gazebo, and is worn on a person. The rope is tied into the system or connected to the system using a carabiner with a coupling.
Braking device- a metal product to create additional friction when descending a rope or when belaying. For example: eight, bug, Sticht puck, Grigri.
Bottom belay- the belayer is below the person he is insuring.
Top belay- the belayer is above the insured (the first takes over the second).
Safety chain elements, permissible loads
When climbers move, they are belayed using a rope that binds the climbers. During a fall, a person falls and hangs on a rope. If it has not previously hit or lingered on protruding parts of ice, rocks, etc. - his movement will be stopped by a rope that is snapped into the carabiners of the belay points or passes through the ledges and is held by the belayer through the belay base or ledge. In this case, the person who falls will not be injured if the jerk is not harsh. The rigidity of the jerk is also essential so that the belay points, base or fall system are not destroyed as a result of an excessively hard jerk. At the same time, the climbing system is designed for a jerk of no more than 1500-1600 kg. The base is blocked by a sling or main rope, while the sling or rope itself is designed for a jerk of up to 2200 kg. What kind of jerk the belay points will withstand is unpredictable and can only be assessed qualitatively in advance, depending on the experience of the climber. The elements themselves are manufactured with the expectation of a jerk of 1600-2500 kg, but the conditions of their installation sometimes do not provide such a strong jerk and the points can fly out without destroying their structural elements. So it is believed that rock hooks can withstand 500-1000 kg, laying - up to the breaking of the cable or loop, but, being poorly laid, they can fly out even with a very weak tug. Ice screws are considered the most reliable compared to other methods of organizing belay points and can withstand up to 2400 kg. Carbines are designed for a load of 2000 kg. The most unreliable thing in this chain is the top belay point, on which the fallen climber hangs. The most reliable element of insurance is the rope (except in case it is cut off by a sharp edge of a rock or is damaged by falling stones or ice). The breaking force of the rope is not less than 2000 kg. So, the main way to make the situation safer in the event of a fall is to reduce the pull on the rope. The smaller the jerk, the less the risk that any element of the insurance will not withstand. What does the magnitude of the jerk depend on?
The jerk on the rope in case of failure of one of the partners depends on the following factors:
- The weight of the person who has fallen (including clothes and a backpack, if any).
- Rope stiffness.
- Jerk factor. - this is the ratio of the depth of a person’s fall (from the point of his fall to the place where he hangs on the rope) to the length of the rope on which he hangs. In this case, the length of the rope means the length of the unstretched (issued) rope. Can take a value from 0 to 2 (in a normal situation).
- From friction of the rope on the ledges and in the carabiners.
- The presence of a friction (braking) device, the length of the etched rope and the force with which the rope was etched through this device.
We especially note that the jerk on the rope does not depend (!) on the depth of the person’s fall, but depends only on the jerk factor (see above). For example, a person stood on a lanyard and climbed out above the point to which he was fastened, for the entire length of the lanyard. If it breaks, it will fly to a depth equal to two lanyard lengths (for example, 3 m). In this case, the jerk factor is 2 (fall depth 2 m, rope length - 1 m, jerk factor 2:1=2). In this case, the jerk will be as strong as if he climbed up the entire length of the rope without any belay points at all (say, 40 m), fell down and flew 80 m. (before the belayer 40 m and the same amount after) . We will discuss why this is so below.
Basic belay technique
The insurance technique depends on the specific situation in which the insurance is carried out. Insurance can be simultaneous or alternating.
Simultaneous insurance
When belaying at the same time, the choice of belay points is carried out first in the combination. The rope is laid behind the ledges or snapped into the belay points with carabiners (lays, hooks, ice screws when moving on ice, etc.). The second partner moves behind him, providing the necessary slack in the rope, not allowing it to catch on the ledges or linger, interfering with the movement of the first in the bunch. Along the way, the second one removes the belay points. In case of failure of the first, the second in the chain holds the first with the help of a rope at the established safety points or ledges. When moving along a ridge, a “Komsomol” belay option is possible - when the second in the group jumps in the direction opposite to where the first in the group fell. The main thing in this case is not to confuse the side... When belaying at the same time, you need to monitor the optimal length of the ligament rope, the clarity of the commands given, the second must carefully monitor the actions of the first and the behavior of the rope, warn the first in time about emerging complications, and, if necessary, provide effective belay. In difficult or dangerous places between partners there must be belay points or ledges, otherwise if one of them fails, organizing insurance will be impossible.
When belaying at the same time, it is especially dangerous for the lower one in the ligament to fall off. Moreover, if he breaks the first one, they fall together and the rope passes simultaneously with their fall through the carabiners. When, finally, the rope begins to be loaded, the jerk on the lower one will not be very strong, but on the upper one the jerk can be quite significant (in this case, the factor of this jerk can be equal to 2 or even more). That is, the rope, which should have absorbed the jerk, will go below the carabiner on which the top one in the bunch hangs. This can lead to the belay point being torn out, the carabiner being destroyed, the belay system breaking, or the first one in the bunch being injured due to an excessively strong jerk. We will consider this situation in more detail below.
Variable insurance
Selecting a base
With alternating insurance, insurance is carried out from the base. A convenient insurance place is selected. As a rule, this is a place that the first one organized in order to receive the second one in the bunch. If the location turns out to be unsuccessful, it may be changed. In this case, one of the insurance partners goes to a suitable place and sets up a base there. The main criteria for choosing a base are the presence of good belay points, safety from rocks and other objective dangers, ease of belaying at the base and a good overview of the subsequent section. It is also desirable that the base be located slightly away from the intended direction of movement of the first in the group (the main reason for the falling of stones or pieces of ice on the route is climbing partners, so if the first, through negligence or due to an unavoidable situation, drops a stone, it will not cause harm , if the base is located to the side). You should also pay attention to good audibility when exchanging commands between partners (the choice of base location can significantly affect this). The number of belay points on the base is usually at least 2. They are usually blocked with each other. If the point is good (for example, a large, reliable ledge), you can base it on one point. If the points are unreliable, a sufficient number of them are made, they are blocked with a sling or main rope so that the load is evenly distributed across the points. If individual points are torn out, this should not affect the reliability of the base. A reliable base is the key to safety when climbing. There is no need to save time on this. If in doubt, it's better to play it safe. The base must withstand even the toughest jerk. Once the base is ready, the first one can start moving.
Leader actions in conjunction
The first one in the bunch begins to move upward. At the same time, he organizes insurance points. How often should they be done? Here you need to have an idea of the jerk factor and what kind of rope you are working on. If the rope meets the UIAA requirements, that's good, but that's not all. Ropes can have different UIAA test pull values. The lower this value, the softer the rope and the less jerk. Such a rope is preferable (naturally it will be more expensive). Further, dots should be made more often at the beginning and can be done less often at the end. For example, in order for the jerk factor to be no more than K=0.5 (in this case, the jerk on the rope will be no more than 340 kg when the rope is rigidly fastened, which according to the UIAA test shows a jerk of 1200 kg), the points must be located at the following distances from the base: 3, 6 , 8, 11, 15, 20, 26, 34, 45 meters.
If you take a modern Beal Wall Master II rope, which has a jerk of 680 kg during the same test test, then in this case you will pay 3 times more money for the rope, but the same 340 kg will be achieved with a jerk factor of K = 0.9 and points can be placed at the following distances from the base: 3, 6, 11, 20, 36, 65 meters. At such distances from the base on the Beal Wall Master II rope, the jerk will not exceed 340 kg when the rope is rigidly fastened.
If we take a hemp rope that was used half a century ago, then with a jerk factor of 0.25 it would already break. In this case, the magnitude of the jerk was about 700 kg. For this reason, the rope cannot be rigidly secured and it was necessary to pickle it to ensure safety in case of falls.
As for modern domestic ropes, only the Kaliningrad dynamic rope satisfies the UIAA tests, although it has not passed official testing and does not have a UIAA certificate. The rest of the domestic ropes, when firmly secured, can cause an unpredictable jerk and, just like hemp ropes, they must be pickled to ensure safety in the event of a fall. We will dwell on this topic in more detail below.
After setting the point, the first one in the bunch continues to move upward. If it fails, it will hang on the last point it set. In this case, the jerk to the carabiner and to the point will be 1.66 times greater than the jerk to the rope. Why 1.66 times? The fact is that when the rope moves through the carabiner, there is friction in it. The amount of friction, according to estimates from foreign manufacturers of climbing equipment, is such that 66% of the force falls on the rope after passing it through the carabiner. Thus, the upper hook is affected by the jerk force plus 66% of it. If there were no friction, then a force twice as strong as the jerk would act on the upper hook. It is therefore understandable why the top point is the most vulnerable in the safety chain. On the one hand, it is not always possible to make an absolutely reliable point; on the other hand, it bears a load 1.66 times greater than the rope. Therefore, the leader must make points as reliable as possible. If this is impossible, you should not allow a high jerk factor at an unreliable point (that is, do not go a long distance from it).
Finally, the following point is significant. During a jerk, not only the top point is loaded. The intermediate points are also loaded simultaneously from the top, but they are loaded in a different direction! If the jerk to the top point is directed vertically downward, then the intermediate points are loaded laterally. This is especially critical for bookmarks. They are usually placed to work downwards. If there is a side load, they may fly out. This can happen even when you simply pull the rope up. What will happen in this case? The first one in the bunch broke, the rope was loaded, the jerk pulled out all the intermediate anchors, since they only worked downwards. The last bookmark was placed unreliably, since the place was difficult and it was not possible to make a good point. The last bookmark pops up and the person falls to the belayer and the same amount downwards (if all the intermediate points have popped up). The jerk factor is K=2, the jerk will be the hardest. If, in this case, the leader was not injured as a result of falling on ledges or shelves (this is possible with overhanging terrain), then with such a jerk injuries to the spine, ribs and other parts of the body are possible. Yes, and you will have to pull out a person as much as 40 meters.
This error is typical and common. In order to avoid getting into such a situation, you must remember that if the point is bad, you must then make a good point in a suitable place. If it is impossible to place a bookmark so that it works sideways or does not pull up, then you need to simultaneously place a bookmark that works in the opposite direction, which would prevent it from falling out. At least 3 points on the rope must be completely secure.
After completing the section, the leader organizes a station and accepts his partner to it. There are no special insurance requirements. It is better to make a good base right away - suitable for underlaying. This saves time, since otherwise it would have to be redone. It is better to choose the bottom one strictly. The exception is the case when there are traverses. In this case, a hard belay can break the bottom one, and he will hang on the rope, which on traverses is often very inconvenient and sometimes problematic (especially if the terrain is vertical or overhanging).
Pay special attention to teams. They must be clear and precise. If there is no audibility and direct visibility, you have to guess about the movement of your partner by the behavior of the rope.
Actions of the insured
The leader must be tied to a rope (although tying to a rope using a collared carabiner is practiced). Why is it necessary to tie a rope? The fact is that the carabiner with a coupling is designed for a load of 2200-3000 kg along the longitudinal axis. Everything seems to be fine, but in the transverse direction it can only withstand 400 kg. (with a stronger jerk, the clutch flies out). There is no guarantee that at the moment of the jerk the carabiner will not end up across the coupling. In addition, when climbing, the leader constantly touches the rock (or other terrain) with various parts of the body. The coupling has an unpleasant tendency to unwind; when the carabiner touches the rocks, it can open (if the coupling has already been unscrewed), and the rope, accordingly, can jump out. This will not promote good health.
However, attaching the rope to the first using a carabiner is sometimes used. This can be done on simple terrain, you just need to know the limitations of this method and try not to break down. This can be convenient when interacting ligaments, while simultaneously belaying, or when walking with a shortened rope. The belayer must be tied to the other end of the rope. If this is not done, then in the event of a hard jerk the rope may escape from the hands or the braking device. You can also simply lose control of the untied end, which will also lead to loss of insurance.
The belayer constantly monitors the condition of the base, carbines, the presence of objectively dangerous factors - falling stones, etc. Bottom belay is carried out using gloves or mittens, which protect the hands from a strong jerk and ensure smooth threading of the rope if necessary.
Having let the leader forward, the belayer provides him with insurance. The rope should have some slack and should be released to the leader as needed without delay. The belayer should not put any strain on the ligament rope, because with this action he can tear off the first one. If there is an excessive amount of free rope, it must be removed immediately.
There is no clear recommendation on how a leader should be insured. There is a set of standard techniques that are used in one case or another, depending on the specific situation. It also depends on each person’s preference for any type of insurance. So, let's look at the main ways to organize insurance:
Belay over the ledge
If there is a convenient ledge, this is a very convenient and common method. Saves carbines, provides good retention, etching, etc. Before use, it is necessary to check whether the protrusion is good enough (in terms of strength and stability, appearances can often be deceiving). If there are sharp edges, they need to be beaten. There is a significant drawback - suitable protrusions are not always found in the right places.
Belay via carabiner
The carabiner used for this type of insurance must be equipped with a coupling (the coupling must be screwed in). The advantages of this type are that it is simple, provides operational control over the amount of free rope - the rope can be quickly selected or issued. If the first one fails, the rope can be easily secured to a carabiner. To regulate the amount of friction between the rope and the carabiner, you should change the bend angle of the rope through the carabiner or belay through the UIAA knot.
The disadvantage of this method is the weak friction of the rope through the carabiner - in the event of a strong jerk, it is difficult to hold the rope going simply through the carabiner without additional braking devices. If you use the UIAA knot, it twists the rope, so it is not convenient to use.
This method is used very often, especially when the jerk cannot be strong (simple, fairly flat terrain, in which case it is necessary to quickly release the rope and there is usually no jerk during a fall - even if a person falls, he will roll down the slope and not fall vertically down) . It is also used when there is strong friction over protrusions or through intermediate points.
Most often it is used in combination with braking devices, for example with a figure eight.
Belay through a braking device located on the belayer's gazebo
The most common method of insurance. It’s convenient to belay in this way, the load on your hands is small, it’s easy to adjust the force on the safety rope and carry out etching. It is most often used in combination with belaying through a carabiner (from the braking device, the rope passes through a clutched carabiner located on the base and then to the person being insured. Friction is regulated both in the braking device itself and by changing the angle of bend of the rope through the carabiner.
Insurance through a braking device located on the base
It has the disadvantage that the jerk falls directly on the base. In the previous case, the jerk fell first on the belayer's arbor, which leads to additional depreciation and reduces the jerk, while protecting the base from possible tearing out of unreliable belay points.
Belay through the lower back, over the shoulder
These types of insurance are not independently used for lower insurance due to their unreliability. For bottom belays, they can only be used in combination with belays through a ledge or through a carabiner to increase the possibilities of creating friction or softer etching (belays through the lower back are mainly used, belays over the shoulder are exotic). But for the top insurance (when the first one takes the second one to himself), these methods find real application. In this case, the rope, as a rule, passes through a ledge, the edge of a shelf, etc., the load on the belayer is small, which allows these types to be successful. However, more often in such situations they belay through a figure eight clipped to the gazebo (in principle, the same belay through the lower back).
Commands when working together
Commands when working on a route must be clear, concise and known in advance to both the leader and the belayer. If audibility is good, you can, of course, talk as you like, but the words followed by certain actions should only be standard commands so that they do not allow double interpretation of your words. This is especially critical when audibility is poor or very poor. In this case, the entire set of commands is reduced to 3-4 main ones.
So, what commands are used in mountaineering?
- Is your insurance ready?
The leader's command before the start of his movement. The leader begins to move only after a positive response to this command - “Insurance is ready!” The belayer is wearing gloves and is ready to insure the leader. The same commands apply when the first one accepts the second one. - Insurance is ready
Reply to the previous command. This command means that the person about to start the movement can begin it (that is, unfasten his lanyard from the base or begin to remove the base). After this command, the only insurance for the besieged is this rope. After issuing this command, the belayer must begin to insure his partner and be prepared at any moment for his partner to fall. It is not allowed to snap the safety rope after issuing this command. - Understood
Answer any command if the meaning of the command is understood. - Repeat
If the command is unclear or not heard. - I went
The command is given before the movement begins. The belayer must be ready to begin selecting or releasing the rope. - I'm coming
The command can be used instead of the previous one or can be a response to the command “how are you?” if the person continues to move. - Insure
A command option to attract the insurer's attention to the insurance process. Can be used as a variant of the command “went”, “I’m going”. Usually, however, it means the first person’s dissatisfaction with how he is insured. - Give it out (there is a variant of this command - give me the rope)
Give out the rope as quickly as possible. - Choose
Select the rope as quickly as possible without pulling off the first one (or the second one in the case of a traverse). - Fasten it
The first one gives this command to the belayer so that he firmly secures the rope to the base. The belayer secures the rope and waits for the next command. - Get a foothold
The belayer gives this command to the first one if there is a need to temporarily stop insuring the first one. The first one must find a good place and stand steadily (it is better if he becomes self-belayed at the same time), and he answers “Ready” or “Yes.” The insurer performs the necessary actions (for example, adjusts the insurance) and renews the insurance by issuing the appropriate command (for example, “the insurance is ready”). - How much rope?
The belayer must name the number of meters of rope remaining with him. Usually an approximate number is said, a multiple of 10 or from the first ten. - Ropes 6 meters.
Reply to the previous command. No need to think long. Answer immediately according to the principle - it is better to say less than more. - Stone
If a person noticed a falling stone or missed a stone himself. The same command is used when any objects fall that can injure the group (ice, branches, objects falling out of the backpack). Served especially loudly. - Avalanche
The same goes for an avalanche. - Hold (Stall)
Served by a person during a breakdown (if he has time). At this command, the belayer prepares to lunge. - At the hook
A command given by the walker to explain to the belayer that he will stand still to pull out or lay the belay point. - Self-belaying
Served after the walker has latched onto the base and no longer needs to be secured. After this, usually the belayer (second) prepares to start moving. - No insurance
Served after the walker has latched onto the base and no longer needs to be secured. After this, usually the belayer (the second) stops belaying his partner and prepares to start moving. - The railings are ready
The command means that the safety rope is attached to the base and can be loaded (used as a handrail).
How are you?
A command that does not indicate any action. It means that the partner (usually the belayer) is tired of waiting, and he is interested in the reason for the delay in his partner’s actions.
Of particular note is the case when audibility is very poor or non-existent. The presence of intercoms would solve this problem, but in Russia they are practically not used for such cases (and they may not always work for various reasons).
So, what to do in conditions of poor hearing?
The minimum set of commands is “issue”, “select”, “insurance is ready” or “railings are ready” (what exactly is usually specified in advance at the previous insurance point). When echo is present, these commands differ as follows.
- Give
It is shorter and consists of two syllables. The partner usually only hears “ah” or “ah...”. - You take it
Longer, consists of three syllables. At maximum audibility you can only hear “and...” - Stra-hov-ka go-to-va
The longest command, at the end you can hear “ah...”. It can be confused with the “give out” command (it also ends in “a...”), but it can be distinguished by the fact that it is long.
In general, everyone needs to give commands - suddenly they hear you, but you just don’t hear. But you need to focus on a certain minimum set of commands and repeat them many times (if there is no response or expected action).
What to do when you can't hear anything? Usually the following option is encountered - the first one went up and made a base, stood on the belay, took out the existing slack in the rope, and shouted the entire set of commands, repeating “the belay is ready” several times. The rope is not pulled out and nothing is heard in response. The belayer is sitting below, the rope has once again stopped for a long time, not a single command is heard (and at the same time, for example, snow is blowing and the wind is blowing, you want to start moving faster). What if the first one is in a difficult place and may be about to fall apart? What to do? This situation, with poor coordination and lack of experience, can last a long time. It is better for the top person to take care of this. He secures the rope, rappels along it until he can hear it, says everything he wants to say and, having received a positive answer, rises to the belay point and begins to accept the second one. Sometimes it is acceptable for the second to start moving first. There is, of course, a risk in this. But it may not be big. In this case, the following happens: it seemed to the second that the station above was already ready. He removes the base and begins to move upward. If the rope is chosen from him, then he understood everything correctly. If they don’t choose, it means they don’t insure him and the first one is doing something else. Then the connection remained only at intermediate points. There are 2 options here - go back and restore the base or go to the nearest point and start belaying through it. What is absolutely not allowed is to load the rope with your own weight until you have clearly received information about the readiness of the belay. These actions can be taken if the ligament is sufficiently similar and if there are reliable intermediate insurance points.
Further, in the absence of audibility and visibility, the belayer has another source of information - the safety rope. You can tell a lot by the way she moves. If the rope is well similar, sometimes you can understand everything from the behavior of the rope without commands. You need to constantly monitor the behavior of the rope, not only when you can no longer hear anything. For example - the rope moves evenly and quickly enough - a simple section, easy to climb. The rope has stopped - probably the partner is making a point. The rope goes unevenly and very slowly - apparently, a difficult place, you need to pay attention to the belay - suddenly a breakdown will occur. A sharp, loud command was given, but it was not clear what it was - to press against the rock (suddenly it was the command “stone”) and prepare for a jerk (suddenly the command was “hold”). And so on. The main thing in this situation is to think and imagine yourself in the place of your partner.
According to the nature of retention in the event of a leader’s failure, insurance is divided into static and dynamic.
Static insurance
In static belaying, the belayer holds the rope tightly. In this case, the leader’s fall is absorbed due to the elastic properties of the rope. You need to imagine how big the jerk can be as a result of a breakdown. We have already said that the jerk depends on the jerk factor, the weight of the partner and the stiffness of the rope. We will analyze these factors in more detail below. If the jerk resulting from the fall is small, it is permissible to use static belay. It also has to be used in cases where etching the rope can lead to injury to the rope as a result of it falling onto a shelf or ledges. In these cases, a harder jerk is naturally preferable to falling onto a ledge or shelf. So, when choosing an insurance method, you must proceed from the following.
- Top point reliability
If the connection works on ice, there are no problems. If there are rocks, it depends on what belay points are made (and this, in turn, depends on the texture of the rocks and the experience of the climber). If there is snow - only dynamic insurance! - Properties of rope
If the rope is UIAA certified, a static belay can be used (if other circumstances are favorable). - Jerk factor
This is the ratio of the depth of the fall to the length of the rope issued. The jerk factor directly affects the amount of jerk. At the same time, you need to know what rope you are walking on. It's better to go with imported ones. For example, as we have already discussed, on the “Beal” rope you can use static belaying with a jerk factor of up to 1. In principle, on the “Beal” rope you can not use dynamic belaying at all, but you need to know that in the worst case, the jerk on the rope will be equal to 700 kg, and at the top point - 1200 kg. Will the top hold? If there are any doubts, it is better to etch; if the belay is carried out through anchors, there is no point in etching, it only increases the danger of hitting a ledge or shelf. - The mass of the broken
The UIAA standard snatch is designed for a weight of 80 kg. The jerk is proportional to the square root of the person's weight (including clothing and equipment). So, if the weight is twice as large, then the magnitude of the jerk will be 1.4 times greater. Lose weight before going to the mountains - the jerk in case of a breakdown will be less. - The steepness of the relief and the presence of shelves and protrusions
As we have already noted, the method of insurance also depends on the terrain. If the fall does not cause injury, you can use a dynamic belay. If you can hit or the slope is not steep, you need to use a static belay.
Dynamic insurance
Dynamic belaying is used to reduce the jerk on the rope and therefore on other sections of the belay chain. The weakest point is the top belay point. Previously used hemp ropes broke already at the jerk factor K=0.25. In this case, the magnitude of the jerk was about 700 kg. Modern imported ropes are divided into dynamic and static (they are also called semi-dynamic). There are standards for one and another type of rope. Of the Russian ropes, only the Kaliningrad dynamic rope satisfies the UIAA tests; the remaining ropes should be considered static. For static ropes, there is a recommendation not to use them in conditions where the jerk factor is higher than 1. The permissible jerk forces for static ropes occur at a jerk factor K = 0.3 (about 500 kg). This corresponds to the following arrangement of belay points: 3, 6, 9, 11, 13, 15, 18, 21, 25, 30, 35, 40, 47 meters from the base.
With this scheme, you can use static belay (in this case, the top point will have a load of about 850 kg, and the base will have a jerk of 350 kg). If the points are located less frequently, you need to use dynamic insurance.
How is dynamic insurance implemented? One of the principles of dynamic belay, formulated back in the 30-40s, says - “the rope mast run” (the rope must run).
Dynamic belay is divided into soft and hard. In this case, the rope is pulled with a certain force through the braking device. Soft dynamic belay - with an etching force of 200 kg, hard - 400 kg and above. In the first case, the jerk on the person who has fallen will be equal to 300 kg, in the second - 600 kg. Accordingly, the load on the upper hook is 500 kg in the first case and 1000 kg in the second. The easiest way to etch a rope is through braking devices.
Dependence of etching force for different braking devices
How much do you need to etch? This is the ratio. The same number of times the etching force is greater than the weight of a person, the same number of times the etching length is less than the depth of the fall. If a person weighing 100 kg (including clothes and equipment) fell to a depth of 10 m (5 m to the last point, and the same below), the etching force is 400 kg (the etching force is 4 times greater than the weight c), which means that etching must be done by 4 times less - 2.5 m. Accordingly, if the etching force is 200 kg, then the etching needs to be 5 m. We will consider the forces arising in various parts of the safety chain below.
It should be noted that with the advent of modern ropes, dynamic belaying began to be used less frequently. It is no longer used on climbing stands and anchor routes. But in mountaineering you need to be able to use it, and in some cases its use is mandatory (for example, on a snowy slope).
When using dynamic belaying, you need to leave a free rope for etching. When pickling a rope, you need to monitor not the length, but the magnitude of the pickling force. The supply of free rope for pickling should be within 10-100% of the issued one (depending on the reliability of the belay points).
Accordingly, if the etching force is 200 kg, then etching must be done
5 m. We will consider the forces arising in various parts of the safety chain below.
It should be noted that with the advent of modern ropes, dynamic belaying began to be used less frequently. It is no longer used on climbing stands and anchor routes. But in mountaineering you need to be able to use it, and in some cases its use is mandatory (for example, on a snowy slope).
When using dynamic belaying, you need to leave a free rope for etching. When pickling a rope, you need to monitor not the length, but the magnitude of the pickling force. The supply of free rope for pickling should be within 10-100% of the issued one (depending on the reliability of the belay points).
Insurance in the mountains
Failure - description of the process and the resulting loads
When the first one in the bunch falls, he falls to the belay point and then to the entire length of the free rope. At the same time, its potential energy turns into kinetic energy. The further it falls, the higher the speed it gains.
When the free rope ends, the rope begins to stretch and absorb the person's kinetic energy. The person who has fallen stops at the moment when the rope absorbs all his kinetic energy. At this moment, the force in the rope reaches its maximum. It is this effort that must be considered to assess the value of the jerk and its impact on the top point of the belay and the belayer.
Kinetic energy is also damped by friction in the upper carabiner and friction in the braking device.
In the appendix given at the end of the work, we will derive formulas that describe the behavior of a climbing rope when the first rope in a bundle is broken.
Now let’s look at what forces arise in various elements of the safety chain when the leader fails.
The figure shows the top point of the belay where the faller was detained. The kinetic energy of the fallen climber is absorbed by the elastic stretch of the rope. In this case, an elastic force F acts on the person who has fallen off, and the same force acts on the carabiner of the upper belay point in the direction of the fall.
In the carabiner, the friction force Ftren acts on the rope, which prevents the movement of the rope. The friction force depends on the coefficient of friction and the force of pressure of the rope on the carabiner. In the same direction as the friction force, force F1 acts, which keeps the person who has fallen from further falling.
Holding a falling person is possible only if F=F1+Ftrain.
In this case, the rope can move in the carabiner at a certain constant speed (etching option), or stop until it comes to a complete stop. When the rope stops, its movement is described by harmonic damped oscillations (their equation without taking into account the damping effect is given in the appendix).
The friction force, according to estimates from equipment manufacturers, is about
34% of the jerk force F (i.e. this is for the conditions of a new rope, a new carabiner and in the absence of dirt, water and other factors that increase the friction force).
In this case, the force F1 is 66% of the force F. Then the force N=F1+F=1.66F will act on the carbine. In the presence of dirt, moisture, or defects in the rope or carabiner, the friction force may increase, so that the actual load on the carabiner (and therefore on the belay point) is: F< N <
1.66F.
So, during a breakdown, the following forces act: 1. F is the force acting on the person who has fallen off. No more than 1200 kg for dynamic rope.
2. N=F1+F - force acting on the belay point. The rope passes through the carabiner, turning in the opposite direction. F< N < 1.66F.
The magnitude of force N is up to 1800 kg.
3. F1 - force acting on the entire subsequent safety chain. At the same time, part of it is the friction force in the remaining carbines, the friction of the rope against ledges, rocks, etc., the friction in the braking device through which the belay is carried out, the friction against the hands of the belayer. The rest of the force F1 is the elastic force in the rope. It is equal and opposite to the force with which the rope is clamped and held on the belay base -
Fbases. 0< F1 < 0.66F. Величина силы F1 - до 600 кг.
4. Fbases - a jerk on a safety base. It is perceived either directly by the belayer or by the base itself. 0< Fбазы < F1. Величина силы Fбазы от 0 до 600 кг. При зависании на базе без промежуточных точек рывок на базу будет в пределах 1200-1800 кг в зависимости от способа страховки.
Loads in a rope
The rope can be subject to static or dynamic forces.
Static impact is the impact of a constant force (for example, a load suspended by a rope). In this case, the rope stretches and an elastic force arises in it, equal and directed opposite to the applied force. With weak impacts, Hooke's law is satisfied - in this case, the elastic force is proportional to the amount of deformation of the rope (region 1). F=?·(L/Lo).
Proportionality factor? is called the rope stiffness coefficient.
With some efforts, the dependence of force on deformation becomes nonlinear
(area 2). Finally, as the force increases, this value of Fmax occurs
(which corresponds to Lmax when the rope breaks.
The area of proportional dependence of force on deformation is characterized by the fact that when the external load is removed, the rope returns to exactly the same state in which it was before the load and its properties do not change
(i.e. its strength, elastic properties, etc. do not change). The rope can be used repeatedly in this mode.
Loads under which the dependence of force on elongation become nonlinear deform the rope in such a way that when they are removed it does not return to its original state, while irreversible changes occur in it and its properties change (always for the worse). At the same time, its rigidity increases, and its elastic properties deteriorate. Using the rope under such conditions will lead to premature wear.
The quality criterion for a dynamic rope is the UIAA test. Modern dynamic ropes can withstand 8-20 such jerks. We can say that for such ropes such a jerk is in the area of proportional dependence of force on elongation (of course, within the limits of the number of such jerks specified by the manufacturer).
Dynamic impact is the impact of a force that changes over time, or the impact of a moving object (load). For example, a person falling under the influence of gravity. At the same time, it moves with acceleration g=9.8 m/sec2 and its speed increases in proportion to the time of fall. When they say that, while hanging on a rope, a person experiences a jerk, this means that all the kinetic energy of a person turns into the deformation energy of the rope and the elastic force from the rope acts on the person.
In the appendix, a calculation of the magnitude of the jerk is made, the following expression is obtained:
The magnitude of the jerk is the maximum value of the elastic force. The elastic force during failure varies along a cosine wave (this can be seen from the equation below, which is also obtained in the appendix).
Now we will analyze these formulas.
When walking in the mountains, no one, of course, calculates what kind of jerk will occur when a person falls down. But to correctly assess the situation, you need to qualitatively navigate the situation and imagine what the magnitude of this jerk may depend on, when it is greater and when it is less.
Static belay without taking into account friction Let's consider the case in which we carry out static belay and do not take into account the friction in the upper carabiner (as if we put a roller on the carabiner).
, where K=(H+L)/Lo is the jerk factor.
Moreover, it is clear from the formula that the magnitude of the jerk depends only on the properties of the rope? - the coefficient of rigidity of the rope, from the weight of the person P and the jerk factor K. The jerk does not depend on how many meters the person went above the belay point, how many points he made, the length of the rope, etc. The pull factor is the ratio of the depth of the fall to the total length of the rope delivered. At the same time, the values of the fall depth or rope length themselves do not affect the jerk
(that is, if the depth of the fall and the length of the rope are 3 meters or they are 30 meters, the jerk will be the same). There is nothing surprising about this.
Indeed, with a greater depth of fall, a larger amount of rope is involved in damping the jerk, but the jerk turns out to be the same.
The magnitude of the jerk is proportional to the values. For example, if the jerk factor increased by 2 times, then the jerk increased by 1.4 times (square root of 2).
Similar - with weight.
The minimum value of the jerk is 2 times the weight (i.e. 160 kg for a person weighing 80 kg). Occurs when the rope is simply loaded and there is no free rope. In this case, K = 0 - there is no free fall at all, the rope begins to be loaded immediately.
The maximum value of the jerk factor b is usually K=2. Such a jerk corresponds to the case when the first in the link did not make a single point. At the same time, he falls to the belayer and the same amount down.
K>2 can only occur if the belayer, after the first one falls, has time to choose the rope. For this reason (as well as for reasons of the possibility of losing insurance), choosing a rope after the leader has fallen is strictly prohibited.
The influence of friction at the top point on the magnitude of the jerk Let's consider the influence of friction on the carabiner at the top point at which the breaker hangs.
Here f is the coefficient of friction of the rope in the carabiner. With very high friction
(for example, the rope is stuck in the carabiner) the situation is equivalent to the case when a jerk with factor K = 2 occurs on the upper carabiner. Indeed, in this case f=1; (Lo-L1)/Lo=H/Lo=K/2; With this in mind, the expression in parentheses below, which includes f, becomes K/2. This is equivalent to the situation when K=2 and there is no friction.
This expression in the equation is responsible for the influence of friction forces at the top point on the magnitude of the jerk. Let's analyze it. The expression L1/Lo can take values from 0 to 1. In a normal situation, L1/Lo=(1-K/2).
The dependence graphs F(f) and F(L1/Lo) are almost linear. (The linearity of the graphs means that by how many times the friction or the L1/Lo ratio increases, the magnitude of the jerk will increase by that many times). The graphs are shown below.
There is a peculiarity when f and L1/Lo are close to 1.
This can be seen in the graphs. In this case, the magnitude of the jerk increases sharply. This corresponds to the situation if, when the first person in the bunch falls, the entire rope is suddenly pulled out and the friction through the carabiner is high. In this case, the load will be placed on the top point, and there will be no need to absorb the shock of the rope.
The graphs are given for a weight of 80 kg and a rope, which with a standard jerk
UIAA has a snatch value of 1200 kg. This situation may actually exist in practice and this must be kept in mind. For example, if the lower one breaks during simultaneous movement of the ligament, it can tear the upper one.
If they fall at the same time, the rope will move in the upper carabiner.
In this case, the first one in the bunch is, as it were, pulled to the top point, and when the rope begins to extinguish his fall energy, there will be almost no energy left for this purpose, the jerk will be very hard. With such a jerk, the jerk factor can be much higher than 2.
The influence of rope etching on the magnitude of the jerk Let's consider the effect of rope etching. In this case, we will distinguish between etching itself, which is included in the concept of dynamic belay, and friction, which occurs when the rope moves between the base and the upper carabiner due to the movement of the rope through the carabiners and due to friction against uneven terrain.
The equation for the magnitude of the jerk includes the following expression:
In this case, two relative quantities are involved - the ratio of the etching force to the weight of the person and the ratio of the length of the etching to the length of the rope. How can etching be realistically taken into account during belaying?
To do this, let’s find out how to extinguish the jerk only by etching?
Etching force o If the etching force is equal to the weight of the person, then the length of the etching will be equal to the depth of the person's fall. o If the etching force is N times greater than the person’s weight, then the etching length will be N times less than the depth of the fall.
When extinguishing the jerk only due to pickling, the force of the jerk on the rope will be constant throughout the entire period of pickling. This makes this technique very convenient and universal. Using this technique, you can walk on any rope (including those that do not have a UIAA certificate, even hemp rope). Its disadvantage is the complexity of execution.
Friction of the rope on intermediate carabiners and on the terrain
This factor can only be estimated approximately. The more difficult it is for the first person to choose the rope, the greater the friction. The more kinks the rope makes in the carabiners, the greater the friction. When working in ligaments, they try to reduce this friction, as it interferes with movement. In this case, they use guy ropes, a double rope and a number of other techniques. With a large amount of friction, the jerk on the upper hook can be very hard (in the worst case, there will be a hard jerk with a jerk factor of K = 2). So, the friction of the rope acts as a braking device with some pickling force.
Dynamic insurance
Dynamic insurance- a rather complex technical technique that allows, if a partner falls, to reduce the jerk on the rope and all other links of the safety chain and protect the consequences of the fall. In this case, the belayer does not clamp the rope rigidly, but so that when jerking, it extends to a certain length. You can control either the force with which the belayer clamps the rope or the length of the wetting.
Easier to control the etching force. The etching length will be such that corresponds to this force. Since in real conditions there is friction between the rope and the carabiners and the terrain, they act simultaneously with the actions of the belayer. You need to evaluate how critical it is for your partner to fall to a great depth of fall (are there any shelves or ledges that your partner could hit), as well as the length of the free rope. If conditions allow, try to etch the rope a sufficient distance. At the first moment of the jerk, you should not clamp the rope tightly (in case the friction on the intermediate carabiners and protrusions will be great). Then you need to gradually increase the force on your braking device.
If the etching length is too long, you need to increase the force. If you do everything correctly, the jerk will be almost invisible to your partner and you will reduce the risk of breaking out of the top belay point. When belaying, it is recommended to use a braking device.
Common braking devices are “figure eight”, “bug” and “Sticht washer”.
On the base The belayer makes the insurance first in the bunch. The base must withstand a jerk both downward (if the first one fails to make a single point or they all fly out) and upward. The jerk for the base can be either very hard or weak. It is important that there is no strong jerk on the base. This can lead to the tearing out of individual insurance points and even to the destruction of the base itself (and then all participants in the bundle will most likely die, which, of course, cannot be allowed).
Usually 2 or more belay points are made for the base. Then they are blocked among themselves.
At the top belay point the offender is detained. We have already discussed this process above. If there were no friction in the carabiner, then a force would act on the top point that would be 2 times greater than the jerk on the rope. Due to the friction force, the force N=F1+F=1.66F will act on the carabiner. In the presence of dirt, moisture, defects in the rope or carabiner, the friction force may increase, so that the actual load on the carabiner (and therefore on the belay point) is: F< N < 1.66F.
We can roughly assume that the load at the top point is one and a half times greater than the jerk in the rope. If a point flies out, then a similar process will occur at the next point. In this case, part of the energy may or may not be extinguished (depending on how the safety point was torn out). If the next one fails, the fall will continue... When passing a rope, you must make at least 2-3 absolutely reliable intermediate belay points. A reliable belay point must also be made before a difficult place, as well as after it (because at the most difficult place you simply may not have time to make a good belay point).
At other intermediate points. In the event of a fall, the entire main load falls on the upper (last) belay point. At this time, other intermediate points are affected by a small jerk in a direction perpendicular to the slope. When belaying with anchors or pitons, this point can not even be considered, which cannot be said for the case when bookmarks are used. Bookmarks are characterized by the fact that they can hold a jerk only in a very specific direction, which usually coincides with the direction of a possible breakdown. In the transverse direction, bookmarks often do not work. Moreover, some of the bookmarks may simply fly out when the rope is pulled up while the first one is moving. And this means that if the top point is pulled out, you will have to fall far... How can you protect this situation?
Hit the bookmark with a hammer (an unpopular measure, it spoils the bookmark itself, after which it is usually difficult to pull it out, but it is very effective). Use only as a last resort.
Pull the tab firmly after it has already been installed (this will jam it into the crack and prevent it from popping out under lateral loads).
The most common technique.
Hang an additional guy rope or carabiner on the bookmark. In combination with the above, it is widely used, but leads to additional equipment consumption.
Place another bookmark that acts in the opposite direction. These points are blocked and used together. This increases reliability. Disadvantages - additional consumption of equipment and time to set the point.
Impact on the person who breaks down. The person who has fallen is affected by the same jerk that occurs in the rope.
Some shock absorption is provided by the suspension system and the musculoskeletal system (this is essential when the depth of the fall is small). In addition to the jerk factor, it is important whether the fallen person hits the ledges before being caught by the rope. The quality of the suspension system is of great importance. For rock climbing, a lower suspension system has recently been used - a gazebo. It is done in such a way as to evenly distribute the load. In this case, most of the load is distributed on the upper thighs. According to UIAA standards, the system must withstand a jerk of at least 1500 kg (with 750 kg per leg). It is believed that short-term exposure to a 1200 kg jerk does not cause significant harm to a person (hence the UIAA standard for rope - no more than 1200 kg)
For mountaineering, combined systems of a gazebo and harness are mainly used. This is due to the fact that a climber's fall can occur in more difficult conditions and with greater jerk factors. If the climber's fall is not stabilized in time, the jerk may occur in a direction perpendicular to the body (if it is only in the gazebo). In this case, injuries to the spine are possible, up to its fracture. In addition, the climber can carry a backpack with him. In this case, the impact on the spine can become even more unpredictable. The use of a harness stabilizes the fall of the body.
The point of application of the jerk is much further from the center of gravity and the risk of spinal injury is much lower. But at the same time, a new danger arises - getting injured (fractures) of the ribs. Therefore, the harness must be carefully adjusted. In the event of a breakdown, the load should fall partly on the harness, but mainly on the gazebo.
Let us emphasize once again that the first one should be tied into the rope using a knot, and not fastened with a carabiner.
Climbing rope
How to choose a climbing rope? What criteria should it satisfy?
Choice
Rope is generally divided into dynamic, static and auxiliary. Dynamic ropes are used for belaying on routes when walking with a bottom rope. Static is used for handrails, during rescue operations and in industrial mountaineering. Auxiliary rope is used for various other purposes, where the possible loads are significantly lower in magnitude than in the cases listed above.
Let's take a closer look at dynamic ropes. Currently, single rope, half rope (also called double rope) and double rope (otherwise known as twisting rope) are used.
Single rope- most suitable for sport climbs and ascents on simple “traditional” routes (where the route and rope work are not very difficult).
Half rope- most suitable for more complex work with a rope, or when safety during a fall is increased due to the lower force of the jerk on divided ropes, or when it is necessary to organize a rappel descent.
Double rope- will be best for mountain routes (it is much lighter than two half-ropes).
How to choose a rope when buying it is not a very simple question. Whenever the choice is wide enough, it is difficult to make it. It's easier to work with a single rope. As a rule, it is used more often than other types of ropes. It is more versatile and a little cheaper than tsviling or
2 half ropes. In the author's opinion, a single rope is more stable in terms of susceptibility to mechanical damage. However, the advantages of using double ropes are quite significant and the choice is most often based on personal preferences and habits. From a safety point of view in using different types of ropes, we can assume that they are equally safe.
Properties and technical characteristics of modern ropes
UIAA and European requirements have been developed for ropes. If the rope satisfies them, then its use in mountaineering is possible. Rope can be dynamic or static. A dynamic rope is used to belay the first person on the route (for the bottom belay). Static rope is not used for bottom belaying and is used for organizing handrails, in rescue work or industrial mountaineering. There are also European standards for static rope. Their main difference from dynamic ropes is that a static rope should not stretch much (no more than 5% with a load of 150 kg).
UIAA and EN892 requirements for dynamic rope
The jerk force should be no more than 12 kN with a jerk factor of 2 with a weight of 80 kg. (55 kg for half rope or double rope).
The rope must withstand at least 5 jerks with a jerk factor of 2 and the weight specified above.
Elongation under load - should not be more than 8% under a load of 80 kg (for a half rope - elongation no more than 10% under a load of 80 kg).
Flexibility when tying knots - checked by measuring the diameter of the rope inside the knot under a load of 10 kg.
The displacement of the rope braid relative to the core is 2 m. The rope is pulled through a special device 5 times. The displacement of the rope sheath should be less than 40 mm.
The marking must indicate the type of rope (single, half rope or double rope), manufacturer and CE certificate.
prEN 1891 requirements for static ropes
The jerk force must be less than 6 kN with a jerk factor of 0.3 and a weight of 100 kg.
Must be able to withstand at least 5 pulls with a fall factor of 1 and a weight of 100 kg, using a figure eight knot.
The elongation arising from loads from 50 to 150 kg should not exceed 5%.
Flexibility when tying knots - as above. The flexibility coefficient (factor K=rope diameter/rope diameter inside the knot) should be no more than 1.2.
The displacement of the rope braid relative to the core is 2 m. The rope is pulled through a special device 5 times. The displacement of the rope braid should be no more than 15 mm.
The weight of the rope braid should not exceed a certain proportion of the total weight of the rope.
Static breaking force - the rope must withstand at least 22 kN (for ropes with a diameter of 10 mm or more) or 18 kN (for 9 mm ropes), with a figure-of-eight knot - 15 kN.
Marking - the ends of the rope indicate the type of rope (A or B), diameter, manufacturer and EN to which the rope corresponds. The center stripe should indicate the type of rope (A or B), model, manufacturer, number and year of manufacture.
Here are the UIAA standards for other equipment used in mountaineering:
Anchors, hooks, anchors: 25 kN
Carabiners, along the longitudinal axis (carabiner): 20 kN
Carabiners, along the transverse axis (carabiner): 4 kN
Safety loops (sling): 22 kN
System (harness): 15 kN
Ice ax handle strength 12 kN
Article source: http://www.activeclub.com.ua/modules.php?name=Pages&pa=showpage&pid=42
Imagine Slavik. He went to the mountains with friends and, well, it happens that he broke his leg. We have come far, so getting out on our own is not an option. They uncovered the satellite phone and called a helicopter, which took Slavik to the hospital. There they collected his broken bone, put him in a plaster cast and billed him. The treatment cost $1,000, and the helicopter's flight costs were $3,000. The prudent Slavik insured his health, so it is not he who will pay, but the insurance company.
Helicopter over Komsomolsky pass. Photo by Taras Moiseev
How to avoid paying for treatment and rescue work
Slavik took out insurance so as not to pay for the work of rescuers and doctors if an insured event occurs, as the companies call it. The insurance company will pay instead.
When you agree with the insurance company, they will give you a policy - a document that indicates your first and last name, how much you are insured for and where to call if anything happens. An application will be given along with the policy. It contains the terms of insurance, how much they will pay if you break a finger or arm (more per arm), under what conditions they will not pay for treatment, and what to do if you get into trouble.
People take out insurance when they think something might happen or just in case.
Insurance policy of the Kazakhstan company NSK
How to get insurance and what to pay attention to
Insurance can be obtained at the office of the insurance company or via the Internet. I'm lazy and would do it via the Internet, it's faster and more convenient. It’s easy to get insurance - on the insurance company’s website, indicate when and where you will go, how old you are and a few more details. Let's talk about the details.
Regular insurance covers the usual risks: bad teeth, injuries in the city and illnesses. Mountaineering is a different story. Here you can get hit on the head with a stone, so insurance costs more. When purchasing insurance, consider:
- The contract must indicate “mountaineering” or “sport” with a link to the transcript in the appendix, and then “mountaineering”. Such insurance is more expensive, but without “mountaineering” they will not pay for treatment
- The amount that the company is willing to spend on you if necessary (insurance coverage) must be at least $30,000
- How an assistance company works with climbers. For example, GVA (Global Voyager Assistance) consistently receives poor reviews for its performance in the mountains. I’ll tell you about the assistance below.
- Get home insurance. If you do something during your trip and something happens to you, the insurance company may issue a bill.
- A policy purchased online works the same as one purchased in the office
Unclear terms in the insurance contract
There are few of them, but to figure it out, you need to carefully read the conditions under which the insurance company will pay for your treatment. I wrote it simpler.
Assistance company
Assistance organizes the work of rescuers, transportation to the hospital and treatment.
When everything went according to plan
While Slavik was chewing painkillers, his friends called the insurance company. The number is indicated on the insurance policy. The insurance company contacted assistance. He raised rescuers, found a helicopter and made an agreement with a good hospital. Slavik's leg was repaired for free and he returned home. Now he walks around happy and recommends the insurance company to his friends.
When the assistance didn't work well
Slavik had to pay for the helicopter and the hospital bill. It’s good that his friends transferred him the required amount. At home, the insurance company reimbursed the expenses that Slavik confirmed with receipts from the hospital. Without the checks, Slavik would have been left with a cast and debts. In order not to urgently look for several thousand dollars, read reviews about the assistance that your insurance company works with.
What is the difference between Medical Expenses and Accident?
Medical expenses- cost of treatment and transportation (if specified in the policy).
Accident- how much the insurance company will pay if something breaks. There's a subtle point here. They will not pay the entire amount, but a percentage of it. For example, if accident coverage is $10,000 and you break a jaw or a rib, get 3% = $300. And for a dislocated shoulder or broken ankle - 5%, that is, $500. Read the appendix to the policy, it says how much they pay for each injury.
Franchise
Franchise is the amount you are willing to pay yourself. For example, the contract specifies a deductible of $50, but you were billed $120. It turns out that you will pay 50, and the remaining 70 will be paid by the insurance company. The franchise amount can be fixed, as in our example, or as a percentage of the amount for which you are insured.
Franchise can be conditional or unconditional.
Unconditional- the insurance company will pay the cost of treatment, but will deduct the amount of the deductible. It's like the example above.
Conditional- the insurance company will pay for treatment if its cost is more than the deductible and will not pay if it is less. For example, a hospital bills $150, but the deductible is $100. In this case, the company will pay for the treatment. If the hospital bills you for $80, pay it yourself.
