§10. vocabulary of the Russian language from the point of view of the sphere of its use. Vocabulary of the Russian language from the point of view of origin Points of view of their lexical
The Russian language, like any other, has its own lexical system, which was formed over not just centuries, but even millennia. The composition of the vocabulary has different origins. It is highlighted that grammatical vocabulary and the origin of words are studied at school, as well as in philological faculties.
Basic Concepts
The Russian language has a rich lexical system, the formation of which began in the Neolithic era and continues today. Some words disappear from the active vocabulary of the language and become archaisms, while others, on the contrary, penetrate our speech and become an integral part of it.
In terms of origin, vocabulary is divided into borrowed and native Russian. Original Russian vocabulary makes up about 90% of the total lexical composition. The rest is classified as borrowed. In addition, every year our vocabulary is replenished with new words and concepts that arise as a result of scientific and technological progress.
Original Russian vocabulary
The main layer is the original Russian vocabulary. In this group, the following subgroups are distinguished, correlated with the stages of development not only of the language, but also of the people themselves:
- Indo-European vocabulary.
- Common Slavic.
- Old Russian.
- Actually Russian.
The words that emerged during these periods form the basis, the backbone of our vocabulary. This is what should be considered first.
Indo-European period
In terms of origin, native Russian vocabulary dates back to the Neolithic period. The period is characterized by the presence of one, common proto-language - Indo-European, which functioned around the 2nd millennium BC. Words in this group include names of animals, concepts for denoting kinship, and food products. For example: mother, daughter, ox, bull, meat and others. All of them have consonant equivalents in other languages. For example, the word mother has a similar sound in English ( mother), and in German ( mutter).
Pan-Slavic stage
Common Slavic vocabulary arose around the 6th century AD. It was inherited from various tribes living in the Balkans, Central and Eastern Europe.
The vocabulary of this period refers to lexical-semantic groups that are used to designate the names of body parts, animals, natural phenomena, time periods, plants and flowers, names of parts of buildings, tools. The most striking examples of vocabulary preserved from this period: oak, linden, spruce, tree, leaf, millet, barley, bark, hoe, house, canopy, shelter, chicken, goose, kvass, jelly. The layer of this vocabulary is inherent mainly to the Slavic peoples.
Old Russian period
Old Russian (or East Slavic) vocabulary penetrated into our lexicon during the period of settlement of the Slavs throughout the territory of modern Europe, approximately in the 11th-9th centuries. This also includes the period of formation of the state of Kievan Rus, that is, the 9th-14th centuries. Words such as good, gray, uncle, lace, finch, squirrel, forty, ninety, today.
These words are also characterized by the presence of prefixes in-, you-, up-, up-. For example: platoon, knock out, finish off, catch up.
You can find vocabulary formed during this period only in Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages.
The period of formation of the Russian people
Since the 14th century, new grammatical vocabulary begins to emerge in the Russian language. These words appear after the collapse of the Old Slavic language into Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages. Proper Russian words include such as grumbling, wallpaper, cabbage rolls, experience.
This includes all nouns formed with suffixes -shchik, -shchik, -telstvo, -sh(a). For example: fire extinguisher, partisanship, nationality, checkered. This also includes adverbs peasant style, autumn style, Verbs cringe, crash, worry.
Knowing these features, you can easily calculate the words formed at this stage of development.
This period is the last in the formation of the main layer of Russian lexemes proper.
Borrowed vocabulary
Since ancient times, the Russian people have developed not only trade and cultural ties, but also political and military ones. All this led to language borrowing. Once in Russian, a word in the lexical system of the language changed under its influence and became part of its vocabulary. Borrowed words have significantly enriched the Russian language and introduced a lot of new things into it.
Some words were borrowed completely, while others were modified - they received original Russian suffixes or prefixes, which ultimately led to the formation of a new word of Russian origin. For example, the word “computer” entered our lexicon without changes, but the word “atomic specialist” is already considered native Russian, since it was formed from the borrowed word “atom” according to the native Russian word-formation model.
Borrowings are distinguished from Slavic, as well as Turkic, Latin, Greek, Germanic-Romance languages, which include English and German, Italian, Spanish, and Dutch.
Old Slavonicisms
After Russia adopted Christianity at the end of the 10th century, many words came into the Russian language. This was connected with the appearance of Church Slavonic books in Rus'. Old Church Slavonic, or Old Bulgarian, was used by a number of Slavic states as a literary written language, which was used to translate Greek church books.
From it, ecclesiastical denoting abstract concepts came into the Russian language. These include priest, cross, power, disaster, agreement and many others. Initially, these words were used only in written, book speech, but over time they penetrated into oral speech.
From the point of view of origin, the vocabulary of the Church Slavonic language has the following distinctive features:
- The so-called disagreement is at the root of words. For example: gate or captivity. In this case, the options will be full gate and full.
- Combination railway in the roots of words. A striking example is the word walking.
- The presence of a consonant in words sch, for example in the word lighting.
- Vowel e at the beginning of a word and before a hard consonant: unit.
- Syllables la-, ra- at the beginning of the word. Eg: rook, equal.
- Availability of consoles through-, through-. For example: repay, excessive.
- Suffixes -sti-, -ush-, -yush-, -ash-, -box-: knowledgeable, burning, melting. Parts of the first words of God are good-, evil-, sin-, soul-, good-: God-fearing, evil-will, blessing.
These words are still used in Russian today. At the same time, few people suspect that in fact the named lexemes are not originally Russian and have foreign roots. They can be found especially often in biblical texts and works of classics of Russian literature.
Polish lexemes
Considering the question of what kind of vocabulary there is from the point of view of origin, one cannot help but recall the borrowings from the Polish language, which began in the 17th-18th centuries. From the Western Slavic language words such as belongings, paint, rabbit, periwinkle, jam. It is worth noting that they replenished the stock of not only Russian, but also Ukrainian and Belarusian languages.
Greek loanwords
A significant layer of borrowed vocabulary is Greek. It began to penetrate our language back in the period of pan-Slavic unity. The oldest lexical “gifts” include words such as chamber, bed, boiler.
During the period from the 9th to the 11th centuries the following words were borrowed: anathema, angel, mathematics, lamp, history, philosophy, notebook, bathhouse, lantern. In a later period, words related to words from the fields of art and science were borrowed: comedy, anapest, logic, analogy and many other concepts that are firmly entrenched in the terminology of most modern sciences.
It is worth noting that thanks to the influence of Greece and Byzantium, the vocabulary and phraseology of the Russian language have been significantly enriched. However, the influence of these countries was felt not only by such sciences as philology, but also by mathematics, physics, chemistry, and art.
Latin language
In the period from the 16th to the 53th centuries, Latin words entered the Russian language, enriching the lexical fund in the field of scientific, technical, socio-political terminology. They enter mainly through the Ukrainian and Polish languages. This was especially facilitated by the development of education and science, as well as the historical and cultural ties of these countries.
From the Latin language such familiar concepts as vacation, office, director, auditorium, school, process, public, revolution and others.
Turkic language
Our paths have long crossed with the Tatars and Turks. From the Turkic language words such as pearls, beads, caravan, money, bazaar, watermelon, robe, fog, bloomers, names of horse colors: roan, bay, dun.
Mostly the borrowing came from the Tatar language. Associated with trade, cultural or military ties that have existed between our peoples for several centuries.
Scandinavian languages
There are very few borrowings from the Scandinavian languages - Swedish, Norwegian. They penetrated into the early period due to trade relations that existed between our peoples even in the pre-Christian period.
The most striking words that have penetrated the Russian lexical system: names Igor And Oleg, product names - herring, pood, hook, mast, sneak.
Western European languages
The origin of vocabulary and its development are also closely related to a number of European languages. After the reforms of Peter I, in the 17th-18th centuries, the Russian language included lexemes from Western European languages.
From German a number of words came into our language to denote military, commercial and everyday vocabulary, science and art: bill, headquarters, corporal, tie, easel, resort, landscape.
Dutch “shared” nautical terms with Russian: shipyard, harbor, pilot, fleet, sailor. Marine terms also come from English: Midshipman, Brig.
Words such as boycott, tunnel, football, sports, finish, cupcake, pudding.
The 20th century also includes words from the technical and sports, financial, commercial spheres, and art. New words that replenished our lexical system at that time: computer, file, byte, overtime, broker, leasing, talk show, thriller, briefing, impeachment.
In the 18th-19th centuries, words from the French language also penetrated into the Russian language - bracelet, wardrobe, vest, coat, broth, cutlet, toilet, battalion, garrison, actor, play, director.
Musical terms and terms from the field of art came to Russian from Italian and Spanish: aria, tenor, libretto, sonata, carnival, gondola, serenade, guitar.
All of them are still actively functioning in our lexical system, and we can learn about where and how they came from dictionaries.
Neologisms
At the present stage, the lexical system of the Russian language is replenished with new words. They enter the language through the emergence of fresh concepts and phenomena. When an object or thing appears, new words arise to designate it. They do not immediately enter the active vocabulary.
For some time, the word is considered a neologism, then it becomes commonly used and firmly becomes part of the language. Previously, neologism words were pioneer, Komsomol member, cosmonaut, Khrushchevite And so on. Now no one will suspect neologisms in them.
Dictionaries
In order to check which vocabulary, in terms of origin, is used in a particular case, you can turn to etymological dictionaries. They describe in detail the origin of the word and its initial etymology. You can use the school and short ones edited by N. Shansky, “Russian Etymological Dictionary” by A. E. Anikin or “Etymological Dictionary” by P. A. Krylov and others.
You can find out the meaning of foreign words that have come to us from foreign languages by using the wonderful “Dictionary of Foreign Words” edited by Ozhegov.
Studying at school
Vocabulary from the point of view of origin and use is usually studied in the school course of the Russian language in the section “Lexicology and phraseology”. The closest attention to this topic is paid in grades 5-6, as well as in grades 10. Schoolchildren learn the origin of words and phraseological units, their meaning, learn to distinguish between them, and work with various dictionaries.
In some cases, teachers may conduct entire electives and extracurricular activities dedicated to studying the origins of words.
What materials can be used when studying the topic “Vocabulary from the point of view of origin”? A table with classification and examples, texts in different languages containing words borrowed from Russian, dictionaries.
Studying at University
Vocabulary from the point of view of origin is studied in particular detail at the university, at the Faculty of Philology. Several classes are devoted to this topic in the course “Lexicology and Phraseology of the Modern Russian Language.” In practical classes, students analyze various texts, finding native Russian and borrowed words in them, classify them, and work with dictionaries. The stylistic possibilities of borrowed, obsolete words are also determined.
At lectures and seminars, the classification of vocabulary by origin, use and functioning in the modern Russian language is discussed in detail. This approach makes it possible to interest students and to most deeply master the proposed knowledge on the topic being studied.
conclusions
Any word in the lexical system of a language has its own history and origin. Some words have long functioned in our language, from the period when a single, Indo-European language functioned, others came to us at different time periods from Slavic or European languages, and others arose during the development of modern information technologies.
Understanding the history of the emergence of certain words will help us not only understand their deep meaning, but also trace the development of the culture of our country in a given period.
§ 12. VOCABULARY OF THE MODERN RUSSIAN LANGUAGE FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF ITS ORIGIN
Language is the most living, the most
Abundant and strong connection, co-
Uniting the obsolete, living and
Future generations of the people into one
A great historically living whole.
K.D.Ushinsky
Based on their origin, the vocabulary of the Russian language is divided into two groups: primordial And borrowed. The main part of our vocabulary consists of native Russian words. Based on the time of formation, they can be divided into three layers:
- Common Slavic (before the 5th century AD);
- East Slavic, or Old Russian (from the 1st to the 14th centuries);
- Actually Russian (from the ХІΥ - ХΥ centuries to the present time).
The “pedigree” of the Russian language is continuous, and its beginning is lost in the depths of centuries. The famous linguist Ferdinand de Saussure noted that it is impossible to indicate the date of birth or death of a particular natural language: languages “smoothly develop” from one to another. Thus, scientists have proven that most of the languages of the peoples of Eurasia had a common ancestor - the Indo-European proto-language. Indo-European words have a similar meaning and sound composition in Slavic, Western European, and Indian languages. This includes many kinship terms ( mother, son, brother, sister, widow), names of animals and plants ( wolf, birch), actions ( give, take). It is customary to include both Indo-European and actually common Slavic words in the common Slavic lexical fund: in the 1st millennium BC. one of the dialects of the Indo-European language gave rise to the Proto-Slavic language - the common ancestor of all Slavic languages. Actually, common Slavic words (proto-Slavic) form a vast layer in the original Russian vocabulary; their correspondences in other Slavic languages differ only slightly in sound design and meaning. Actually, the common Slavic vocabulary covers the following thematic groups:
Natural phenomena ( spring, winter, frost);
Human body parts ( head, face, brain, eyebrow, mouth);
Vegetable world ( forest, tree, linden, barley);
Animal world ( horse, cat, crow);
Food ( porridge, kvass, milk, lard);
Houseware ( braid, sieve, table);
Housing ( wall, floor, stove, threshold);
Abstract concepts ( good, true, sorrow);
Signs ( old, white, dumb);
Actions ( weave, sow, cook);
Numbers ( five, seven, one hundred).
Around the 6th – 9th centuries. In the Proto-Slavic language, three large dialect groups were formed: southern, western and eastern. The ancient East Slavic dialects go back to the Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian languages, which emerged as independent languages by the 19th century. The common East Slavic language was called Old Russian. Among the words known only in East Slavic languages are: uncle, nephew, stepdaughter, finch, bullfinch, kite, jackdaw, snowfall, icy sedge, bush brown, brown, gray, dense, watchful, boil, here, completely, today, forty, ninety.
Actually Russian are considered words that appeared in the Russian language after it was separated from Old Russian in the period from the 15th century to the present. Actually, Russian words express concepts associated with the emergence of new objects and phenomena, with the development of science, culture, and technology. In structure, these are derived words, formed both from native Russian and from borrowed lexemes: blizzard, once, mason, household, book depository, fireman, cabbage rolls, jam, painstakingly, intently, daring, sadness.
Among the words of the Russian language there are many borrowings that came into the language in different eras as a result of political, cultural, and economic contacts with other peoples. Among borrowings, Old Church Slavonicisms occupy a special place.
Modern linguistics has powerful methods with which it is possible to lift the veil on how people spoke who lived several thousand years ago and did not leave any written monuments. Scientists use sounds and morphemes to reconstruct the words of the proto-language. The information obtained turns out to be valuable not only for linguists: language opens a window into the past for us. After all, if in the Proto-Indo-European language there were words naming certain objects, tools, products, plants, therefore, they were familiar to our distant ancestors.
The words of the Proto-Indo-European language tell us about the nature that surrounded the ancient Indo-Europeans. Apparently, our ancestors lived in a territory with a mountainous landscape: they were surrounded by high mountains, hills - the root * Hek, r- with this meaning is reconstructed. Streams flowed from the mountains: *Hap “fast-flowing river, stream.” Water, devoid of the sign of swiftness, was called differently: * uet -\ *uot -ort.
The following trees grew in this mountainous area: * berHk "birch", * baHk, o "beech", * (s)k, robo "hornbeam", * Hos "ash", *ei\oi "yew", *peuk\uk “fir”, “spruce”, “pine”, * perku “mountain oak”. The names of the gods of sky, thunder and rain in various Indo-European languages are closely associated with them: the common Slavic Perun, the Lithuanian Perkunas, the Latvian Perkons, the ancient Indian Parjanya, the Albanian Perendi, who were addressed in songs with a request to send rain to the earth.
Based on reconstructions of the names of cultivated and wild plants, as well as agricultural tools, it becomes possible to make an assumption about where the ancient Indo-Europeans lived before the Great Migration began. If this is Europe, then not northern Europe - oaks do not grow there; This is not eastern Europe - there are no large mountain ranges there, and certainly not its central, flat part. If this is Asia, then the ancestral home could be in the Mediterranean, along with the Balkans and the northern part of the Middle East: Asia Minor and the mountainous regions of Upper Mesopotamia.
________________________________________________________________________
*South Slavic languages include: Bulgarian, Serbo-Croatian, Macedonian, Slovenian languages; to West Slavic - Polish, Czech, Slovak, Upper and Lower Sorbian languages
**Semitic languages are one of the branches of the vast macrofamily of Semitic-Hamitic languages. Distributed in Western Asia and Africa. Living languages: Hebrew, western dialects of Syria, eastern dialects of Iraq, Iran, Turkey. The small linguistic family of Transcaucasia, which makes up the Kartvelian languages, includes Georgian, Mingrelian, Laz, and Svan.
The reconstructed common Indo-European names of animals also indicate the southern location of the Indo-European ancestral home: along with wolf, bear, black grouse met and crab.
There is another serious argument in favor of the fact that the Indo-Europeans lived in the territory of the Balkans, including the Middle East and Transcaucasia, Southern Turkmenistan, neighboring for a long time with the peoples of Western Asia. These are numerous borrowings in Indo-European languages from the ancient languages of Western Asia, primarily Proto-Semitic and Proto-Kartvelian**.
(M. Novikova-Grund)
The lexical system of the modern Russian language did not arise immediately. The process of its formation was very long and complex.
New words are constantly appearing in the Russian language, but there are also many in it whose history goes back to the distant past. These ancient words are part of the modern dictionary as a group of the original vocabulary of the Russian language.
The following genetic groups of words from the original vocabulary of the Russian language (original Russian vocabulary) are distinguished:
Kinship terms ( mother, father, son, daughter);
Animals ( sheep, mouse, wolf, pig);
2) Common Slavic vocabulary ( Common Slavs ) - words whose existence dates back to the era of the Common Slavic language (before the 6th century). These include:
Names of parts of the human body ( eye, heart, beard);
Animal names ( rooster, nightingale, horse, doe);
Names of natural phenomena and periods of time ( spring, evening, winter);
Plant names ( tree, branch, oak, linden);
Names of colors ( white, black, light brown);
Names of settlements, buildings, tools, etc. ( house, canopy, floor, roof);
Names of sensory sensations ( warm, sour, stale);
3) East Slavic (Old Russian) vocabulary ( East Slavs, Old Russia ) - words that appeared in the Russian language during the period of settlement of the Slavs in Eastern Europe (VI-IX centuries), as well as during the formation of the Old Russian language (IX-XIV centuries);
4) Actually Russian vocabulary ( russianism ) - words that appeared in the language of the Great Russian people (XIV-XVII centuries) and the national Russian language (from the mid-17th century to the present).
Along with the original vocabulary in the Russian language, there are groups of words borrowed from other languages at different times.
Borrowing call the transition of elements of one language into another as a result of language contacts, the interaction of languages. Borrowed words are mastered by the borrowing language, adapting to its features. During this adaptation, they are assimilated to such an extent that their foreign language origin may not be felt at all and is discovered only by etymologists. For example: gang, hearth, shoe, Cossack(Turk.) . In contrast to completely assimilated (mastered) words, foreign words retain traces of foreign language origin in the form of unique sound, spelling and grammatical features. Often, foreign words denote rarely used, special concepts, as well as concepts characteristic of foreign countries and peoples. For example: kimono- Japanese men's and women's dress in the form of a robe, guava- a fruit plant from tropical America.
Borrowed vocabulary
Slavic borrowings are usually divided into Old Church Slavonicisms and Slavicisms.
Old Slavonic borrowings ( Old Slavs ) became widespread in Rus' after the adoption of Christianity, at the end of the 10th century. They came from the closely related Old Church Slavonic language, which was used for a long time in a number of Slavic states as a literary written language used to translate Greek liturgical books. Its South Slavic basis organically included elements from Western and Eastern Slavic languages, and the Greek language. From the very beginning, this language was used primarily as the language of the church (therefore it is sometimes called Church Slavonic or Old Church Bulgarian). From the Old Church Slavonic language, for example, church terms came to Russian ( priest, cross, rod, sacrifice etc.), many words denoting abstract concepts ( power, grace, harmony, disaster, virtue and etc.).
In Russian there is Slavs - words borrowed at different times from Slavic languages: Belarusian ( Belarusianism ), Ukrainian ( ukraine'zma ), Polish ( polonizmy ) etc. For example: borsch(Ukrainian), dumplings(Ukrainian), vareniki(Ukrainian), sweater(Polish), place(Polish), monogram(Polish), bekesha(Hung.), farm(Hung.).
Since ancient times, through language contacts on everyday, economic, political, and cultural grounds, the Russian language also included borrowed elements from unrelated languages.
There are several classifications of foreign language borrowings.
Depending on the degree of mastery of foreign words, their structure and peculiarities of functioning, borrowed words, exoticisms and barbarisms are distinguished.
Borrowed words - words that are completely (graphically, phonetically (orthoepicically), semantically, word-formatively, morphologically, syntactically) assimilated in the successor language.
Depending on the structure, three groups of borrowed words are distinguished:
1) words that structurally coincide with foreign language samples. For example: junior(fr. junior), anaconda(Spanish) anaconda), darts(English) darts);
2) words morphologically formed by affixes of the successor language. For example: wedge-to-a(fr. tankette), kibit-k-a(tat. kibit);
3) words in which part of a foreign word is replaced by a Russian element. For example: shorts (short-s; Russian plural ending -s replaces the English plural indicator - s).
Exoticism - words that are national names of household items, rituals, customs of a particular people or country. These words are unique and have no synonyms in the successor language. For example: cab- one-horse carriage in England; geisha- in Japan: a woman trained in music, dancing, the ability to conduct small talk and invited to the role of a hospitable hostess at receptions, banquets, etc.; dekhkanin- on Wednesday. Asia and Iran: peasant.
Barbarianism (foreign language inclusions) - words, phrases and sentences that are in a foreign language environment, not mastered or poorly mastered by the successor language and transmitted in the successor language by means of the source language. For example: N.B. (nota bene) - "pay attention", happy ending- "a happy ending".
A special group consists of internationalism - words presented in different, and not the closest related languages ( association, bureaucracy and so on.)
According to the source language, foreign language borrowings are divided into various groups:
Borrowings from Scandinavian languages make up a small part in the Russian language. These include mainly maritime terms and trade vocabulary. For example: scrub(Dutch draaien), wake(Dutch kielwater), receipt(Dutch kvitantie);
Borrowings from Greek ( Greece ) began to penetrate into the original vocabulary during the period of pan-Slavic unity. There were significant borrowings from the fields of religion, science, and everyday life in the period from the 9th to the 11th centuries. and later. Later borrowings relate mainly to the fields of art and science. For example: apathy(Greek apatheia), apocrypha(Greek apokryphos), helium(Greek hēlios), dolphin(Greek delphis (delphinos)), cypress(Greek kyparissos);
Borrowings from Turkic languages ( Turks ) penetrated into the Russian language as a result of the development of trade and cultural ties, as a result of military clashes. The main part of Turkisms are words that came from the Tatar language (this is explained by historical conditions - the Tatar-Mongol yoke). For example: strongman(Arab. hammal), goitered gazelle(Kazakh. ž ijran), horseman(Turk. jigit), donkey(Turk. äšä k), caravan(tat.), mound(tat.), box(tat.);
Borrowings from Latin ( Latinism ) mainly replenished the Russian language in the period from the 16th to the 18th centuries. For example: vote(lat. vōtum), hegemon(Greek hēgemōn), quint(lat. quinta);
Borrowings from English ( Anglicism ) date back to the 19th-20th centuries. A significant part of words related to the development of social life, technology, sports, etc., entered the Russian language in the 20th century. For example: volleyball(English) volleyball), dandy(English) dandy), boat(English) cutter);
Borrowings from French ( gallicisms ) XVIII-XIX centuries. - this is everyday vocabulary. For example: accessory(fr. accessoir), gallop(fr. galop), decorator(fr. de´ corateur);
Borrowings from Germanic languages ( germanism ) are represented by a number of words from trade, military, everyday vocabulary and words from the field of art and science. For example: equipment(German) Apparatur), guardhouse(German) Hauptwache), generals(German) Generalität);
Borrowings from the Italian language are represented mainly by musical terms. For example: allegro(it. allegro), adagio(it. adagio), soprano(it. soprano), coach(it. carreta);
Borrowings from other languages. For example: karma(Sanskrit karma), chum salmon(nanaysk. keta), kefir(osset. k'æru), kimono(Japanese) kimono), Mayan(American Indian language), lane(Finnish) mainas), fiesta(Spanish) fiesta), castanets(Spanish) castanetas).
Loan words also include calques.
Tracing - the process of creating words from native material using foreign language models.
Word-forming traces - words that arose as a result of translating foreign words into morphological parts while preserving the word-formation structure of the borrowed word. In this case, only the word-formation structure of the word is borrowed. For example: French solid-ite´ in Russian is morphemically replaced by the word density; self-service(English) - self-service; sky-scraper(English) - skyscraper, selbst-kosten(German) - cost price and so on.
Semantic tracings - words that acquire additional meaning under the influence of the corresponding foreign language language sample. For example: under the influence of the figurative meaning of the French word clou (nail) - “the main attraction of a theatrical performance, program” - expressions appear in Russian highlight of the season, highlight of the concert; influenced by the figurative meaning of the German word Plathform (platform) - “program, a set of principles of a political party” the expression appears in Russian economic platform and the like.
generated in 0.025032997131348 sec.
Russian language
VOCABULARY
9. Vocabulary of the Russian language from the point of view of origin
Two ways of forming vocabulary in the Russian language.
The vocabulary of the modern Russian language has been formed over many centuries. There are two ways to replenish the vocabulary of the Russian language:
1)
Borrowing from other languages.
The Russian people have long entered into political, trade, scientific and cultural relations with other peoples, thanks to which the Russian language has been enriched with words from other languages. The development of economics and culture, technological progress and the active political life of the world community have largely contributed to this process. At the moment, the vocabulary of the modern Russian language contains about 10% of borrowed words;
2)
Using your own resources.
The main source of vocabulary replenishment has always been its own resources. In other words, most words were created on the basis of Russian roots and affixes. There are currently about 90% of such words in the Russian language.
Original Russian words.
From a historical point of view, the formation of native Russian vocabulary took place in several stages:
1) many words were inherited by the Russian language from the Indo-European language, thanks to which we now use kinship terms in speech ( mother father ), animal names ( wolf ), names of natural phenomena ( coast, moon, sea );2) a little later, a large number of words were inherited from the Proto-Slavic language (before the 6th century AD). This vocabulary covers different areas of life: names of body parts ( hand leg ), time of day and year ( morning, winter ), numerals ( three four ) and etc.;
3) some words appeared during the existence of the common Slavic language, as well as during the stages of East Slavic unity (VI - XIV - XV centuries). At this time words such as good, simple, person ;
4) a significant part of the words arose after the formation of the Great Russian language (XIV - XV centuries). These words are characteristic specifically of the Russian language and are known among other Slavic peoples only as Russian borrowed words. These include almost all nouns formed using suffixes -shchik, -shchik, -telstvo , prefixal, verbal nouns (running, clamping), nouns formed from adjectives using a suffix -ness (nationality), participial adverbs (excitingly).
Borrowed words.
Words are called borrowed if they were taken from other languages. For the Russian language, the sources of borrowing were:
1) Slavic (Ukrainian, Polish, Czech) languages. For example: few words came to us from the Ukrainian language. Among them are such as borscht, bagel, kids . From Polish, the Russian language adopted everyday vocabulary, for example: apartment, draw, cheat sheet . There are rare borrowings from the Czech language, for example: refugee, robot ;
2) non-Slavic (Latin, Greek, German, French, English, etc.) languages. A large share of words in our vocabulary are occupied by Latinisms, which penetrated into the Russian language after the adoption of Christianity ( accent, hyphen, intonation, punctuation ). Greek words actively penetrated into the vocabulary also after the adoption of Christianity through liturgical books ( altar, anathema, Satan, patriarch ). In addition, we also owe everyday vocabulary to the Greek language ( bed, ship, doll, sail ). During the reforms of Peter I in the 18th century, German ( soldier, officer, jigsaw, infirmary, bandage, scar ) and Dutch ( boat, yacht, sailor, cabin boy, hatch, airlock ) words. In the 19th century, the Russian language rapidly borrowed French words covering various spheres of life (everyday words: corset, suit, coat ; art historical terms: play, actor, sketch ; military terms: garrison, partisan, attack ). We owe the Italian language such words as pasta, newspaper, aria, soprano, bass, libretto . A few words came to us from Spanish, for example: serenade, caramel, marshmallow .
It should be noted that borrowing is by no means a simple “transplant” of someone else’s word into another language. During this process, the word is adapted to the phonetic system, morphological and graphic systems of the borrowing language; it seems to undergo transformation. For example, a Russian word may not coincide in graphics and pronunciation with the word in the source language (impoў rt - and import , sport - sport ). Or a Russian word may differ from a word in the source language in morphology, for example: word silage came to us from the Spanish language. In Spanish the final consonant With is a plural indicator, and in Russian the word silage has only singular form. And some borrowed words do not change at all in terms of cases and numbers, for example: coat, depot, radio, cocoa . In addition, when borrowing, a process of narrowing the meaning of a word usually occurs, for example: in French the word powder meant “ powder" , And " powder" , And " dust" , And " sand" , and in the Russian language it retained only the meaning “ cosmetic product" .
Vocabulary in terms of meaning, origin and use.
Use of different lexical groups of words in speech.
Medical terminology and professional vocabulary.
Origin, structure and meaning of phraseological units;
Lexical errors and their correction,
elimination of lexical errors in speech;
Russian vocabulary from the outside areas of its use.
The basis of the vocabulary of a literary language is made up of commonly used words. On their basis, further improvement and enrichment of the vocabulary of the national Russian language takes place.
But in different places there are words that are understandable only to residents of a particular area. Such words are called dialectisms. In the national Russian language there are two main dialects (dialects) - northern and southern, which include independent dialects. A special group consists of Central Russian dialects, which have features of both Northern Russian and Southern Russian dialects.
In addition, in every profession, in addition to commonly used ones, special words are used - professionalism.
Words used in the speech of certain social groups, for example, schoolchildren and students, are also limited in their use. Such words are argotisms (or jargonisms) and, unlike dialectisms and professionalisms, have a pronounced emotional and expressive character.
Thus, The national Russian language includes popular, commonly used words and words of limited use (dialect words, professional words, colloquial and jargon words).
Sometimes words of limited use can be found in works of fiction. What do you think is the purpose of using them?
(To create speech color, the speech individuality of the characters).
Let's turn again to the video material to observe the speech of the characters regarding the use of such words (dialectisms, colloquialisms, jargons).
The language dictionary includes active vocabulary, that is, words that are used by all speakers at a given time and passive vocabulary, that is, words that people either stop or just start using.
Passive vocabulary is divided into two groups: obsolete words and new words.
The division of language into active and passive vocabulary is justified in a strictly defined historical time: each era has its own active and passive vocabulary.
Vocabulary in terms of origin
1 .They are originally Russian words that arose in the Russian language at any stage of its development.
Original Russian vocabulary forms the main body of vocabulary of the Russian language, defining its national specificity. Original Russian words include 1) Indo-Europeanisms; 2) common Slavic words, 3) words of East Slavic origin, 4) actual Russian words.
2.Indo-Europeanisms - these are the most ancient words preserved from the era of Indo-European unity. The Indo-European linguistic community gave rise to many European and some Asian languages. Indo-European language is also called a proto-language. For example, the words mother, son, daughter, moon, snow, water, new, sew, etc. go back to the proto-language.
Common Slavic vocabulary- these are words inherited by the Russian language from the common Slavic (proto-Slavic) language, which became the basis of all Slavic languages. Words of common Slavic origin are distinguished by their maximum frequency in speech (field, sky, earth, river, wind, rain, maple, linden, elk, snake , already, mosquito, fly, friend, face, lip, throat, heart, knife, sickle, needle, grain, butter, flour, bell, cage; ; throw, nod, boil, put; you, he, what; where, then, there; about, at, for;
East Slavic vocabulary is the words inherited by the Russian language from the East Slavic (Old Russian) language, which is the common language of all Eastern Slavs (Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians). A significant part of words of East Slavic origin is known in Ukrainian and Belarusian languages, but is absent in West Slavic and South Slavic languages, for example: bullfinch (Russian), stgur (Ukrainian), snyagur (Belarusian) - wintering (Serbian). Words of East Slavic origin include, for example, the words dog, squirrel, boot, ruble, cook, carpenter, village, nag, palm, boil, etc.
Actually Russian vocabulary- these are words that appeared in the Russian language during the period of its independent existence, when the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages began to develop in parallel. The basis of Russian words proper was all the previous lexical and word-formation material. Properly Russian in origin include, for example, the words visor, sorcerer, spinning wheel, child, shy, etc.
3. Signs of Old Church Slavonicisms:
1. Phonetic
a) partial-vocal combinations ra, la, re, le, correlative with the Russian full-vocal combinations oro, olo, ere (gate - gate).
b) initial combinations ra, la correlative with Russian rho, lo (rook - boat)
c) consonant shch, alternating with t, in Russian h (lighting - shine - candle)
d) initial e in Russian o (united - one)
e) e under stress before hard consonants in Russian ё (cross - godfather)
f) the combination of zhd at the root with the Russian zh (clothes - clothes)
2. Derivatives
a) prefixes pre-, through- with Russian pere-, through- (transgress - step over)
b) prefixes iz- with Russian vy- (pour out - pour out)
c) suffixes of abstract nouns –stvo, -ie, -zn, -ynya, -tva, -sny (life, prayer)
d) parts of complex words with good-, good-, sacrifice-, evil-
3. Morphological
a) superlative suffixes –eysh, -aysh
b) participial suffixes –ashch(yashch), -ushch(yushch) in Russian –ach(yach), -uch(yuch) (burning - hot)
One word may have several signs that allow it to be classified as an Old Slavonicism.
Sometimes the presence of an Old Church Slavonic element does not indicate that the later borrowing was made from Old Church Slavonic (pre-Olympic).
The fate of Old Church Slavonicisms:
1) Old Church Slavonicisms completely replaced the original Russian words (captivity - full)
2) Old Church Slavonicisms are used along with native Russian words (ignoramus - ignoramus). In such pairs, Old Church Slavonicisms denote abstract concepts or have a connotation of solemnity, bookishness, have different compatibility and differ lexically (hot - burning).
Old Slavonicisms can be:
1. Stylistically neutral (artist, time, clothing, power)
2. Bookish, having a touch of solemnity (shudder, dry up)
3. Outdated (young, breg, dlan).
Old Slavonicisms are used in YHL for stylistic purposes to convey solemnity, parodic reduction of style, comic effect, to create temporary flavor and archaization of style.
4. With direct contact between peoples, borrowing occurred orally (Scandinavian, Finnish and Turkic). Latinisms were borrowed in writing, Greekisms were borrowed orally and in writing.
1. Scandinavian - Swedish, Norwegian, Finnish - the earliest borrowings (herring, brand, whip, blizzard, Igor, Oleg).
2. Turkic - (11-17 centuries) sash, shoe, brocade, barn.
3. Greek - penetrated into the Russian language even before the adoption of Christianity, when Rus' was trading with Greece, with the adoption of Christianity (late 10th century) they were borrowed through liturgical books (altar, pulpit, doll, cucumber, ship). The Greek language was enriched with scientific terminology; Greek terms were borrowed from other languages or created according to Greek models (alphabet, apostrophe, grammar).
4. Latinisms – a large number in the terminological vocabulary (accent, hyphen, predicate). Latinisms penetrated through the Greek-Byzantine, Polish and Ukrainian (15-17 centuries) mediation. From the 18th century great influence on the Russian language (author, student, dean, coin, constitution).
5. Germanic languages
a) German - the beginning of penetration dates back to ancient times (Gothic), most active from the beginning of the 18th century. (Peter 1), these include military terms (soldier, officer), craft terms (jigsaw, workbench), names of animals and plants, objects, medical terms (tie, jacket, potato, paramedic, huntsman)
b) Dutch - in the era of Peter 1, mainly terms of maritime affairs (raid, pennant, yacht, frigate, office)
c) English - in the 16th century, borrowing of maritime terms. Since the 19th century terms technical, sports, socio-political, agricultural (carriage. Rails, beefsteak, sports, tennis, club, leader)
6. Romance languages
a) French - penetrate from the 17th-19th centuries. and cover various spheres of life (tights, corset, partisans, dugout, navy, parliament, play, plot)
b) Italian - mainly art terms (aria, solo, impresario, piano, barricade, pasta, paper, newspaper)
c) Spanish – guitar, serenade, caramel
5. Signs of borrowing:
1) Turkisms are characterized by synharmonism
2) French – final stressed vowels (coat), combinations ue, ua in the middle of a word (silhouette), final –azh (massage).
3) German – combinations pcs, xt (pate, watch)
4) English – combination j (jazz, budget)
5) Latinisms - final -um, -us, -ura, -tsiya, -ent (plenum, president, degree)
II. Vocabulary from the point of view of active and passive stock
1. The Russian language dictionary is constantly changing and improving in the process of its historical development. Changes in vocabulary are directly related to human production activity, to the economic, social, and political development of society. The vocabulary reflects all processes of the historical development of society. With the advent of new objects and phenomena, new concepts arise, and with them, words for naming these concepts. With the death of certain phenomena, the words that name them go out of use or change their meaning. Taking all this into account, the vocabulary of the national language can be divided into two large groups: active dictionary and passive dictionary.
2. B active vocabulary includes those everyday words whose meaning is clear to all people speaking a given language. The words of this group are devoid of any signs of obsolescence.
3. K passive vocabulary These include those that either have a pronounced connotation of obsolescence, or, conversely, due to their novelty, have not yet become widely known and are also not in everyday use.
Passive words are divided, in turn, into obsolete and new (neologisms).
4. One group of obsolete words consists of those that have already completely fallen out of use due to the disappearance of those concepts that meant: boyar, veche, streltsy, oprichnik, vowel (member of the city duma), mayor, etc. The words of this group are called historicisms. Another group of obsolete words consists of archaisms, i.e. words that, in the process of language development, were replaced by synonyms, which are other names for the same concept. This group includes, for example, the words barber - hairdresser; this - this; more gently - because; gostba - trade; eyelids - eyelids; piit - poet; komon - horse; Lanita - cheeks; instigate - incite; bed - bed, etc. Both of these outdated words are used in the language of fiction as a means of recreating a certain historical era. They can be a means of giving speech a comic or ironic tone. Archaisms are part of traditional poetic sublime vocabulary (for example, the words: breg, cheeks, youth, this, eyes, this, etc.). The use of historicisms and archaisms in special scientific-historical literature is already devoid of a special stylistic specification, since it allows one to lexically accurately characterize the era being described.
5. New words that appear in the language as a result of the emergence of new concepts, phenomena, qualities are called neologisms (from rp. neos - new + logos - word). A neologism that has arisen together with a new object, thing, or concept is not immediately included in the active composition of the dictionary. After a new word becomes commonly used and accessible to the public, it ceases to be a neologism. For example, the words Soviet, collectivization, collective farm, link, tractor driver, Komsomol member, Leninist, pioneer, Michurinets, metro builder, Tselinnik, Lunnik, cosmonaut and many others have gone this way. Over time, many of these words also become obsolete and become passive in the language.
6. In addition to neologisms, which are the property of the national language, new words formed by one or another author are highlighted. Some of them entered the literary language, for example: drawing, mine, pendulum, pump, attraction, constellation, etc. (in Lomonosov); industry, love, absent-mindedness, touching (in Karamzin); fade away (in Dostoevsky), etc. Others remain part of the so-called occasional authorial formations. They perform figurative and expressive functions only in an individual context and, as a rule, are created on the basis of existing word-formation models, for example: mandolin, unsmile, sickle, hammer, chamberlenye and many others by Mayakovsky; stormed, made a mess with B. Pasternak; mokhnatinki, Ant Country and Muravskaya Country by A. Tvardovsky; to magic, cellophaneized, etc. from A. Voznesensky; side-bodied, unfamiliarity, overworld, inflexible and others by E. Yevtushenko. A.I. has a lot of non-usual words. Solzhenitsyn, especially among the adverbs: he turned around ready, rushed forward, grinned broadly.
From the point of view of use there are:
Neutral vocabulary is intended for ascertaining, non-evaluative, non-terminological designation of objects, concepts of everyday life, natural phenomena, periods of a person’s life and states of his life, periods of time, measures of length, weight, volume, etc. It is devoid of expression, emotional and social assessments.
For example: window, south, work
Which style is characterized by the use of neutral vocabulary?
Book vocabulary, is characterized by thematic diversity - in accordance with the breadth and variety of issues of the texts.
For example: cheeks, broadcast, gratuitous
What style is typical for using book vocabulary?
Vocabulary of oral speech. The vocabulary of oral speech includes words characteristic of oral varieties of communicative activity. The vocabulary of oral speech is heterogeneous. It can highlight:
Jargons are words that are used in a certain social and age environment.
For example: TV - TV, spur - cheat sheet, swim - bad answer
Argotisms- words and figures of speech borrowed from one or another Argo and used as a stylistic device (usually to characterize the speech of a character in a work of fiction).
For example: grandma - days, huckster - businessman, lads - criminal group
Dialectisms - words characteristic of a particular area
For example: beet - beet, styuvat - dissuade, shayat - smolder
Which style is characterized by the use of oral vocabulary?
Professionalisms- words or expressions characteristic of the speech of a particular profession.
For example: cleaver - welder's hammer, ramps - wheel tires, noodles - two-core wire
Terminological vocabulary- words and phrases that name objects and concepts related to various areas of human labor activity and are not commonly used
For example: hydroponics, holography, cardiac surgery, cosmobiology
What is the difference between terminological vocabulary and professionalisms?
In what style is terminological and professional vocabulary used?
