Why Ancient China. A Brief History of Ancient China. Chinese earthquake detection device
Three thousand years ago, the first Chinese began to inhabit the Great Plain of China between the Yellow and Yangtze rivers. Despite the fact that the first states began to appear on this territory quickly, their inhabitants considered themselves a single people with a single culture and language.
Emergence Ancient China happened almost the same as in Ancient Egypt, Sumer and Ancient India - on the banks of large rivers. The ancient Chinese civilization was born in the Yellow River Valley (in Chinese - "Yellow River"). The first kingdom arose in the 2nd millennium BC. e. and was called Shang or Yin. Archaeologists have unearthed the capital of this kingdom, the Great City Shan and the tombs of the Shan kings - wans.
In 1122 BC. e. the warlike Zhou tribe, led by Wu-wang, defeated the Shants and established its supremacy, and the Shang-Yin enslaved most of the country's population. But in the 8th century BC. e. the state of Zhou disintegrated under the blows of the nomads; now the main role is played by one or the other kingdom, of which the largest state was the kingdom of Jin (7–5 centuries BC). With the collapse of the Jin state, the period of Zhangguo ("Fighting Kingdoms") began, when China was divided into two dozen small warring principalities, poorly subordinate to the Zhoukomuwang.
6–5 centuries BC e. - the time of the appearance of the first philosophical teachings of ancient China. Of all the sages of this time, Confucius was especially revered by the Chinese. His teaching about a "noble man", about respect for elders, about modesty, about the importance of education, about the attitude towards the ruler as the head of the family for a long time became in China the ideal of relationships between people - both in the family and in the state.
In 221 BC, the Qin ruler Ying Zheng united large territories into a single empire and took the title of Qin Shi Huang, which means “First Emperor of the Qin Dynasty. So that people would not grumble, they were kept in constant fear. Qin Shi Huang brutally suppressed all resistance, using the most terrible types of executions, for example, they could boil alive in a cauldron. For the slightest offense, a person was beaten on the heels with a bamboo stick or his nose was cut off. If a person violated the law, then his whole family was also punished: the relatives of the convict were turned into slaves, who were used for heavy construction work.
Having established his complete power in the empire, Qin Shi Huang started a war with the nomadic Huns who attacked his borders from the north. He decided to secure his victory forever by building a powerful border wall, called the Great Wall of China. It was built of boulders and bricks by hundreds of thousands of convicted criminals and ordinary peasants. The height of the wall was about a three-story building. On the top, two carts could easily disperse. The towers were guarded. At the bottom of it they lived, and on the upper platform the sentries closely watched the surroundings and, in case of danger, kindled a fire, the smoke, which could be seen far away. A large detachment of soldiers was in a hurry to his signal to this place.
With the fall of the Qin dynasty, one of the leaders came to power peasant war- Lyuban. He lowered taxes and abolished the most brutal laws introduced in China by Emperor Qin Shi Huang. Liuban became the founder of the Han Dynasty. During the Han era, the main features of the Chinese state were formed, which were inherent in it until the beginning of the 20th century.
Collecting taxes in a large country demanded knowledge of geometry and arithmetic from Han officials. To teach the basics of mathematics, special textbooks and collections of problems were used. Ancient Chinese astronomers accurately calculated the length of the solar year and compiled a perfect calendar; they knew hundreds of stars and constellations, they calculated the orbital periods of the planets. In ancient China, the beginnings of Chinese civilization and its culture - science, literature, art - were laid.
The death of the Han dynasty was associated with the uprising of the "yellow bands" that swept the country in 184. Although the uprising was brutally suppressed, it dealt a heavy blow to the country. In 220, the Han dynasty fell, and several independent states were formed on its territory. This event is generally considered the end of a period of antiquity in Chinese history.
Second half of the 1st millennium BC e. in society Ancient China received the name Zhanguo - Struggling Kingdoms. It was an era of constant wars between small principalities and kingdoms that formed on the ruins of the once powerful Zhou state. Over time, seven of the strongest stood out among them, who subjugated their weak neighbors and continued to fight for the inheritance of the Zhou dynasty: kingdoms of Chu, Qin, Wei, Zhao, Han, Qi and Yan... But it was also an era of changes in all areas of life, production and social relations. Cities grew, crafts improved, and agriculture developed, iron replaced bronze. Scientists and writers created wonderful interpretations in the field of natural science, philosophy, history, romance and poetry that continue to excite the reader to this day. Suffice it to say that it was at this time that Confucius and Lao Tzu lived, the founders of two philosophical and religious schools - Confucianism and Taoism, the adherents of which still consider themselves to be most of the Chinese.
Despite the borders, it was a single world, one civilization, all conditions were created in it not only for unification, but also for going beyond its geographical limits. Such unification within the framework of a single empire took place at the end of the 3rd century. BC e. under the rule of a dynasty of one of the "seven strongest" - kingdom of Qin... The dynasty ruled a single China for only one generation, only 11 years (from 221 to 210 BC). But what a decade it has been! The reforms have affected all aspects of the life of the Chinese society.
Map of Ancient China in the Qin and Han Era
It was replaced by a new one dynasty - Han, which not only did not cross out everything that was done the first emperor of Qin Shi Huang, but preserved, multiplied its achievements and extended them to the surrounding peoples, from the Gobi wasteland in the north, to the South China Sea in the south and from the Liaodong Peninsula in the east to the Pamir mountains in the west. The empire of ancient China, formed by the end of the 3rd century. BC e., lasted until the end of the II century. n. e., when new, even more significant changes brought it to crisis and decay.
In the further history of the civilization of ancient China, many more dynasties, both local and alien, were replaced. Epochs of power were replaced by periods of decline more than once. But China emerged from each crisis invariably preserving its originality and increasing its cultural wealth. Witnesses of the next takeoff of Chinese civilization we are with you now. And the beginning of this amazing constancy and originality was laid in that distant era when the Celestial Empire of China was born.
Street of the Chinese city of the Eastern Zhou era
The emergence of the civilization of ancient China
Kingdom of Qin among other large formations of ancient China, it was not the most powerful and enlightened. It was located in the north of the country, had heavy soils and was adjacent to numerous nomadic tribes. But fenced off by natural boundaries - the Yellow River and mountain ranges - the Qin kingdom was more or less protected from enemy invasions and at the same time occupied convenient strategic positions for an attack on neighboring powers and tribes. The lands of the kingdom, lying in the basins of the Weihe, Jinghe and Luhe rivers, are very fertile. In the middle of the III century. BC e. Simultaneously with the creation of the Zheng Guo canal, work was carried out here to drain the swamps, which significantly increased the yield. Important trade routes passed through the territory of the Qin kingdom, and trade with neighboring tribes became one of the sources of its enrichment. Trade with the northern tribes - intermediaries in the trade of the ancient Chinese kingdoms with the countries of Central Asia - was of particular importance for the state. Iron and iron products, salt and silk were mainly exported from Qin. From the pastoral tribes of the north and northwest, the inhabitants of the Qin kingdom received wool, skins and slaves. In the southwest, the Qin kingdom traded with the inhabitants of the Mu and Ba regions. The fertile lands and mountain wealth of these regions, which, moreover, lay at the junction of trade routes that led far to the south-west up to ancient India, became the reason for the expansion of the Qin kingdom.
Since the reign of Xiao Gong (361-338 BC), the Qin began to strengthen. And it was not only about the success of the economy and campaigns of conquest. The same thing happened in other kingdoms of ancient China.
In the middle of the IV century. BC e. in the kingdom of Qin were carried out important reforms that contributed to its comprehensive strengthening. They were led by the dignitary Shang Yan, one of the most prominent representatives and zealous followers of the fajia teaching. The first was land reform, which dealt a decisive blow to communal land tenure. According to Shang Yang's rulings, land began to be freely bought and sold. In order to centralize the state, Shang Yang introduced a new administrative division based on the territorial principle, which violated the old boundaries established by the old tribal division. The entire kingdom was divided into counties (xiang). The counties were split into smaller formations, with government officials at the head of each. The smallest administrative units became collectively linked associations of five and ten families. Second reform was tax. Instead of the previous land tax, which was 1/10 of the harvest, Shang Yang introduced a new tax corresponding to the amount of cultivated land. This provided the state with an annual, constant income that did not depend on the harvest. Droughts, floods, crop failures now fell with all the burden on the farmers. The new taxation system provided the enormous resources needed by the Qin rulers to wage war.
According to military reform Shang Yang, the Qin army was rearmed and reorganized. It included cavalry. War chariots, which formed the basis of the military power of the former hereditary aristocracy, were excluded from the army. Bronze weapons were replaced by new ones - made of iron. The long outer clothing of the warriors was replaced by a short jacket, like that of nomadic barbarians, a jacket that was comfortable in the campaign and in battle. The army was divided into fives and tens, linked by a mutual guarantee system. Soldiers who did not show the proper courage were subjected to severe punishment. After military reform Shang Yang's Qin army became one of the most efficient armies of the ancient Chinese kingdoms. Shang Yang created 18 degrees of military merit. For each captured and killed enemy was entitled to one degree. "Noble houses that do not have military merit can no longer be on the lists of the nobility," the decree said. The result of the reforms carried out by Shang Yang was the emergence on the site of a previously amorphous formation - the kingdom of Qin - a strong centralized state. Since the reign of Xiao Gong, the struggle of the Qin kingdom for the unification of the entire territory of Ancient China under its hegemony began. The Qin kingdom was unmatched in strength and power. Further conquests of the kingdom, culminating in the formation of an empire, are associated with the name of Ying Zheng (246-221 BC). As a result of many years of struggle, he subdued one after another all the kingdoms of Ancient China: in 230 BC. e. - Kingdom of Han, in 228 BC. e. - kingdom of Zhao, in 225 BC. e. - the kingdom of Wei. In 222 BC. e. the kingdom of Chu was finally conquered.In the same year, the kingdom of Yan surrendered. The last - in 221 BC. e. - the kingdom of Qi is conquered. The chariot, charioteer and horses are made with extraordinary precision, conveying all the details of the prototypes. Having become the head of a huge state, Ying Zheng chose a new title for himself and his descendants - huangdi (emperor). Later sources usually refer to him as Qin shihuangdi which literally means "the first emperor of the Qin empire." Almost immediately after the completion of the conquests of the ancient Chinese kingdoms, Qin Shi Huang undertook successful campaigns against the Huns in the north and the kingdom of Yue in the south. The Chinese state has gone beyond the boundaries of national education. From this moment the countdown of the history of the imperial period begins.
Sericulture. Silk in ancient China
Sources testify to the veneration by the ancient Chinese of the silk worm and silk weaving. Mulberry is a sacred tree, the personification of the Sun and a symbol of fertility. In the old Chinese texts, sacred mulberry groves or individual mulberries are mentioned as places of worship associated with the cult of the Mother Ancestor. According to legend, the baby Yin was found in the hollow of a mulberry tree, who became the ancestor of the first dynasty of China. The deity of the silkworm was a woman who kneels by a tree and weaves a silk thread.
Money in ancient China
In the VI century. BC e., as well as at the other end of the civilized world in Western Asia and, in kingdom of Jin metal money first appeared. Soon they began to be cast in the rest of the powers of Ancient China. In different kingdoms money took a different shape: in Chu - the shape of a square, and in Qi and Yan - the shape of knives or swords, in Zhao, Han and Wei - the shape of shovels, in Qin there were big money with square holes in the middle.
Writing
Before the invention of paper in China, bamboo or wooden plates and silk were used for writing. Bamboo plates were sewn into a kind of "notebook". Silk "books" were kept in rolls.
Improved writing technology ancient China. The Chinese split the bamboo trunks into thin boards and wrote hieroglyphs on them in black ink from top to bottom. Then folded in a row they were fastened with leather straps along the upper and lower edges - it turned out to be a long bamboo cloth, easily rolled into a roll. Such was the ancient Chinese book, usually written on several scrolls - juan; rolled up they were placed in an earthen vessel, kept in stone chests of the imperial libraries, in wicker boxes of scholars and scribes.
Ancient China's politics
Chinese society, at least the most enlightened minds of that time, well understood the accomplished and future changes.This awareness gave rise to numerous ideological currents, some of which defended the antiquity, others took all innovations for granted, and still others looked for ways of further progress. It can be said that politics entered the house of every Chinese, and passionate disputes between supporters of various teachings flared up in squares and in taverns, at the courts of nobles and dignitaries. The most famous teachings of that era were Taoism, Confucianism, and Fazia, conventionally called the school of legalists - legalists. The political platforms put forward by the representatives of these directions expressed the interests of different segments of the population. The creators and preachers of these teachings were both representatives of the high society, and people of little nobility and wealthy. Some of them came from the lowest strata of society, even from among the slaves. The founder of Taoism is considered a semi-legendary sage Lao Tzu, who lived, according to legend, in the VI-V centuries. BC e. He wrote a philosophical treatise known as the Tao Te Ching (The Book of Tao and Te). The doctrine set forth in this book became, to a certain extent, an expression of the passive protest of the community against the increase in tax oppression and ruin. Condemning wealth, luxury and nobility, Lao Tzu spoke out against the arbitrariness and cruelty of the rulers, against violence and wars. The social ideal of ancient Taoism there was a return to the primitive community... However, along with a passionate denunciation of injustice and violence, Lao Tzu preached a refusal to fight, putting forward non-action theory, according to which a person must obediently follow Tao - the natural course of life. This theory was the main principle of the socio-ethical concept of Taoism.
Confucianism emerged as an ethical and political doctrine at the turn of the 6th-5th centuries. BC e. and later became very widespread. Its founder is considered to be a preacher from the kingdom of Lu - Kun-tzu (Confucius, as he is called in the European world; about 551-479 BC). Confucians were the ideologues of the old aristocracy, justified the order of things that had developed since ancient times, had a negative attitude towards the enrichment and elevation of ordinary people. According to the teachings of Confucius, each person in society should occupy a strictly defined place. "The sovereign should be the sovereign, the subject - the subject, the father - the father, the son - the son," - said Confucius. Its adherents insisted on the inviolability of patriarchal relations and attached great importance to the cult of ancestors.
Representatives of the third direction - fajia - expressed the interests of the new nobility. They advocated the establishment of private ownership of land, the end of internecine wars between kingdoms and insisted on the implementation of reforms that meet the requirements of the time. This trend of social thought flourished in the 4th-3rd centuries. BC e. The most prominent representatives of fajia were Shang Yang, who lived in the 4th century. BC e. and Han Fei (3rd century BC). Legists created their theory of political and state structure... In their works, for the first time in the history of China, was put forward idea of "legal law" as an instrument of government. In contrast to the Confucians, who were guided by ancient traditions and customs, the Legists believed that the basis of government should be based on strict and binding laws (fa) that meet the needs of modern times. They were supporters of the creation of a strong bureaucratic state. In the struggle for the unification of ancient China, it was precisely the one who followed this teaching that won. He was elected by the rulers of the outlying and least enlightened kingdom of Qin, who willingly accepted the idea of a "strong kingdom and a weak people", absolute power over the entire Celestial Empire.
Craft
About the level development of ancient Chinese crafts says the list of professions. Ancient writers report artisans of a wide variety of specialties: skillful foundry workers, carpenters, jewelers, gunsmiths, carts, ceramics, weavers, even dam and dam builders. Each region, city was famous for its craftsmen: the Qi kingdom - for the production of silk and linen fabrics, and its capital Linzi was the largest center of weaving craft at that time. Here, thanks to the convenient location, salt and fishing industries have been especially developed. The city of Linqiong in the Shu region (Sichuan), rich in ore deposits, has become one of the most significant centers for the extraction and processing of iron. The largest centers of iron production at that time were Nanyang in the kingdom of Han and Handan, the capital of the kingdom of Zhao. In the Chu kingdom, the city of Hofei was famous for the production of leather goods, Changsha - jewelry... Coastal towns are known for building ships. The well-preserved wooden model 1b-rowing boat(see below), which archaeologists discovered during excavations of ancient graves. Already in this distant era, the Chinese invented a primitive compass; initially it was used for overland travel, and then Chinese sailors began to use it. The growth of cities and handicrafts, the expansion of the land and water road network gave impetus to the development of trade.
At this time, connections were established not only within the kingdoms, but also between various regions of ancient China and neighboring tribes. From the northern and western tribes of the Chinese they bought slaves, horses, cattle, rams, leather and wool; among the tribes that lived in the south - ivory, dyes, gold, silver, pearls. During this period, the kingdom was considered stronger and richer, where there was a significant number of large merchants. And their influence on political life has increased so much that more and more often they began to occupy the highest government positions at court. So, in the kingdom of Wei in the 4th century. BC e. the merchant Bai Tui became a major dignitary. In the Qin kingdom in the 3rd century. BC e. the famous horse trader Lu Buwei served as the first adviser. In the kingdom of Qi, the Tian family rose up.
Exploring the political system of any state, one should pay attention to its origins, because in the course of the historical evolution of civilization, social ties between people became more and more complicated. New needs and interests were formed, the natural and social environment, internal and external conditions for the existence of politically organized peoples changed. And it was in the political system, first of all, that the mechanisms of adaptation of society to the environment appeared, which changed, that is, it acted as the guarantor of a stable society.At present, the features of the development of the traditional political system of China are not clearly covered. It seems to us that the disclosure of the stages of the historical formation of the political system, in particular through the institutional and ideological components, will contribute to the understanding of the PRC phenomenon.
Depending on a certain historical period, people, the type of their culture, the dominant elite or the dominant ideology, both methods and "slogans" of political modernization changed: the conquest of the barbarians; civilizing mission; decolonization and development of a sovereign state; "Christianization of the Gentiles"; "Islamization of the infidels"; export of the "world revolution", democratization of politics and liberalization of the economy, remission of market relations and others
The history of public administration, especially in the era of the Ancient East, when this institution arose, and the foundation of public service in the modern sense of the word was laid, and until that time has been insufficiently studied. This also applies to Ancient China, where in the basin of the Yellow River, and later the Yangtze in the II-i millennium BC. e. the ancient Chinese civilization with its religious and philosophical teachings (Confucianism, Legism, Taoism) was formed.
The first shoots of public administration and elements of public service appeared in ancient China during the period of the birth of the first Shang-Yin state (XVIII-XII centuries BC). On the basis of the tribal leadership, hereditary royal power (the Vanans) is gradually formed, to which the rulers of the lands (the kings of the lands) obeyed. In the Shang-Yin state, local rulers had unlimited rights in their domains. However, in the era of Shang-Yin, the centralized state apparatus did not actually exist, and the state was a union of Chinese tribes. The power of the Wang was limited to the council of the nobility and the people's assembly. In the XII century. BC e. the Shang-Yin state was conquered by the Zhou tribes. Throughout the XII-VIII centuries. BC e. on the territory of China there was a state of Western Zhou, and in the VIII-VII centuries. BC e. - Eastern. At this time, 5 higher titles of the nobility were formed - gong, hou, bo, tsz, nan, which had 5 levels of land holdings for service - 4 external and 1 internal. External possessions were ruled by princes, internal - by dignitaries.
During the heyday of Western Zhou (10th-9th centuries BC), a hierarchical structure of power was gradually formed, when some officials were subordinate to others. The dignitaries (shanku), who were with Van, headed the administration, the army. On the lands of the Van, the so-called "overseers of the lands" operated, which were owned by local departments and monitored the development of the ruler's economy. During this period, an office was created at the court of the Wang, headed by the chief. A separate department was responsible for collecting taxes. The lowest level of the administrative-territorial division of China, which included 5 and 10 villages, was headed by special officials appointed by the wang.
In the IV century. BC e. in most of the kingdoms into which Ancient China disintegrated, reforms are being carried out, thanks to which the rich common people gained access to power. At the courts of the rulers, the leading role in governing the state belonged to professional administrators who received salaries for public service. In many kingdoms, administrative districts were formed, where trusted officials were appointed by the rulers. Gradually, a bureaucratic administrative apparatus is being formed in China.
During the V-IV centuries. BC e. In ancient China, the main religious and philosophical trends emerged, a prominent place in the teachings of which was occupied by public administration and public service. An important place among them belonged to Confucianism and Legism. So, in the V century. BC e. Confucius (Kun Fu-tzu, 551-479 BC) formulated the philosophical and ethical system of Confucianism, which over the next few millennia became the official imperial ideology and laid the foundations for building a system of government and civil service in Ancient China. Confucius's political ideas are aimed at achieving an internal connection between the top and bottom of society and stabilizing governance. The regulation of political relations according to the norms of virtue in the teachings of Confucius is sharply opposed to management on the basis of laws.
Confucius' disciple Meng Tzu (372-289 BC) formulated 12 principles of successful public administration: subordination of people not by force, but by charity; avoidance of debauchery; respect for the wise; reduction of customs duties, taxes and fees; inadmissibility of the people from their deeds; conquering the hearts of subjects; love for the people; respect for the respectful; preserving the good nature of man; motivation of the people to do good; search for the lost consciousness; justice. In general, the Confucians defended the doctrine of humane government and the right of hereditary aristocratic families to political domination.
Legists (legalists) criticized Confucianism. They developed their own teaching on the technique of exercising power, based on a rigid system of administrative orders. Legistsky's ideology, in addition to building a totalitarian state on the basis of blind fulfillment of laws, mutual responsibility, denunciations, total espionage of the population, defended the interests of civil servants in conditions of political omnipotence of the clan aristocracy. Having proclaimed the primacy of the law over moral and ethical norms, they entrusted the protection of the rule of law to the officials whom they recommended to recruit not necessarily from professionals, but so that civil servants were blindly loyal to the law.
Emperor Wu Di, when building a system of public administration, combined Confucianism with legism, invented an original system for the selection of administrative personnel, which consisted in the fact that a candidate for the position of a civil servant must enlist the recommendations of the local authorities and pass a competitive exam. ; For Emperor Wu-di, the huge power was divided into 13 districts, including regions. At the beginning of the i century. BC e. the state consisted of 83 regions, which were led by a huge apparatus of civil servants, which was built on a complex hierarchical system.
In general, it can be traced that the state power of Ancient China was on pole positions from weak centralization, the presence of naval principalities to a pronounced form of totalitarianism with a high level of centralization state power(reign of Emperor Qin-Shi Huang).
In ancient China, for the first time, religious and philosophical movements (Confucianism, Taoism, Legism) were formed, a prominent place in the teachings of which was occupied by public administration and public service. The most influential among them was Confucianism, which developed especially in the Middle Ages and paid attention to the moral qualities of civil servants and the construction of an administrative hierarchy or unimportant attention. Finally, in ancient China, state exams were introduced for the first time, by passing which officials could advance in their careers. In addition, a system of training and retraining of civil servants was formed, for the purpose of which a special Academy was created, and the developed hieroglyphic writing created by the ancient Chinese only contributed to the further development of the system of public administration and civil service.
The agrarian, bureaucratic-authoritarian one appears as a bright stage in the development of China's political system. China, being a kind of center of the Asian world, was the focus of those values that determined the uniqueness of the industrialization processes in countries such as Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Singapore and Hong Kong. The rulers of the Chinese Qing dynasty failed to achieve in the 19th century. the country's rapid economic growth, but China's fundamental Confucian values of group responsibilities, dedication, self-denial, knowledge, long-term planning undoubtedly had a decisive influence on its economic and political development in our era of global political transformations. The agrarian, bureaucratic-authoritarian regime of China collapsed only in the late 19th - early 20th centuries, when China survived foreign invasions and was defeated in the world war. Chiang Kai-shek's nationalist military regime appealed mainly to the conservative landed aristocracy, military leaders, stock speculators, bankers and local elites. However, its fall is not explained by the huge amount of resources, but by the way they were used. The overthrown power was based on personal rule, and not on firmly organized and functioning institutions of the political system, the population was alienated from political decision-making, therefore, finally, the deinstitutionalization of government institutions took place. "Political paralysis" led to a weakening of the legitimacy of the Chiang Kai-shek authorities in China and contributed to the overthrow of the bureaucratic-authoritarian regime, where the state exercised strict control over social groups; material interests and moral (including political) values were sharply separated from one another. It is worth noting that the state policy of China was based on a family that fostered a loyal attitude towards the state, the political elite was characterized by isolation and hierarchy, dynasties, feudal lords, and Confucian scholars had a great influence [8, p.105-106].
It is pertinent to note that the ideological direction of Confucianism is still promising. Thus, according to A. Toynbee, traces of the Confucian system, which is more than two thousand years old, are also found in the life of post-revolutionary China.
Consequently, religious and philosophical teachings who were involved in government, the cult of a charismatic ruler, deep reverence for the traditions and customs of their ancestors.
In the southeast of Asia, fenced off from the whole world by high mountains, is the Great China Plain. Convenient geographical location, climate and rich nature created all the prerequisites for the development of one of the most powerful civilizations called Ancient China.
Formation of a unified Chinese kingdom
On the territory of the Chinese Plain, there are two largest rivers Asia - Yellow River and Yangtze. The soils along the banks of these rivers have always been so soft that they could easily be worked with the simplest tools made of bone or wood. Therefore, since ancient times, agriculture has been well developed here.
Translated by the Yellow River, the Yellow River means its waters carry with them a large amount of yellow sand. It was on its fertile soils that the most ancient settlements of the first Chinese farmers were found. But Haunhe has always had an obstinate character, and during the rainy season this river often overflows its banks and floods everything around, eroding the banks and changing its course. In ancient China, it was called “the river of a thousand disasters,” because during floods, it ruthlessly washed away crops and entire settlements.
Fig. 1. Yellow River.
In the VIII century BC. e. the territory of modern China was ruled by many small independent kingdoms that led between endless wars... In the course of fierce battles, the Qin kingdom won the final victory and in 221 BC. e. its ruler adopted the title Huangdi, which means emperor.
He went down in history as Qin Shi Huang, that is, "the first emperor of Qin." He called himself the Son of Heaven, and the empire ruled by him christened the Celestial Empire.
During the reign of the Qin Dynasty, the following reforms were carried out:
TOP-4 articleswho read along with this
- The country was re-divided into regions, which were controlled by officials.
- A network of canals and roads has been built. Creation of a uniform wheel axle standard for all for the same road size.
- The main features of law were determined, a set of laws common to all was written, the judicial system was reformed.
- Creation of a unified writing system.
- Control over the quality of products. All products had to bear the name of the master: for poor work he could be severely punished.
- Minting coins equivalent in all areas of the empire. The single money, as well as the established measures of length and weight, greatly facilitated trade in the country and contributed to the development of the economy.
By order of Qin Shi Huang, the Great Wall of China was erected - giant structure, designed to protect the northern borders of the empire from warring tribes and nomads. Part of the wall has survived to this day and is currently a World Heritage Site.
Fig. 2. Great Wall of China.
Despite its heyday during the reign of Qin Shi Huang, the empire collapsed shortly after his death.
Religion and Philosophy of Ancient China
The philosophy of ancient China was radically different from philosophy European countries... Unlike Islam and Christianity, China's religion did not have a single god who punished sinners in the afterlife. The main principle of all teachings was based on the manifestation of kindness and love for others, the search for harmony within oneself.
In ancient China, two of the most significant schools of thought were widespread:
- Confucianism ... The founder of this doctrine was the great Chinese philosopher Confucius, who developed the correct, in his opinion, way of life. According to him, people should help their neighbors, protect family values and traditions, honor their elders, and constantly improve themselves.
- Taoism ... The founder of the teaching is Lao Tzu, who believed that the basis of all things in the Universe is "Tao" - "the way". According to Taoism, people should live in harmony with nature, in modesty and simplicity, away from luxury, be humble and compassionate.
Fig. 3. Confucius.
Achievements of Ancient China
In ancient China, the foundations of Chinese civilization and its culture - science, medicine, art, literature - were laid.
The Chinese were great inventors who gave the world many useful items.
The most important achievements of Ancient China include:
- The invention of paper. Its manufacturing technology was very complex and required great skill. With the advent of paper, the Chinese were the first to invent typography.
- Gunpowder, which was used not only as a filling for incendiary shells, but also in the treatment of ulcers and wounds, in the creation of amusement fireworks.
- Magnetic compass. The navigational art of ancient China was very well developed due to the fact that the country paid great attention to such sciences as mathematics and astronomy.
- Making fine and durable silk from silkworm cocoons.
In China, the art of beautiful writing, calligraphy, was very popular, and the main direction in painting was the image of the spectacular landscapes of the rocks of South China, characters of myths and legends.
The architecture of Ancient China is of great interest. All buildings, be it the imperial palace or the dwelling of a simple artisan, harmoniously fit into the surrounding landscape and were always surrounded by additional annexes. Usually they were decorated with skilful carvings with images of animals and plants, painted with bright colors.
What have we learned?
While studying the topic "Ancient China" in the 5th grade history program, we learned briefly the most important things about the history of Ancient China. We learned how and by whom the Celestial Empire was formed, which philosophical teachings were the most popular, which sciences were given special attention. We also learned what achievements of Ancient China occupied a special place in the history of the country.
Test by topic
Assessment of the report
Average rating: 4.3. Total ratings received: 423.
The country that we call China, the Chinese themselves call either Zhong Guo (Middle Kingdom), then Zhong Hua (Middle Blossoming), or by the names of certain dynasties (for example, Qin). This designation passed with some changes into the Western European geographical nomenclature.
The state arose in China initially in the Yellow River basin.
The Yellow River is referred to in Chinese literature as a “heartbreaking river”. She often changed the channel, breaking through the loose soil of the banks, and flooding entire areas. Only hard work was able to curb it and protect the fertile valley from floods by building dams and dams. The soil of northern China (mainly loess) is highly fertile.
In ancient China, there were significant forest tracts (at present, they have already disappeared and survived only on the outskirts). Wild flora and fauna, judging by the description of ancient Chinese authors, confirmed by archaeological excavations, was rich and varied. In many areas, now densely populated, deer, wild boars, bears and such terrible predators as tigers were found. The oldest collection of Chinese songs (Shijing) describes the annual mass hunting of foxes, raccoons and wild cats. The abundance of ores and other minerals was of great importance for the development of the Chinese economy.
The population of China in ancient times was very variegated in its ethnic composition. At the dawn of their history, the Chinese themselves inhabited only the basin of the middle reaches of the Yellow River and gradually spread to its source and mouth. Only in 1 millennium BC. and at the beginning of the new era they spread widely beyond this main territory. During these movements, they entered into either hostile or peaceful relations in the northeast with the Manchu-Tungus tribes, in the northwest and west with the Turkic and Mongolian tribes, in the southwest with the Sino-Tibetan tribes, etc.
The Chinese and neighboring peoples in the process of long-term communication influenced each other, mutually enriching with cultural achievements.
Part ethnic groups who lived next to the Chinese, took Chinese and culture. However, even now, in some areas of southern China and a significant part of western China, the population speaks languages other than Chinese, and retains their local cultural traditions, despite repeated attempts at forcible Sinification.
In Europe, Ancient China was almost unknown for a long time. The ancient tradition has kept a minimum amount of information about him.
Only from the 16th century. n. e. European missionaries and merchants are beginning to show more interest in East Asia's past.
At the beginning of the 20th century. the French Sinologist E. Chavanne undertakes the translation of Sima Qian's Historical Notes.
Of the Russian researchers who have played an outstanding role in the study of the history of China, N. Ya. Bichurin (monk Iakinfa). He lived in China for 14 years (1807-1821) as the head of the Beijing Spiritual Mission and got acquainted with a huge number of original Chinese documents. Bichurin and other Russian scholars show sympathy for the Chinese people in their writings and recognize the value of Chinese culture.
It should be borne in mind that noble and bourgeois Sinology (Sinology), with all its merits and achievements, was not able to explain the course of China's development and reveal its general regularity and undoubted local features and characteristics.
There was a widespread view of the Chinese (as well as of the Indians) as a people supposedly incapable of progress. On the other hand, the opposite extreme is also noticed. Some Chinese historians exaggerate the historical role of their country in favor of the great-power claims of the Maoists.
The main periods in the history of Ancient China bear traditional names: Shang (Yin), Zhou Qin and Han (after the names of dynasties and kingdoms).
According to archaeological data, China was inhabited as early as the ancient Stone Age. Many Paleolithic tools have been found here. In many places in China (especially in Henan), much later sites, dating back to the Neolithic period, have also been discovered.
Judging by the information preserved in ancient Chinese sources (in particular, Sima Qian, matriarchy dominated in ancient China (as well as among other peoples). Kinship was counted along the maternal line. The power of the tribal leader was passed not from father to son, but from the elder brother to the younger.
2nd millennium BC it was a time of gradual transition from maternal to paternal law.
Of the most ancient Chinese tribes, it especially increased at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. Shan tribe (in the Yellow River basin).
According to Chinese tradition, in the 17th century. BC. a certain Cheng Tang founded the state, which received the name of Shang from the ruling tribe. Later, it appears in historical texts under the name Yin (applied to it by its neighbors).
Researchers use two terms: Shang and Yin.
We can judge the economy of the Shang (Yin) society of the second half of the 2000s by the numerous monuments material culture and short inscriptions on the so-called Henan oracle bones.
Stone and bone were also used as the main material for the development of tools and weapons. However, copper and then bronze tools appeared (knives, shovels, axes, awls, etc.).
A transition from primitive forms of economy to cattle breeding and agriculture, and even the first attempts at irrigation, are outlined. Millet and barley were cultivated. Wheat, gaoliang. Of particular importance was the cultivation of a mulberry tree, which was valued not so much for its fruits (as in Western Asia), as for the leaves that were used to feed silkworms.
Cattle breeding in that era achieved greater development than in modern China, where, due to the significant population density, there is not enough pasture. In the documents of the Shang (Yin) time, hundreds of heads of bulls and sheep are mentioned, sacrificed to the gods. Goats and pigs were also bred. There were few horses, they were harnessed to chariots and carts, and mainly bulls were used for field work.
The craft reached a high level in the Shang kingdom. In the ruins of its capital (also called Shang), the remains of a bronze casting workshop were found.
Ceramics has reached great perfection, in particular the processing of white clay (kaolin). The potter's wheel was already known. Wood materials were widely used: houses and even palaces) were built from wood.
The separation of handicrafts from agriculture led to the development of exchange. Special shells (kauri) served as a measure of value. Trade relations were established with various countries of East Asia, in particular, copper and tin were delivered from the Yangtze basin. Cattle, skins, furs and stone (jasper, jade, etc.) were exported from the mountainous areas and steppe areas located in the north and west of the Yellow River basin, and the Chinese handicrafts that came in return reached the banks of the Yenisei.
The development of the productive forces and the strengthening of internal and external exchange led to property inequality. Excavations reveal, along with rich houses and tombs, the remains of dwellings and burials of the poor. Some hieroglyphs represent slaves (prisoners with tied hands and domestic slaves). However, slavery was at a very early, primitive stage. The custom of sacrificing hundreds of slaves (during fortune-telling, during the burial of rulers) suggests that the demand for forced labor was still small.
Gradually, the state apparatus is taking shape and the Vans (rulers) are transformed from elected tribal leaders into hereditary kings. The consolidation of the central government was apparently associated with the transformation of the Shan city into the capital of the country (14th century BC). a standing army, officials and prisons appear. The family aristocracy is formed from the relatives and close associates of the king. Religion is used for the authority of the royal power. Later, the king is called "the son of heaven."
The Shang (Yin) kingdom was fragile. The western Zhou tribe turned out to be a particularly dangerous enemy. Tradition says that the leader of the Zhou tribe Wu-wang defeated the last Yin Wang Shou Xin in the battle and that he committed suicide. On the ruins of the former state formation of Yin, a new one emerged, which received (as well as the ruling tribe and ruling dynasty) the name Zhou. The Zhou dynasty lasted until the 3rd century. BC.
This era was divided into the time of Western Zhou, when the capital was the city of Hao, and Eastern Zhou, when the capital was moved to the east and Loi (modern Luoyang, in Henan).
It should be borne in mind that at this time the Zhou dynasty possessed only nominal power over virtually independent state formations, the number of which numbered dozens, if not hundreds, and Chinese chroniclers apply them to the transitional period, covering the end of the 5th and a significant part of the 3rd century. BC, the name of Chzhan-go ("Warring Kingdoms").
The Western Zhou period is characterized by a significant increase in the clan nobility, both courtiers and provincials. Tsars give their relatives and friends significant awards and privileges. The inscriptions on the bronze vessels endlessly talk about the donation to certain honored dignitaries of significant plots of land taken from rural communities, as well as hundreds, and sometimes thousands of slaves. The scale of slavery is increasing due to the enslavement of the population of the conquered kingdom of Shang (Yin). It is no coincidence that the following words are attributed to King Wu-wan (the founder of the Zhou kingdom), addressed to his soldiers: "In the fields of Shang, do not attack those who will run over to us - let them work in our western fields." Wars with neighboring nomadic tribes lead to the theft of prisoners of war, converted into slavery. The contingent of slaves is also replenished at the expense of convicted criminals.
The cultivated land was still owned by the communities. There was a "well system" in which the territory belonging to the village was divided into nine parts (the scheme of this division resembled the outline of the hieroglyph for "well"). Of these plots, eight were given to various families, and the ninth (central) was cultivated by them together, and the harvest was brought in by the headman for the community needs (later it began to be appropriated by the king).
