Peasant War in China in the 17th century. Peasant War in China (1628-1647) Peasant War in China 17th century
7. Peasant war of the 9th century. and the collapse of the Tang dynasty
Clear evidence of the developing dynastic crisis was the increasingly frequent protests of the lower classes of society, which began during the An Lushan rebellion in 762 in Prov. Zhejiang. In the country, periodically scattered uprisings of ruined peasants and military riots broke out. It was all a response to failure state power to ensure social order in the country and limit the arbitrariness of officials who levied a tax higher than the norm consecrated by tradition.
During the aggravation of the dynastic crisis, the number of those who, in difficult times, fell out of the framework of centuries built social structure and was deprived of elementary means of subsistence. So, in the uprising of 859 in Prov. Zhejiang, which became the threshold of the impending chaos in the country, the bulk of the rebels were fugitive peasants. By calling supreme power, which violated the principle of tax collection and thus destroyed the cohesion of various social forces in society (and hence its stability), was the creation of the rebels of their own state. In it they hoped to find not only a means of protection against arbitrariness, but above all the only way available to them under the prevailing conditions to preserve and maintain their own life.
Rejecting the immoral policy of the leaders, contrary to the doctrine of Confucianism, the rebels, as best they could, resolutely realized their understanding of the principle of justice. They seized state and monastery storerooms, and divided the stolen grain and stolen valuables among themselves.
This tendency to put into practice universal equalization in a period of political disorganization was especially clearly manifested in the peasant war, when in 874 outbreaks of protest throughout the country grew into a mass movement.
First, in the uprisings that erupted in Gansu, Shaanxi, Henan, Anhui and Shandong, Wang Xianzhi became the most influential of the rebel leaders. In 875 he was joined by Huang Chao, who came from a family that had made a fortune in the salt smuggling business. Unlike ordinary peasants, he knew the letter, had an excellent sword, shot at a gallop from a bow. In 876, the troops of Wang Xianzhi and Huang Chao already controlled five provinces between the Huang He and Yangtze rivers. The appeals of the leaders of the movement, accumulating the mood of the rebels, denounced the cruelty and venality of covetous officials, violation of laws, and exceeding tax rates. All this contributed to the creation in the country of a "mechanism" of long-term emotional excitement. Extreme measures, unthinkable in a period of stability, were now perceived not only as permissible, but also as just. The robbery of wealthy landowners began. First of all, the protest of the rebels was directed against the representatives of the official government. The rebels burned government registers and debt records, and evaded taxes and duties. Seizing state property, they "justly", as they understood it, distributed it among those in need.
In 878, Wang Xianzhi made a trip to Luoyang. The approaches to the capital were guarded by government troops and nomadic mercenary cavalry. In the battle for Luoyang, 50 thousand rebels perished, and Wang Xianzhi was captured and executed. The climax of the uprising was the moment when Huang Chao, heading the rebel camp, took the title of "The Great General Who Stormed the Sky." He called his army a just means of retaliation for the ruling circles, who despised their duty in relations with their subjects. From that moment on, the uprising grew into a peasant war: it was then that a real threat arose of the destruction of the ruling dynasty. At the end of 878, the army of Huang Chao, having consolidated its power in the south of the country, crossed the Yangtze, moved through the lands of Zhejiang, Fujian and Guangdong. In 879, Guangzhou was taken, where the rebels clashed with the inhabitants of a foreign settlement, in particular with Persian and Jewish merchants.
From Guangdong, the rebels went to the North. However, in Hubei, near Sanyang, their army, having suffered defeat, again went to the South. On the right bank of the Yangtze, under the cover of the powerful streams of the river, the rebel leaders gathered new forces and in the summer of 880 again set out to the North, moving along the Grand Canal. At the end of the same year, Luoyang was occupied without a fight. The schism in society intensified so much that many of the townspeople, including military leaders and civilians, joined the insurgents.
To protect its other capital, Chang'an, the government sent guards to Tongguan, a natural fortress at the bend of the Yellow River. But the fate of Chang'an was decided - the preponderance was on the side of the rebels. The emperor, together with his entourage, fled, and the rebels entered the capital at the beginning of 881.
As the medieval chroniclers reported, "the robbers walked with their hair loose and in brocade clothes." Huang Chao, as the head of the peasant hierarchy, “rode in a chariot of gold,” and his guards were in embroidered clothes and colorful rich hats.
Information about the policy of the rebels after the capture of the capital is extremely contradictory and incomplete. But it is obvious that they started by persecuting those who, in their opinion, were responsible for the country's troubles. According to sources, Huang Chao ordered the assassination of members of the imperial family and the expulsion of officials from the top three ranks. Eyewitnesses also reported other punitive measures taken by Huang Chao: “The rich were shooed and driven barefoot. The detained officials were killed, houses were set on fire, if they could not find anything there, and all princes and noble people were destroyed. " At the same time, it was also noted that the "robbers" shared their spoils with the poor, "distributing values and silk to them."
After destroying the bearers of the imperial power and occupying the Tang palace, the rebels proclaimed Huang Chao emperor. Now he was faced with the task of organizing the state. Creating its structure for the sake of survival and the establishment of the new government, Huang Chao, in accordance with Confucian views, was primarily concerned with the creation of an administrative apparatus. Its privileged part was the associates and military leaders of Huang Chao, who were appointed to the posts of advisers and members of various collegia. Persecuting the Tang ruling elite at first, the leaders of the uprising gradually changed their policy towards officials, returning them to their former positions. Measures were taken to restore order. The soldiers were forbidden to kill and plunder the population. All Confucian rites were observed in Chang'an. In the spirit of tradition, it was argued that by the command of Heaven, the mandate to rule the Celestial Empire was given to a new just emperor. In May 883, Huang Chao was forced to leave the capital. In 884, in Shandong, his army was in a stalemate, and then, as the legend says, Huang Chao committed suicide.
The peasant war, which had raged in the country for several years and had no precedent in the history of China in terms of tension and scope, was defeated. In 907 the ruling dynasty was overthrown, the formerly powerful state apparatus - the main bond of the empire - collapsed. The country split into small states, and their rulers, competing with each other, claimed the throne of the son of Heaven. Time between 906 and 960 traditional historiography called it "the era of five dynasties and ten kingdoms." The "age" of the dynasties that were declining did not exceed 13-16 years, and the dwarf state formations replacing each other were short-lived.
In the South, during the peasant war, there was a weakening of local power, fragmentation of large landholdings. Small-scale land tenure began to prevail here, partly based on the labor of tenants. Landowners often provided benefits to holders who cultivated their fields. The interest of the new owners in improving irrigation, in the cultivation of virgin lands led to some rise Agriculture and the revitalization of urban craft. Trade exchange increased, river and sea shipping expanded. Areas in and south of the Yangtze Valley became economically developed areas.
The situation was different in the North, where the struggle for power dragged on for a long time: in fierce wars, new dynasties constantly replaced each other. Many cities were plundered. At the beginning of the X century. one of the richest capitals in the world - Chang'an - was razed to the ground, and in the internecine struggle of the 30s, a significant part of Luoyang with its magnificent palaces and libraries was destroyed. The warlords who were at war with each other levied the population with extortions at their own discretion. The desolation of villages, the decline of the irrigation system, the dilapidation of dams caused frequent floods of the Yellow River. The farmers who lost their shelter fled to the south. The population has dropped dramatically. Border military settlements were also emptied. All military forces were involved in internal strife.
The Khidans took advantage of the situation in China. Their long-term trade and political ties with the empire contributed to the transition from a nomadic lifestyle to a sedentary one, an introduction to agriculture. But the Khitan political system retained the imprint of the old order for a long time. Eight large clan organizations (aimaks) enjoyed self-government and were headed by elders. Only in 916, one of the influential leaders of the Apoki (Ambigan) from the Yelui clan, violating the elective principle, proclaimed himself emperor. In 937, the new state became known as Liao. Its head widely involved the captured Han officials in the construction of the state apparatus. The Khitan script was also created on the basis of the Chinese model. Cities were built, market exchanges were encouraged, and the extraction of ore and salt improved.
Khitan rulers intervened in the political life of China. In turn, the Chinese authorities sought help from the Khitan cavalry and therefore paid tribute to the Khitan with silk and yielded to them. northern regions countries. 16 agricultural districts located in the modern provinces of Hebei and Shanxi came under Liao's rule.
The need to stabilize the internal situation forced the Kaifeng rulers to reorganize the army and from the elite warriors to create a guard to resist the Liao state. The treks to the north were difficult and costly. The danger of Khitan invasion stimulated the end of internecine wars and the unification of the country. Therefore, when in 960 the troops, which went on a campaign against the Khitan, proclaimed the commander Zhao Kuan'in emperor of the Song dynasty, he received wide support not only from the troops, but also from the citizens of Kaifeng, who yearned for peace.
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Peasant war 1628-1647 - Civil War in China, which became one of the main reasons for the fall of the Ming dynasty.
By the beginning of the 17th century, the population of the Ming Empire increased 3-4 times compared to the end of the 16th century. Population growth, massive ruin of the peasantry and natural disasters sharply exacerbated the food problem. Mass starvation led to cannibalism, robberies and robberies. Small sporadic unrest developed into local riots, and those - into serious mass uprisings. In 1628, in Shaanxi province, scattered semi-rogue gangs began to create rebel groups and elect leaders. The following year, the government liquidated state-owned postal stations, and left without funds, dismissed horse couriers, who were excellent riders and desperate daredevils, joined the rebel camp. At first, the authorities managed to defeat a number of rebel groups in the Han River valley, but the response to this was a new upsurge in armed struggle. In 1631 in Shaanxi, 36 rebel leaders agreed to coordinate their actions. One of them, Wang Ziyong, was recognized as the supreme leader. The rebels drew up a plan for a march on Beijing. In 1632, the rebels crossed the Yellow River and launched a furious offensive in the south of Shanxi Province. In 1633, fierce battles unfolded on the outskirts of the capital province, in one of which Wang Ziyong died. Seeing that it was not possible to break through to Beijing, the rebels retreated and were pressed against the Yellow River. Fortunately for them, frost bound the river, and they were able to thin ice go to Henan province. Gao Yingxiang was then promoted as the leading leader of the rebels, who assumed the title of "Chuan Prince". In 1634, Gao Yingxiang led the peasant troops to the Han River Valley and Sichuan Province. In the south of Shaanxi Province, Gao Yingxiang's convoy was trapped in the Chexiang Gorge. Having recovered from the defeat, the "Chuan troops" resumed the struggle and won victories in the battles of Longzhou and Hanzhong. In 1635, 13 leading rebel commanders gathered for a meeting in Yingyang. At the meeting, a general plan of action was developed, according to which a campaign was carried out to the valley of the Huaihe River, during which Fengyang, the third capital of China, was taken. Here there was a gap between Gao Yingxiang and Zhang Xianzhong, after which the latter led his army into the Yangtze River valley. Gao Yingxiang and other leaders moved their columns westward to Shaanxi Province, where they fought several victorious battles. In 1636, there was a final break between Gao Yingxiang and Zhang Xianzhong, after which the rebel forces were completely divided. As a result, the "Chuan troops" suffered a series of defeats, and then were completely defeated at Zhouzhi; Gao Yingxiang was captured and executed in Beijing. After that, the rebels proclaimed Li Zicheng as the new "Chuan prince" and the head of the "Chuan troops", who with his column won a number of victories in Shaanxi. In 1637, he raided the province of Sichuan, where he unsuccessfully besieged Chengdu. Zhang Xianzhong, after the capture of Xiangyang in Hubeip Province, led his army to the Yangtze Valley, unsuccessfully besieged Anqing and suffered a heavy defeat in one of the battles. In 1638, the rebel movement declined. The troops of Zhang Xianzhong and three other leaders agreed to an honorable surrender and went over to the camp of the government forces. "Chuan troops" were defeated in the battle at the Tongguan fortress on the border of Shaanxi and Shanxi provinces; Li Zicheng himself with a handful of horsemen took refuge in the mountains. At the beginning of 1639, another 18 rebel leaders with their detachments went to an honorable surrender.
In the summer of 1639, Zhang Xianzhong resumed hostilities; his example was followed by 15 previously capitulated leaders. In one of the battles of 1640, Zhang Xianzhong lost his entire army. Meanwhile, Li Zicheng revived his army and made a campaign in Henan province, where in 1641 he captured Luoyang. Then he unsuccessfully besieged Kaifeng, and then won the battle at Xiancheng. Zhang Xianzhong gathered a new army, but after the victory at Huangling in Hubei province, he was defeated near Xinyang in Henan province. In 1642, Li Zicheng besieged Kaifeng for the second and third time, but on the eve of his inevitable fall, the city was flooded. Meanwhile, the main rebel leaders rallied around the "Chuan troops".
In 1643, Li Zicheng made a successful campaign in the Han River valley, and here he made the first attempt to organize permanent power with the center in Xiangyang; while he went to the murder of the recalcitrant leaders of the robber freemen. After the victory at Ruzhou in Henan province, he took possession of the Tongguan fortress and the city of Xian, which he made the capital of the rebel state created here. In early 1644, Li Zicheng was proclaimed emperor of the new Shun dynasty. After that, a victorious march to Beijing began, the cities of the fortress and government troops surrendered to the new sovereign without a fight. After a two-day siege on April 24-25, the peasant army entered Beijing on April 26, 1644. Ming emperor Zhu Yujian hanged himself; in southern China, the loyalists continued their resistance under the banner of the dynasty that went down in history as the "Southern Ming Dynasty." After the capture of Beijing, the peasant army suffered a massive decline in discipline, and the city became the scene of plunder and violence.
On May 16, Li Zicheng with an army set out from Beijing against the Ming army of commander Wu Sangui. The latter entered into an alliance with the Manchu prince-regent Dorgon. On May 26-27, in the battle of Shanhaiguan, the peasant army was defeated; Wu Sangui and Dorgon moved to Beijing, from which Li Zicheng retreated to the west. Meanwhile, Zhang Xianzhong made a victorious campaign in the province of Sichuan, where he created the Great Western State with its capital in Chengdu. In the spring of 1645, Li Zicheng's troops were defeated by the Qing army at the Battle of Tongguan. The rebels continued their retreat south into the Han River valley, confusion began in their leadership, and Li Zicheng died in October. His army, led by Li Guo, was forced to go under the leadership of the South Ming authorities.
In 1646, Zhang Xianzhong was forced to leave the capital of the Great Western State and march north against the advancing Qing army. On January 2, 1647, his army was defeated in the decisive battle at Sichun in the Fenghuang Hills, and he himself fell in battle. The defeated army retreated south across the Yangtze River and Guizhou province to Yunnan province, where in mid-1647 Zhang Xianzhong's successors found a compromise with the South Ming authorities.
Fall of South Min.
The Southern Ming Dynasty in the history of China is a collective name for several regimes that existed in certain regions of central and southern China after the death of the last emperor of the Ming Dynasty, Zhu Yujian, who ruled in Beijing and the capture of Beijing and northern China by the Qing Manchu Empire in 1644. The South Ming regimes were headed " emperors ”, descended from the Ming imperial Zhu family, or at least theoretically were loyal to one of these emperors (that is, for example, they recognized his calendar era).
The last South Ming emperor Zhu Yulan fled to Burma in 1659. In 1662 he was extradited by the Burmese king to Qing China and executed; in the same year, his main partisan general, Li Dingguo, the Grand Duke of Jin, was done away with, which eliminated any serious South Ming resistance in big earth... Nevertheless, the regime of Zheng Chenggong who seized Taiwan and his heirs (the Dongning state), which theoretically recognized the power of the Ming Empire, existed for two more decades, until 1683.
Emperor Zhu Yujian kills his daughter to keep her from Li Zicheng's rebels. On the left in the courtyard one can see him hanging from a tree. Drawing by a European artist for the "Tale of the Tatar War" Martino Martini (1655)
After more than two centuries of existence, founded by Zhu Yuanzhang in 1368, the Ming Empire entered the late 16th century. in a state of stagnation (the Wanli kingdom), which passed in the 17th century. during the decline of state power.
In the 1620s, the Jurchens, who lived along the northeastern border of the empire, completely captured the Ming province of Liaodong, creating there the Later Jin Empire, which they soon renamed the Qing Empire, and themselves - the Manchus. To the side Qing empire many Chinese passed over, including some prominent generals who had previously fought in Liaodong against the Jurchens / Manchus (eg Hong Chengchou).
Inside China, peasants joined the ranks of bandit formations or rebel detachments, united under the general command of Li Zicheng in the north of the country and Zhang Xianzhong in its central regions. In the spring of 1644, Li Zicheng's rebels entered Beijing without a fight. When they entered the Forbidden City, they found that the imperial treasury was empty, and the Emperor Chongzhen (Zhu Yujian) himself hanged himself in the backyard of the palace. Soon the last Ming general, who had a garrison with real strength - Wu Sangui, in the Shanhaiguan fortress on the Great Wall - opened the gates to the Manchus; The Qing forces, with the help of Wu Sangui, expelled Li Zicheng from Beijing, and Beijing became the new capital of the Qing Empire.
Before the Great Wall of China
The beginning of the Manchu conquest of China
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Peasant War 1628-1647- the civil war in China, which became one of the main reasons for the fall of the Ming Empire.
Background
By the beginning of the 17th century, the population of the Ming Empire increased 3-4 times compared to the end of the 16th century. Population growth, massive ruin of the peasantry and natural disasters sharply exacerbated the food problem. Mass starvation led to cannibalism, robberies and robberies. Small sporadic unrest developed into local riots, and those - into serious mass uprisings.
Course of events
In 1632, the rebels crossed the Yellow River and launched a violent offensive in the south of Shanxi Province. In 1633, fierce battles unfolded on the outskirts of the capital province, in one of which Wang Ziyong died. Seeing that it was not possible to break through to Beijing, the rebels retreated and were pressed against the Yellow River. Fortunately for them, frost bound the river, and they were able to cross the thin ice to Henan province. Gao Yingxiang was then promoted as the leading leader of the rebels, who assumed the title of "Chuan Prince".
In 1634, Gao Yingxiang led the peasant troops into the Han River Valley and Sichuan Province. In the south of Shaanxi Province, Gao Yingxiang's convoy was trapped in the Chexiang Gorge. Having recovered from the defeat, the "Chuan troops" resumed the struggle and won victories in the battles of Longzhou and Hanzhong.
In 1635, 13 leading rebel commanders gathered for a meeting in Yingyang. At the meeting, a general plan of action was developed, according to which a campaign was carried out to the valley of the Huaihe River, during which Fengyang, the third capital of China, was taken. Here there was a gap between Gao Yingxiang and Zhang Xianzhong, after which the latter led his army into the Yangtze River valley. Gao Yingxiang and other leaders moved their columns westward to Shaanxi Province, where they fought several victorious battles.
In 1636, there was a final break between Gao Yingxiang and Zhang Xianzhong, after which the rebel forces were completely divided. As a result, the "Chuan troops" suffered a series of defeats, and then were completely defeated at Zhouzhi; Gao Yingxiang was captured and executed in Beijing. After that, the rebels proclaimed Li Zicheng as the new "Chuan prince" and the head of the "Chuan troops", who with his column won a number of victories in Shaanxi. In 1637, he raided the province of Sichuan, where he unsuccessfully besieged Chengdu. Zhang Xianzhong, after capturing Xiangyang in Hubei province, led his army to the Yangtze Valley, unsuccessfully besieged Anqing and suffered a heavy defeat in one of the battles.
In 1638, the rebel movement declined. The troops of Zhang Xianzhong and three other leaders agreed to an honorable surrender and went over to the camp of the government forces. "Chuan troops" were defeated in the battle at the Tongguan fortress on the border of Shaanxi and Shanxi provinces; Li Zicheng himself with a handful of horsemen took refuge in the mountains. At the beginning of 1639, another 18 rebel leaders with their detachments went to an honorable surrender.
In the summer of 1639, Zhang Xianzhong resumed hostilities; his example was followed by 15 previously capitulated leaders. In one of the battles of 1640, Zhang Xianzhong lost his entire army.
Meanwhile, Li Zicheng revived his army and made a campaign in Henan province, where in 1641 he captured Luoyang. Then he unsuccessfully besieged Kaifeng, and then won the battle at Xiancheng. Zhang Xianzhong gathered a new army, but after the victory at Huangling in Hubei province, he was defeated near Xinyang in Henan province. In 1642, Li Zicheng besieged Kaifeng for the second and third time, but on the eve of his inevitable fall, the city was flooded. Meanwhile, the main rebel leaders rallied around the "Chuan troops".
In 1643, Li Zicheng made a successful campaign in the Han River valley, and here he made the first attempt to organize permanent power with the center in Xiangyang; while he went to the murder of the recalcitrant leaders of the robber freemen. After the victory at Ruzhou in Henan province, he took possession of the Tongguan fortress and the city of Xian, which he made the capital of the rebel state created here. In early 1644, Li Zicheng was proclaimed emperor of the new Shun dynasty. After that, a victorious march to Beijing began, the cities of the fortress and government troops surrendered to the new sovereign without a fight.
After a two-day siege on April 24-25, the peasant army entered Beijing on April 26, 1644. Ming emperor Zhu Yujian hanged himself; in southern China, the loyalists continued their resistance under the banner of the dynasty that went down in history as the "Southern Ming". After the capture of Beijing, the peasant army suffered a massive decline in discipline, and the city became the scene of plunder and violence.
On May 16, Li Zicheng with an army set out from Beijing against the Ming army of commander Wu Sangui. The latter entered into an alliance with the Manchu prince-regent Dorgon. On May 26-27, in the battle of Shanhaiguan, the peasant army was defeated; Wu Sangui and Dorgon moved to Beijing, from which Li Zicheng retreated to the west.
Meanwhile, Zhang Xianzhong made a victorious campaign in the province of Sichuan, where he created the Great Western State with its capital in Chengdu.
In the spring of 1645, Li Zicheng's troops were defeated by the Qing army at the Battle of Tongguan. The rebels continued their retreat south into the Han River valley, confusion began in their leadership, and Li Zicheng died in October. His army, led by Li Guo, was forced to go under the leadership of the South Ming authorities.
In 1646, Zhang Xianzhong was forced to leave the capital of the Great Western State and march north against the advancing Qing army. On January 2, 1647, his army was defeated in the decisive battle at Sichun in the Fenghuang Hills, and he himself fell in battle. The defeated army retreated south across the Yangtze River and Guizhou province to Yunnan province, where in mid-1647 Zhang Xianzhong's successors found a compromise with the South Ming authorities.
Literature
- Peasant War 1628–45 // Great Russian Encyclopedia: [in 35 volumes] / Ch. ed. Yu.S. Osipov... - M.: Great Russian Encyclopedia, 2004-2017.
- OE Nepomnin “History of China: The Qing Era. XVII - early XX century "- Moscow:" Eastern Literature ", 2005.
Pro-from-ox zem-le-vl-del-tsev and chi-nov-nikov, growth of n-logs.
Including the introduction of an additional military tax on the content of the army, dey-st-in-vav-shey against the second-wow -shah in Ki-tai since 1618 man-chzhu-ditch. Si-tua-tion usu-gu-bi-li sti-chiy-nye troubles 1628-1630, 1635, 1640-1643. The revival of the cart-heads-la-els li-de-ra-mi of various re-ligion sects, pre-w-de of the whole society of Bai-lian-jiao. The peasant war began in the northern province of Shen-si, following the races, spread to the central provinces of China. In 1631, the ko-man-di-ry of 36 cross-yang detachments took their pre-in-di-te-lem Wang Tziyu-na. In 1632, the cross-st-yang army for-si-ro-va-la the river Hu-an-he and moved to the city of Pe-kin. In 1633, she was-la-be-bi-ta by the right-wing troops-ska-mi, Wang Tzu-yun in-gib, re-sh-s-stu-pi-li to the south, to the province of He- nan. In 1635, at a joint-venture in the city of Ying-xiang, 13 li-de-rov of the cross-yang detachments of you-ra-bo-ta-li plan with-together-st- nyh actions, after the che-go-ska under the command of Gao Ying-hsia-na entered the do-li-nu of the Hu-ai-he river and took the city of Feng-yang. One-on-one-to-one-glance-this between-zh-du Gao Ying-xia-n and other cross-yang-skim li-de-rum Chang Sien-chu-nom pri-ve-li to races -ko-lu of the rebel forces. This is in-li-lo the righteous howl-scam at the army of Gao Ying-hsia-on a number of serious ras-ny. In 1636 Gao Ying-hsiang was captured and executed.
The new ascent of the pov-stanch movement began in 1639. To the south of the Yants-zy river, dey-st-vo-va-lo voy-sko Chang Sien-chzhu-na, and to the se-ve-ru - the army of Li Tszy-che-na. In 1641, Li Tzu-cheng took over the government troops in the battle near the city of Syan-cheng, took the city of Lo-yan; in 1643, he pre-took a successful trip to the do-li-nu of the Han River and ov-la-del kr-stu Tung-gu-an. In 1644, after the capture of the city of Si-an (the main city of the Shen-si province), Li Tzu-cheng was pro-voz-voz-shon im-pe-ra-to-rum no-voy di-na -sti Da Shun. In April 1644, after a 2-day siege, the cross-st-yang army for-hwa-ti-la Pe-kin. The Minsk im-pe-ra-tor has finished with himself, his sa-nov-ni-ki and clan-st-ven-ni-ki be-zha-li to the south and os-no- Is there a South Ming state with a capital in the city of Nan-kin. To fight against the re-stan-ts-mi in the north-west of the country, there was-la-tav-le-na army U San-gui, who, not having the opportunity -no-sti-own-si-la-mi against-in-a-stand-cross-st-i-nam, for-co-chil co-yuz with man-chu-ra-mi. In the spring of 1644, the volume-e-di-nyon-forces of U San-gui and the Manchu prince-re-gen-ta Dor-go-nya raz-bi-li cross-st-yang-sky howl -sko Li Tzu-che-na in the battle-ve near the city of Shan-hai-gu-an and took-li Pe-kin. The little-year-old Manchu great-leader Fu-lin became the im-pe-ra-to-rum of the new Qing di-na-sti. In the spring of 1645, after the fierce battles in the territory of Northwestern China, the main forces of Li Tzu-che-on were-whether ok-cha -that-but-thunder-le-ny, he himself is in the ok-tyab-re of the same go-da-da-go. Government troops-ska na-cha-li fight-bu with Chang Syan-chzhu-n, formed at the beginning of 1645 in the province of Sy-chu-an, the state of Da Si-go. Zi-mine of 1647 in the battle near the city of Si-chun, the army of Chang Sien-chu-na was-la raz-bi-ta. The rebel forces under the leadership of the ple-myan-nik-ka Li Tzu-che-na Li Guo, as well as the rest of the detachments Chjan Syan-chu-na went to south - in the do-li-nu of the Yangts-zy river and the province of Gui-chjou and not-for-a-time pro-du-zha-whether the fight-bu against the Qing di-na in the union ze with the state South Min.
The question of the degree of decomposition of feudalism and the time of the emergence in China of elements of new economic relations has not yet been sufficiently studied. The accumulated materials indicate that in the XVI century. In feudal China, large merchant companies appeared that were engaged in the trade of fabrics, porcelain, and paper. In a number of cases, intermediary merchants subjugated urban and rural artisans, supplying them with raw materials. But these new relations were observed only in comparatively limited territories at the mouth of the Yangtze and in some other regions, and here, too, they coexisted with state-owned craft workshops and manufactories.
The dominance of the feudal lords hindered the development of the Chinese economy. The landlords in every possible way intensified the feudal exploitation of the peasantry, which intensified the class struggle and led to the peasant war.
In 1622, a large part of Shandong province was engulfed in a peasant uprising led by the secret religious society "White Lotus". Soon after it was suppressed, the peasants of Shaanxi Province revolted, and in the 1930s they were joined by peasants from other provinces of North China.
A peasant uprising broke out when China was at war with the Manchu tribes, who had been its vassals and tributaries for a long time. The Manchus, who lived in the territory of modern Northeast China, subjugated neighboring tribes and seized a vast territory, and then began an invasion of the interior regions of China.
The need to wage war with the Manchus and at the same time suppress large peasant uprisings greatly complicated the situation of the Ming dynasty that ruled China at that time. The emperor's government withdrew part of the troops from the Manchu front and sent them against the insurgent peasants. By 1638, government forces had succeeded in defeating the rebel peasant armies.
But this was a temporary victory. In the years 1639-1640. the uprising broke out with renewed vigor. The ranks of the rebels were joined not only by peasants, but also by artisans, the urban poor. The talented commander and organizer Li Zicheng became the leader of the uprising. He was born into a peasant family, as a young man he entered the post of an equestrian courier at a post station. For many years, Li Zicheng led the rebel forces. Now he managed to unite the scattered peasant detachments and create from them a strong, combat-ready army with a single command.
The Minsk armies were defeated: either in one or another sector, government troops went over to the side of the rebels. In April 1644, a peasant army entered Beijing. Shortly before that, the rebels had proclaimed Li Zicheng emperor. The Minsk dynasty ceased to exist. Her last emperor committed suicide.
By the time the rebels entered Beijing, the uprising had engulfed almost all of North China. On a vast territory, old taxes were abolished, and enslaving debts were eliminated. A strong blow was dealt to the feudal order.
By undermining the feudal order, the peasant war objectively contributed to the creation of more favorable conditions for the development of the productive forces.
However, like other peasant wars of the Middle Ages, the war of the Chinese peasants, led by Li Zicheng, could not lead to the victory of the peasantry.
The entry of the rebel forces into Beijing was the culmination of the uprising. But the position of the rebels and their government was difficult. The peasant masses were tired of the war, their leaders did not have a clear program. Meanwhile, the offensive of the Manchus on China continued.
Military operations on the Manchu front were led by government troops under the command of Wu Sangui. Li Zichei entered into negotiations with Wu Sangui, inviting him to join forces to fight the Manchus. But Wu Sangui and many Chinese feudal lords considered the rebellious peasants to be their main enemy. They preferred to come to terms with the Manchu rulers, taking the path of outright betrayal of their own people. Wu Sangui appealed to the Manchus for support. The combined forces of the Manchus and the traitor Wu Sangui moved to Beijing. The rebels left the city without a fight. In June 1644, the Manchus entered Beijing. From that time on, the Manchu Qing dynasty established itself in the Chinese capital.
The rebel armies continued to fight for about a year, but the forces were unequal. The peasant war ended in defeat. Northern China came under the rule of the Manchus.
However, even after that, the Chinese people continued to struggle. The retreating remnants of the peasant army, the troops and the population of Central and South China for several years repelled the onslaught of the conquerors. Only after stubborn battles did the Manchus manage to take Yangzhou and Nanjing in 1645 and then enter the provinces of South and Southwest China. But here uprisings broke out against the invaders. The rebels captured vast areas of the provinces of Hunan, Sichuan, and Guangxi. The uprisings also engulfed Zhejiang, Fujian, Shaanxi and Gansu. Thanks to the support of a significant part of the Chinese feudal lords, the Manchus were able to suppress these uprisings. Only the population of the coastal regions of Fujian and the island of Taiwan, led by Zheng Chenggong, created an independent state and resisted until 1683.
The power of the Qing dynasty extended to all of China. The Manchus forced all Chinese men, as a sign of obedience, to shave part of their heads, and to braid the hair on the top of their heads in a long braid, that is, to wear the national Manchu hairstyle.
The Manchu conquest marked the victory of the feudal reaction in China, it consolidated the feudal order and the feudal backwardness of the country. At the same time, the Manchu and Chinese feudal lords had to reckon with the consequences of the great peasant war that crushed the Ming dynasty.
At first, the peasants did not pay taxes and did not fulfill their duties. This had a positive effect on economic development countries. But with the consolidation of the power of the feudal monarchy, the process of concentration of land in the hands of landowners unfolded again.
Under the Qing, the division of land into two categories, state and private, was preserved and became clearer. The state lands included the vast estates of the imperial house, the Manchu aristocracy (on the basis of inheritance grants), the commanders of the "eight-banner" troops (the Manchu troops consisted of eight corps - "banners"); lands of military settlements; lands belonging to temples, monasteries, schools. Forests, mountains, pastures were considered the property of the state.
The possessions of the imperial house and the Manchu aristocracy were formed as a result of confiscations carried out after the conquest, mainly on the territory of the capital province and in Shandong, as well as in the areas where the "eight-banner" troops were located. The whole of Manchuria was considered the property of the Qing house, where access to the Chinese was closed. The vast territories of the fertile lands of Manchuria were deserted. The lands of military settlements were located along the borders of the empire and in the newly conquered territories. They were cultivated by peasants - military settlers. State lands were not taxed.
However, the land, in one form or another, was the property of the feudal state, accounted for a smaller part
cultivated land in China. Most of the cultivated land belonged to the category of private ownership. Their owners were feudal landlords, officials, merchants, usurers, and partly peasants. At the same time, the land area of the peasant-proprietors was steadily decreasing. The process of land concentration in the hands of large landowners was observed, which was combined with the preservation of a large number of small and medium landowners. Private land could be freely bought and sold.
Thus, the forms of land tenure in China were different from those in India and some other Asian countries. If in India the main form of feudal land ownership was state-feudal, then in China the emperor's supreme ownership of land had already been undermined and was largely nominal, landlord ownership prevailed there as one of the varieties of feudal land ownership.
After the consolidation of the power of the Qing dynasty, censuses of the population and peasant farms were carried out, on the basis of which taxes and feudal duties were established. The village was bound by mutual responsibility, a system of uniting yards into tens, hundreds, etc.
Under these conditions, peasants who lost their land or owned insignificant plots were forced to lease land from landowners on enslaving terms, often giving away most of the harvest and often performing a number of other feudal duties.
The main form of exploitation of the peasantry was feudal rent. Sometimes it was forced labor rent as a result of the inherited debt of the peasant passing from generation to generation to the landlord. In other cases, for a rented plot of land, the peasant was obliged to work for the landlord for free. But the most widespread was rent in products, or rent in kind, combined with the fulfillment of certain duties. In some areas, landlords collected rent in cash.
The way of life and the way of life of the Chinese countryside, based on the domination of subsistence farming, remained almost unchanged from generation to generation. Agriculture was combined with handicrafts. Each peasant family, as a rule, satisfied its own meager needs for cotton fabrics and partially for other handicraft items.
Even in the Middle Ages, numerous cities arose in China. More than 3 million people lived in Beijing, and hundreds of thousands of people lived in large provincial centers.
Like most cities in India, Chinese cities were primarily administrative centers, but at the same time they played an important role as centers of craft and trade. The feudal character of the Chinese city was manifested in the establishment of a strictly regulated hierarchy of cities from the county center to the capital. Even large urban-type settlements that were not administrative centers were not officially considered cities.
Urban artisans, whose craft was inherited from generation to generation, united in workshops. The Manchu authorities have strengthened the fiscal and police functions of the workshops. The merchants united in guilds. Some of them were large trading companies. Usury capital played an important role in Chinese cities. They had banks, pawnshops, money changers. The money was lent at high interest rates.
Although the establishment of Manchu domination strengthened the position of the feudal elements and the feudal reaction in China, nevertheless, under the Qing, commodity production continued to grow, the domestic market expanded, handicraft production developed, and the growth of manufactories was observed.
In Nanjing, Hangzhou, Suzhou and other places large imperial manufactories worked, producing silk, brocade, satin, tangle, velvet. The production of porcelain products was expanded at large manufactories in the provinces of Jiangxi, Fujian, and Zhejiang. They had a clearly defined division of labor.
The production of porcelain, which was famous all over the world, took on a very significant size. Only in Jingdezhen (Jiangxi province), which did not even have the official status of a city, there were 3 thousand porcelain kilns that belonged to the feudal state or private entrepreneurs. The Frenchman Dugald wrote: "This place where real porcelain artists live is as crowded as the largest cities in China."
Commodity production and trade, which became widespread in feudal China, were an integral part of the feudal economy.
Estates. Political system
The political superstructure of the Qing Empire was called upon to preserve and protect feudal production relations. The class division of the feudal Chinese society served the same purpose.
The Manchus belonged to the upper class, whose privileges were inherited: the relatives of the emperor and their descendants were “yellow-belted”, who had the privilege of wearing an imperial yellow belt, “red-belted” and “iron helmet” - the descendants of the closest first Manchu emperors.
The privileged class, belonging to which was not inherited, were shenshi - "scientists". To become a shenshi, one had to pass an exam and obtain a degree. Formally, the right to take the exam was enjoyed not only by landowners, but also by peasants and artisans, but preparing for the exam required many years to be spent, funds to pay for teachers, etc. The procedure for passing the exam for an academic degree was extremely complicated. Usually, no more than 8-10% of those holding the exam, mainly the offspring of wealthy parents, who could provide their children with opportunities for long-term study and give the appropriate bribe to officials and examiners, passed the exam. Naturally, obtaining the title of shenshi in most cases became the privilege of landowners, wealthy merchants and usurers. Often landowners bought the title of shenshi without passing exams. The title of shenshi was in feudal China a peculiar form of personal nobility. From among the Shenshi, governors of cities, judges and other high officials were appointed. The Europeans called them tangerines (from the Portuguese "mandar" - "to rule"). Most of the shenshi did not consist n but in the public service, but was nevertheless an influential stratum of the ruling class.
The lower steps of the estate-hierarchical ladder were the estates of farmers, artisans and merchants. Estates and class did not always coincide. The estate of farmers included not only peasants, but also landowners. The class of artisans also included the owners of workshops and manufactories, large for that time. At the very bottom of the estate ladder were actors, barbers, gunsmiths, lower clerks of the chancellery, and slaves. They could not marry representatives of other classes.
The Qing monarchy and the Chinese landowners in every possible way strengthened the Chinese feudal state system as the main instrument for curbing and subjugating the exploited majority of cities and villages.
The head of the state was an unlimited monarch - Bogdykhan. The military council, which consisted of the Manchu nobility, possessed the highest power under the Bogdykhan. The functions of the cabinet of ministers were carried out by "lyuba" ("six orders"): ranks, taxes, ceremonies, military, criminal, public works.
China itself was divided into provinces, which, in turn, were respectively divided into regions (fu), counties (zhou), counties (xian). The provinces were headed by military and civil governors appointed by the bogdykhan, over whom stood the governor, who headed the military and civil authority of several provinces. The highest positions in the localities were also mostly occupied by representatives of the Manchu nobility.
The army played an important role in suppressing the resistance of the popular masses. Initially, it consisted only of Manchu soldiers. In the future, the Mongols were involved in the service in the "eight-banner" army, and then the Chinese. At the same time, all those who served in the "eight-banner" troops, regardless of their national origin, were regarded as representatives of the privileged class. They received a generous reward.
Later, the army of the "green banner" was formed, formed from the Chinese. Its soldiers received a small salary and were poorly armed.
The religious and ideological system of feudal China had its own characteristics. Moral and ethical teachings prevailed in it over purely religious ideas and dogmas. The clergy did not become a separate influential class in China.
For many centuries, Confucianism held a dominant position in the spiritual life of the Chinese. The creator of this doctrine Confucius (c. 551-479 BC) called for strict subordination in relations between people in the family and society, based on respect and reverence for the elders in age and social status: “The sovereign must be a sovereign, a subject - subjects, father - father, son - son. " The Chinese feudal lords highlighted and promoted the most reactionary aspects of Confucius's teachings - about the divine origin of the emperor, submission to power, etc. Confucianism became an official state doctrine, one of the objects of cult worship.
Along with Confucianism, Taoism became widespread in ancient and medieval China. The legendary Lao Tzu is considered its founder. Until now, researchers have not been able to prove or disprove the existence of Lao Tzu, who is considered to be a contemporary of Confucius. According to the teachings of Lao Tzu, everything that exists, nature, the life of people is an endless stream of natural development, "The Great Tao (Path)". A person should strive to comprehend Tao. Having arisen as a philosophical doctrine, Taoism in the I-II centuries. becomes a religion that has included elements of folk beliefs, magic and shamanism in its system of ideas.
At the same time, Buddhism began to spread in China, which gained great influence in the Middle Ages.
Over the centuries, there has been a kind of synthesis of Confucianism, Taoism and Chinese Buddhism.
By the beginning of modern times, a complex system of religious beliefs with its own hierarchy of cults had already been established in China. Ceremonies related to the veneration of Heaven, Earth, and imperial ancestors were carried out by the emperor himself, the "son of Heaven." The cults of Confucius, Lao Tzu and Buddha were of a common Chinese character, in whose honor numerous temples were built. This was followed by the cults of the phenomena and forces of nature, the cults of individual regions, and, finally, domestic (family) cults.
The Qing used this system of ideological influence on the masses for the spiritual enslavement of the working people and the consecration of the feudal order.
