Cities of the Mongol Empire. The meaning of Genghis Khan's personality and his legacy. From the biography of the great Mongol khan
How empires arise and where do they disappear
The Mongol Empire was not anything outstanding compared to its predecessors, such as the Turkic Khaganate, the Tang Empire, the Hunnish state, which were many times larger than the Roman Empire at the peak of its power. Everything that the Mongols could need: a nomadic way of life, bows and weapons, tactics of horse attacks, siege of fortresses, education and maintenance of the army had already been developed and tested over thousands of years by successful conquerors like the Huns, Turks, Khitan, Chzhurdzheni, etc. It was not the Mongols who came up with the idea of including the conquered peoples in their horde, even the word horde was borrowed, it was not the Mongols who began to use Chinese defectors in government. The Mongols were a kind of Romans who absorbed all the best from the surrounding peoples and lived by conquering and plundering the surrounding countries, brutally and decisively suppressing any resistance. The Mongols, like the Romans or the same Chukchi (the most brutal aggressors of the north), sincerely did not understand why their racial and military superiority was disputed, in their minds God created the land so that they owned it, and the rest served them. Just like the previous empires, the Mongols fell victims of their own ambitions, the struggle for power of the pampered descendants of the cruel and uncompromising conquerors and the hatred of the conquered peoples.
Temujin (name, Chinggis khan is his position) was born in the Delyun-Boldok tract, neither the year, let alone the date of birth is unknown. After the death of their father, for several years the widows and children robbed by their fellow tribesmen lived in complete poverty, wandered in the steppes, feeding on roots, game and fish. Even in the summer, the family lived from hand to mouth, making provisions for the winter. At this time, Temujin lived in the family of his bride (he had been married since he was 10 years old, he had to live in his father-in-law's family until he came of age) and then another relative seized the camp. Temujin was hammered into the stocks, but he fled and united with his family, acquiring future associates, due to friendship with noble families and successful predatory raids, differing in that he included the opponents' uluses in his own. In 1184, Temujin defeated the Merkits and two years later founded his first small ulus, having 3 tumens (in fact, not necessarily a tumen of 10,000 people, it is quite possible they were tumens of 600 people, but for that time this figure is impressive), with with them he suffered the first defeat. The Tatars fought with China and in 1196 Temujin defeated the Tatars, and the Chinese awarded him the title "Jautkhuri" (military commissar), and Toorila - "Wan" (prince), from that time he became known as Wang Khan. Temujin became a vassal of Wang Khan, in whom Jin saw the most powerful of the rulers of Eastern Mongolia. In 1200, Temujin set out on a joint campaign against the Taijiuts, the Merkits came to the rescue, in this battle Temujin was wounded by an arrow, a well-aimed shooter Jirgoadai, who confessed that he was the one who shot, was accepted into Temujin's army and received the nickname Jebe (arrowhead). Having won numerous victories over the Tatars and Kereits, having subdued the east of the Great Steppe, Temujina began to streamline his people-troops. In the winter of 1203-1204, a number of reforms were prepared that laid the foundation for the Mongolian state. In March 1206, a kurultai gathered near the headwaters of the Onon River, where Temujina was elected a great khan with the title of Genghis Khan. The creation of the Great Mongol State was proclaimed.
The war with the Jin empire was considered by the Mongols as sacred, as an act of blood revenge and as Temujin's personal vendetta to the Tatars, Jurchens, Chinese and others who had time to annoy him. The conflict with Jin was preceded by serious military and diplomatic training, and campaigns were undertaken to eliminate the interference of potential allies of the Jin in the conflict. In 1207, two tumens were sent to the northern border under the command of Genghis Khan's eldest son Juchi and Subadei. Many Siberian tribes, former tributaries of the Kyrgyz, swore allegiance to the great khan. Having conquered many peoples without a struggle and having secured the northern border of the state, Jochi returned to his father's headquarters. At the beginning of 1208, a battle took place in the Irtysh valley, the Mongols defeated the Merkit princes, the Tungut were conquered in 1209, the Mongol troops gained experience in taking fortresses with the help of siege weapons and actions against the Chinese-style army, at the same time they joined the Uighurs without a single shot. The Mongols were well prepared, and the Qin fought on three fronts: in the south with the Song empire, in the west with the Tanguts, and inside the country with the Red Kaftan people's movement. Since 1211, the Mongols have invaded Jin, besieged and seized fortresses and the passage in the Great Wall of China, in 1213 invaded directly into the Chinese state of Jin, despite the resistance (many months of fierce sieges, garrisons reached cannibalism, but did not surrender), an epidemic of pestilence , in 1215 captured the capital. While still at war with the Jin empire, Genghis Khan sent ambassadors to the Khorezmshah with a proposal for an alliance, but the latter decided not to stand on ceremony with the Mongol representatives and ordered their execution.
For the Mongols, the execution of ambassadors was a personal insult, and 1219 was the beginning of the conquest of Central Asia. Having passed the Semirechye, the Mongol army fell upon the flourishing cities of Central Asia. Under the blows of Genghis Khan's troops, the cities of Otrar and Sygnak fell on the Syr Darya, Khojent and Kokand in the Fergana Valley, Jend and Urgench on the Amu Darya, and finally Samarkand and Bukhara. The state of Khorezm collapsed, Khorezmshah Muhammad fled, a pursuit was organized after him under the leadership of Jebe and Subadei. After the death of Muhammad, Jebe and Subedei were given a new task. They ravaged Transcaucasia, then the Mongols managed to defeat the Alans by bribing their ally, the Polovtsian Khan Kotyan, who himself soon had to ask the Russian princes for help against the Mongols. The Russian princes of Kiev, Chernigov and Galich joined forces to jointly repel the aggression. On May 31, 1223, on the Kalka River, Subedei defeated the Russian-Polovtsian troops due to the inconsistency of the actions of the Russian and Polovtsian squads. Grand Duke Kiev's Mstislav Romanovich the Old and the prince of Chernigov Mstislav Svyatoslavich perished, and the Galician prince Mstislav Udatny, famous for his victories, returned home with nothing. During the return to the east, the Mongol army was defeated by the Volga Bulgars in the region of the Samara Luka (1223 or 1224). After a four-year march, Subedey's troops returned to join the main Mongol forces.
About sixty-five years old (no one knows the date of his birth) Temujin died in 1227 on the territory of the Tangut state immediately after the fall of the capital Zhongxing (the modern city of Yinchuan) and the destruction of the Tangust state. There is a version that Genghis Khan was stabbed to death by a young wife, whom he forcibly took away from her husband. It is useless to look for the khan's grave - they were buried secretly, relatives, plowed up the land and drove a herd of horses from above, so it is pointless to look for any burial mounds, graves of khans (unless they accidentally stumble upon). According to the will, his third son Ogedei became the successor of Genghis Khan, and he became a khan, but many were against (if not for the disagreements in the Mongol ranks, they would have conquered the whole world). In the spring of 1235, a great kurultai was convened in the Talan-daba area to sum up the results of the difficult wars with the Jin empire and Khorezm. It was decided to conduct a further offensive in four directions. Directions: to the west - against the Polovtsy, Bulgars and Russians; to the east - against Koryo (Korea); the South China Song Empire; Significant reinforcements were sent to Noyon Chormagan operating in the Middle East.
In the photo: The secret legend of the Mongols, document of the 13th century.
The lands that were to be conquered in the west were supposed to be included in the Ulus Jochi, so Batu, the son of Jochi, stood at the head of the campaign. An experienced Subedei, an expert on Eastern European conditions, was assigned to help Batu. Under the supreme command of Batu came military contingents from all the Mongol uluses: Baydar and Buri, the son and grandson of Chagatai, commanded the army of the Chagatai ulus, the sons of the great khan Guyuk and Kadan - the army of the Ugedei ulus; son of Toluy Mongke - with the army of the Tolui ulus (indigenous yurt), the western campaign became an imperial event. In the summer of 1236, the Mongol army approached the Volga. Subedei defeated the Volga Bulgaria, Batu waged a war against the Polovtsy, Burtases, Mordovians and Circassians for a year. In December 1237, the Mongols invaded the Ryazan principality. On December 21, Ryazan was taken, after the battle with the Vladimir troops - Kolomna, then Moscow. On February 8, 1238, Vladimir was taken, on March 4, in the battle on the Sit River, the troops of the Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich, who died in battle, were defeated. Then Torzhok and Tver were taken, the seven-week siege of Kozelsk began. In 1239, the main part of the Mongol army was in the steppe, in the area of the lower Don. Small military operations were conducted by Mongke against the Alans and Circassians, Batu - against the Polovtsians. About forty thousand Polovtsians, led by Khan Kotyan, fled to Hungary from the Mongols. The uprisings were suppressed in the Mordovian land, taken by Murom, Pereyaslavl and Chernigov. In 1240, the Mongol army began an offensive in the south of Kievan Rus. Kiev, Galich and Vladimir-Volynsky were taken.
The military council decided to launch an offensive on Hungary, which gave shelter to the Polovtsy Kotyan. There was a quarrel between Batu and Guyuk and Buri, they returned to Mongolia. In 1241, Baidar's corps operated in Silesia and Moravia. Krakow was taken, the Polish-German army was defeated at Legnica (April 9). Baydar moved through the Czech Republic to join the main forces. At the same time, Batu destroyed Hungary. The Croatian-Hungarian army of King Bela IV was defeated on the river. Chaillot. The king fled to Dalmatia, Kadan's detachment was sent to pursue him. In 1242 the Mongols captured Zagreb and reached the shores of the Adriatic Sea near Split. At the same time, the Mongolian reconnaissance detachment reached almost as far as Vienna.
In the spring, Batu received news from Mongolia about the death of the great khan Ugedei (December 11, 1241) and decided to retreat back to the steppe through Northern Serbia and Bulgaria. In the summer of 1251, in Karakorum (one might say a huge yurt city, the capital in Mongolia), a kurultai was assembled to proclaim the great khan Mongke, since Khan Guyuk, who had usurped power from the legitimate Shiramun, died trying to start civil war with Batu and engaged in the executions of opponents. To support him, Batu sent his brothers Berke and Tuka-Timur with troops. The conquest of the Middle East began in 1256 by Hulagu's campaign in the Middle East, in 1258 Baghdad was taken and destroyed, in 1260 the Mongols were defeated in the battle of Ain Jalut by the Egyptian Mamluks, the conquest of South China began, however, Mongke's death in (1259 ) delayed the fall of the Song State. After the death of the great khan Mongke (1259), a struggle unfolded for supreme power between his brothers Khubilai and Arik-Buga. In 1260, Khubilai was proclaimed the great khan at the kurultai in Kaipin, Arik-Bug in the Karakorum. Hulegu, who fought in the Middle East, declared his support for Kublai; the ruler of Ulus Jochi Berke supported Arik-Buga. As a result, Khubilai defeated Arik Buga, founded the Yuan Empire (by tradition, copying the earlier empires of nomads who ruled China with the help of Chinese officials). Kublai's empire was on normal terms with the Jochi Ulus, which occupied the European part. modern Russia, fought with the Chagatai ulus (approximately the territory of present-day Kazakhstan-Turkmenistan-Uzbekistan) and was in allied relations with the Khalugid state (conditionally the territory of Persia), and the rest fought among themselves, sometimes uniting. The yuan included Mongolia, China, Korea, Tibet, twice unsuccessfully invaded Japan (1274 and 1281), tried to capture Burma, Indonesia. The Middle East campaign of the Mongols under the command of Hulagu (1256-1260) even took part in the seventh crusade to some extent. The warring Mongol Empire in 1304 was recreated as a federation of independent states under the nominal supremacy of the great khan - Emperor Yuan, which did not interfere with constantly waging a civil war, competing for power. In 1368, the Mongol Yuan Empire collapsed as a result of the Red Armband Uprising in China. In 1380, the Battle of Kulikovo took place, weakening the influence of the Golden Horde on the territory of the Moscow principality. Standing on the Ugra River in 1480 led to the final rejection of even a symbolic tribute to the Horde. The period of feudal fragmentation and internecine wars in Central Asia led to the fall of the Chagatai ulus by the beginning of the 16th century.
Paiza (not to be confused with a label), was made of gold or silver, ranked by image and function, a kind of identity card, epaulettes, passes and travel tickets.
Thus, the Mongols, dissolving in the conquered peoples and cutting the remnants of each other because of power, disappeared in a fairly short period of time, because even if we consider the existence of the Mongol Empire at 280 years, this is negligible by historical standards. And given that 143 years have passed since the invasion of the Ryazan principality in 1237 to the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380, there is no talk of any "thousand-year yoke". Yes, this is an unpleasant episode of history, but they invaded before (for a much longer period), invaded after that (for more a short time). From the benefits of the Mongols for Russia: the scale of the state thinking of the Chinese model, the ceased strife of the princes and the creation of a large unified state; advanced advanced weapons; orderliness of transport and mail; tax collection and population census stemming from a well-developed Chinese-style bureaucracy; the end of the crusades of the knights and their conservation in the baltics. Of harm: in addition to destruction and murder during raids, a large decline in the population from the slave trade; impoverishment of the population from taxes and, consequently, the inhibition of the sciences and arts; strengthening and enriching the church - in fact, an agent and conductor of Mongolian decisions. The Mongols did not leave any traces in the genetics of the Russians, since there were few ethnic Mongols even in 1237, they were mainly conquered peoples from a neighboring principality or nearby lands. It makes no sense to consider the Mongol invasion a worldwide disaster, this is something like the Gallic War for Rome - an episode of history, in the same France or Britain they are also proud of the fact that they were conquered by the Romans, and the capitals are Roman bath and laundry combines of legionnaires.
Banknotes of the Mongol Empire - yes, even then the preserved imprint, of course paper, the circulation of the coin was prohibited.
The "Mongol-Tatar yoke" was invented by the Polish chronicler Jan Dlugosh ("iugum barbarum", "iugum servitutis") in 1479, for Poland even such a brief acquaintance with the giant Mongol empire was so terrible that it made them shake, and a year later the Russians from the cannons chased the Mongols on the Ugra River. Where did the Tatars come from? The Mongols destroyed their enemies, the Tatars, but the Tatars were known, so a mixture of different peoples preferred to be called a revered name, and the Mongols did not interfere. And then the Mongols and Tatars gradually turned into Tatars and Mongols, and since there were no longer any Mongols left, soon there were only Tatars left who have nothing to do with either the ethnic Mongols, or even less the Tatars. Looking for "Mongolian" roots in modern Mongols is about the same as looking for "Roman" roots in modern Italians. It is senseless to somehow identify the way of life of modern, rather peaceful Mongols and those Mongols, any Mongol honors Genghis Khan, there is a huge monument in Mongolia, Temujin looks from portraits on 5000 tugriks, but campaigns of conquest are not started, although they can get together. Looking for genetic traces of the Mongols of that time in modern Russians or Tatars is as foolish as looking for genetic traces of the ancient Egyptians in modern Egyptians. Speculations on the Mongols and Tatars only make it possible to enrich themselves on the dubious content of books and programs, fanning interethnic conflicts that are absolutely useless to anyone. There is no need to look for burial mounds and graves, it is pointless to look for the burials of real Mongols, since they buried noble Mongols so that they would not find a grave, they plowed the field and let the herd through, and the privates could simply fold in a row, taking off their clothes. There are also Mongolian swords in museums, these sabers had a great influence on the armament of China, Korea and Japan, the Mongolian bow is world famous, as are the hardy, shaggy, unpretentious Mongolian horses. Briefly, the history of the Mongol Empire is as follows.
And Mongolian arrowheads, museum.
as an indicator of Mongolian-Chinese cultural interference
The capital of a state is always more than just a city. A provincial city, whether it is a rich trade and craft center or a distant outpost forgotten by God and people, develops according to quite understandable, natural laws - its size, shape, quantity and quality of public buildings depend, first of all, on the capabilities and ideas of the local administration and population. from the functions that the city performs and the surrounding landscape. The capital, in addition to this, is called upon to embody the very essence of the state, which leaves a special imprint on it. The capital is often not only the place of residence of the ruler and the court, not only a showcase for foreign ambassadors, who, having visited it, must bring stories about the power and greatness of their neighbors to their rulers. The capital is often almost the only place, equally alien to all subjects of the empire, a knot that unites provinces into an empire - both in an administrative, economic and ideological sense. Therefore, the capital may not be the most interesting city for studying a particular civilization and culture, but the most productive for studying the state and political ideology, which its rulers tried to follow.
In the early years of the Mongol Empire, during the reign of Genghis Khan (1162-1227, proclaimed great khan in 1206), the residence of the great khan, apparently, was a typical headquarters of a nomadic ruler - he was not inclined to commit himself to the construction of buildings, and probably did not consider it necessary and worthy of the ruler of the Mongols. In addition, the founder of the empire did not have so many quiet years when he was not busy with wars and campaigns. However, already during the reign of his son Ugedei (1186-1241, the great khan from 1229), the influence of the representatives of the settled peoples who became part of the empire on the ruling stratum of nomads significantly increased, as a result of which, in particular, construction began in 1235. . the city of Karakorum, proclaimed the capital of the empire (see).
The vast Orkhon Valley, on which the Karakorum is located, fed by many rivers and streams flowing from the wooded slopes of the Khangai, provides an extremely favorable environment for nomads. These places, which the Turks called Otyuken (or Otyukenskaya rabble), were the ritual and economic center of a number of nomadic empires. According to dynastic history Zhou shu周 書 ("History of the [Northern] Zhou"), the Kagan of the First Turkic Kaganate (551-630) constantly stayed here, here, under his leadership, regular sacrifices and prayers were carried out to the ancestors of the Kagan clan and the Sky (see); here was the headquarters of the ruler of the East Turkic Kaganate (689-745) (see) and the capital of the Uyghur Kaganate that replaced him, Ordu-Balyk, destroyed by the Kyrgyz in the middle of the 9th century.
The origin of the name of the first Mongolian capital is a separate scientific problem (for more details see), however, the most probable, as it seems, is the assumption that it originated from the Uyghur toponym (in Turkic “Kara-Korum” means “black mountains / stones”), apparently denoting the Khangai Mountains, from which the river flows. Orkhon. The word Karakorum is not Mongolian, but of Turkic origin, which, most likely, is evidence of the enormous influence that Uygur advisers had at the court of Ugedei, who convinced him that the capital should be located near the ruins of the Ordu-Balyk, and not in the native places of Genghis Khan. near Onon and Kerulen.
Despite its location in the heart of traditional nomads, Karakorum was not only the palace of the khan, who wanted to join the sedentary comfort, surrounded by the dwellings of the guard and the necessary servants, but also a rather large trade and craft center, which was finally proved by the excavations of 1948-1949. expedition led by S.V. Kiseleva. Low city walls (the rampart did not exceed 2-2.5 m in thickness, a wicker palisade covered with clay stretched from above, all together in height hardly exceeded 4-5 m; see), designed to mark the city border rather than provide the city with a real protection, fenced off a significant territory, which is an irregular quadrangle, oriented to the cardinal points, slightly tapering to the south. From north to south, the length of the city exceeded 2 km, from west to east it was about 1.5 km (see). Ugedei's palace was located in the southwestern corner of the city, was surrounded by the same low walls as the whole city, and was a regular square 255 by 225 m (see), i.e. did not occupy a very significant part of the city square. The rest of the city, judging by the results of the excavations, was quite densely populated. At the eastern gate, to which the suburb adjoined, fragments of millstones and threshing stones were found, which suggests that people who were engaged in agriculture lived here, plows and millstones were found in different parts of the city (see). The creators of the city clearly wanted it to be at least partially self-sufficient in food, however, we know that the city was still heavily dependent on grain supplies from China. A street lined with houses led from the city center to the eastern gate. Judging by the especially frequent finds in this area of the city of coins, there were trade shops (see). According to Guillaume Rubruc's reports, the city had two main streets, along one of which lived Muslims, mostly merchants, and along the other, Chinese, who were mainly engaged in handicrafts; it had twelve pagan temples of different nations, two mosques and one Nestorian church (see). According to the excavations, in the center of the city, at the intersection of two main streets, there were khan's workshops, which were very actively functioning. In this place, during its short history, the city managed to form an unusually rich cultural layer, up to 5 m thick.The lower horizon, corresponding to the time of the foundation and the highest prosperity of the city, is very rich in finds indicating an active metalworking industry, up to ten metallurgical furnaces have been found in a relatively small area and many products, especially a lot of massive bushings for the axles of carts, camping boilers with legs, arrows and sabers (see. ). All this testifies to the fact that the industrial capacities of the Karakorum were actively used in preparation for the long campaigns of the Mongol armies. Laboratory studies have shown that cast iron, used in a number of products, required very high temperatures for melting, of the order of 1350 °, which were achieved using a complex system of mechanical bellows, powered by water supplied through channels from the river. Orkhon, the remains of this system were found in a large metallurgical workshop in the city center (see). In the upper layers, when the city has already lost its capital functions, traces of a very diverse ceramic production prevail (see). Many finds of imported things (porcelain, mirrors, silk) were made throughout the territory of the Karakorum, which, like a large number of found coins, indicate a widespread trade (see). Remains of buildings are grouped mainly along two main streets, the rest of the city is almost undeveloped - apparently, there were yurts (see). Despite its significant population, palaces and workshops, Karakorum was still a city of nomads, with all the contradictions that this somewhat paradoxical status gave rise to.
However, being in the heart of the steppe, Karakorum was very dependent on grain supplies from China, which, of course, its population could not provide for itself, and this was destined to play a fatal role in its fate. In 1260 Khubilai (1215-1294) was proclaimed a great khan (see). His younger brother Arik-Buga, who was also proclaimed a great khan with the support of a part of the Mongol nobility, dissatisfied with Kublai's obvious inclination towards Chinese culture, occupied Karakorum, but this did not help him: Kublai ordered to stop supplying grain to the capital, so famine soon began there (see. ), Arik-God left Karakorum and was soon defeated.
After losing the status of the capital, Karakorum began to rapidly lose population and decay. It hosted the headquarters of the military governor of the northern provinces, xuan-wei si宣慰司 (Office of General Pacification) (see). During the war between Kublai and Kaidu (1230-1301) and the related unrest, Karakoram repeatedly passed from hand to hand, in 1295 it was plundered and burned by the imperial army (see), and in 1312 it was renamed Henin 和 寧 ( Harmony and peace) (see): probably by this time the Türkic name was no longer used, the renaming was based on the Chinese version, Helin 和 林. After the fall of the Yuan dynasty in 1368, the son of the last emperor Togon Temur, who died in 1370 in southeastern Mongolia, tried to gain a foothold in Karakorum, but did not succeed - the city, most likely already almost abandoned, was taken by Minsk troops and burned (cm. ).
The beginning of changes in the state ideology of the Great Mongol State, which increasingly began to deviate from the nomadic steppe traditions and turn into a bureaucratic Chinese-style empire - the Yuan Empire (for more details, see), is inextricably linked with the name of Kublai.
Around 1251-1252 Khubilai was made responsible for the administration of the North Chinese provinces of the empire (see). In 1256, he decided to acquire his own residence closer to China and instructed his advisor Liu Bing-chzhong 劉秉忠 (1216-1274) to find, based on the principles of Chinese geomancy ( Feng Shui風水), a favorable place, develop a plan for the city and build it, which was done. The new city, called Kaipin 開平 (Beginning of tranquility), was built in the steppes 275 km north of the present-day. Beijing, not far from Lake Dolon-nor (25 km northwest of the modern Dolun town in the southeast of Inner Mongolia). Shortly before the transfer of the capital from Karakorum to Dada (see below), in the summer of 1263, the city was renamed Shandu 上 都 (“Upper Capital”) and until the end of the dynasty's reign it retained the status of the summer capital. Spending the hottest summer months in it or roaming in its vicinity, the emperor received representatives of the Mongol nobility in their usual nomadic atmosphere, albeit fabulously luxurious.
Both variants of the name of the city were used by the Mongols, which is noted at least in the chronicles of the 17th century. (cm. ). There is a composite version of Keibting-Sangdu GEUbdieit seeIdO, but most often only the second name is used, perhaps because it sounded not completely alien to the Mongolian ear - shand ZeeIda , according to dictionaries, it translates as "a hollow, where the subsoil water is very close to the surface of the earth, a spring, a well in the hollow."
We know much more about Shandu than about Karakorum. City population, according to Yuan shi("History of Yuan") was very large and amounted to 118,191 people (41,062 families) (see); the palaces of Shandu are described in detail by Marco Polo, who, apparently, has repeatedly been there (see). In 1359 the city was plundered and burned by the rebellious Chinese peasants, in 1369 it was taken by the Minsk troops and left in ruins. The city has been very well preserved to this day, since after the fall of the Yuan dynasty and the destruction by the Ming troops, it fell into decay and in 1430 was finally abandoned - the city remained on the territory not controlled by China, and the Mongol nomads, for whom the 15th century. turned out to be one of the most difficult periods of chaos and the absence of almost any form of statehood in their history, the city in the steppe was not needed. The first archaeological studies of the city were carried out by Japanese scientists during the existence of Manchukuo (see), subsequently large-scale work was undertaken by scientists from the University of Inner Mongolia in 1956 and 1973. (cm. ).
Shandu (see. rice. 1) is oriented to the cardinal points, consists of two wall outlines, and the smaller outline is located in the southeastern corner of the larger one. The outer contour is a regular square with a side length of approx. 2200 m, the width of the adobe walls at the base was approx. 10 m, towards the top they narrowed to 2 m, the height reached 5 m.There were 7 gates in the city - two in the northern, eastern and southern walls, one in the western wall, outside the gate was protected by additional fortifications, in the north-western and south - in the western corners, traces of a city ditch, approx. 25 m.
The inner bypass is also a square with a side length of 1400 m, six gates have been cut into the walls - two each in the western and northern walls and one each in the southern and eastern (these gates are common with a large bypass). All gates are equipped with external fortifications. Wall thickness at the base - approx. 12 m, at the top - approx. 2.5 m, height - approx. 5-6 m. Corner towers were erected at the four corners of the small bypass, every 150 m on the walls there were extensions-platforms, on which, perhaps, there were wooden towers, where arrows could hide.
Inside the small bypass, there was its own internal division. In the center of it, closer to the north, there are another adobe walls - a rectangle of 570 m (E-W) by 620 m (N-S), clad with brick on the outside. These walls were as strong and high as in the outer rims, towers were erected at the four corners of the rectangle. In all walls, except for the northern one, gates were cut. This encirclement of the walls represented the actual palace of the emperor. The western and eastern gates are connected by a wide street, the same street goes from the southern gates, they form a T-shaped intersection in the center of the complex. To the north of the intersection, an adobe platform 60 by 60 m in size and 3 m high was discovered.On all sides, except for the southern one, an eight-meter strip of the territory adjacent to the platform is paved with bricks; from the south, two smaller buildings adjoined the corners of the platform. Apparently, this was the throne room, the main palace building. On both sides of the street leading from the southern gate, two platforms 50 m (E-W) by 20 m (N-S), 5 m high were found - apparently, these were a kind of entrance pavilions flanking the front entrance to the palace.
In a smaller rim of the walls, a kind of "city of officials" adjacent to the palace, were placed cult and official buildings. The main transport arteries were two wide streets - one of them, which was approx. 25 m, led from the southern gate to the southern gate of the palace, the second, approx. 15 m, connected the southern pair of gates on the eastern and western walls and crossed the first slightly south of the front gate of the palace. Similar highways extended from the northern gates of the eastern and western walls, but they rested against the walls of the palace. Between these, the widest "avenues" was laid a fairly frequent network of narrower, straight streets, intersecting at right angles.
The largest circumference of the city walls was not uniform - the part of it, located north of the "city of officials", was separated by an adobe wall, and this northern part could only be reached from the "city of officials". In the entire territory of this part, no traces of buildings were found, except for a large stone-paved courtyard (350 m along the E-W axis by 200 m along N-S axes) in the center. Archaeologists suggest that an imperial park could be located in the north of the city, in which the emperor, if desired, could set up yurts for himself and his entourage. Parks of this size are not marked in any of the known Chinese capitals.
The rest of the city, slightly less than a quarter of the total area, was the habitat of the townspeople. In this part there were three main, widest (approx. 20 m) streets, two of them went in the east-west direction and went out - one to the western city gates, the other to the southern gates of the western wall of the “city of officials”; the third "avenue" went north from the southern city gates. These streets formed large quarters cut by narrower streets; on the territory of this part of the city, the locations of the houses of commoners, as well as workshops, were found. Traces of handicrafts and markets were also found outside the city walls.
Thus, Shangdu did not deviate too much from the Chinese urban planning tradition, although, to a large extent, it was a palace with accompanying support systems, in which the part on which the townspeople lived did not represent a very large part of the urban area. The only element that stands out of the tradition is a huge park in the northern part of the city, which occupied almost a third of the city - a kind of tribute to the steppe past of the rulers. Apparently, Khubilai, despite his interest in Chinese culture and a taste for sedentary comfort, could not imagine life without the opportunity to roam, albeit in a park surrounded by walls. In addition, such empty spaces inside the city walls are characteristic of later cities that were built by the Mongols - often they did not have capital structures, except for the walls themselves, temples and several modest palaces, and the rest of the space was allocated for the installation of yurts for the inconstant - and accustomed to this way of life - the urban population. There are entire blocks of yurts in modern Ulan Bator. One way or another, Shandu is a good illustration of the gradual transformation that the Mongol Empire was undergoing at that time: its rulers could no longer imagine their life without the comfort of an urban sedentary life, but, at the same time, they could not completely break away from their nomadic roots. ... In 1260, Khubilai was proclaimed a great khan in Kaiping (see), in 1264 the capital was officially transferred from Karakorum to China, in the area of modern Beijing, and received the name Dadu 大都 (Great Capital).
Ch ingiskhan- one of the greatest conquerors and rulers in history. Under him, the Mongol state extended from The Pacific to the Caspian Sea and from the southern edge of Siberia to the border with India, and the heirs included in its borders the great civilizations of China and Iran. By the middle of the 13th century, the rulers of the steppes, having almost completely subjugated the Russian land, reached the territories of modern Poland and Hungary. History has preserved stories of the horrific cruelty of the Mongol horsemen, but it is worth noting that they were no less courageous, and their ruler was distinguished by remarkable organizational abilities and was an excellent strategist and politician.
The Mongols belong to the group of Altai peoples, which also includes the Tungus-Manchu and Turkic ethnic groups. The ancestral home of the Mongol tribes was the land lying southeast of Lake Baikal. Tatar tribes lived in the steppes south of the Mongols, then the Ongut territories were located, and even further south - Jin, the state of the Tungus Jurchens, who ruled North China. In the southwest, behind the Gobi Desert, there was Xi Xia- a state founded by the Tanguts, a people related to the Tibetans.
To the west of the Mongol nomads, the territory of the Kereites, a Mongolized Turkic people, stretched. To the northeast of the lands of the Mongols lived related tribes of the Merkits. Further to the north were the lands of the Oirots, and to the west, in the region of the Greater Altai mountains, were the Naimans. The basis of the economy of the Mongols, who led a nomadic lifestyle, was cattle breeding and hunting. Shepherds lived in portable yurts built of wood and felt, while the northern Mongols who hunted built their dwellings out of wood. Attempts to unite the scattered tribes were made repeatedly - most often to repel the attacks of the Tatars. The first was probably Kabul Khan, but only his great-grandson, who became the creator of one of the greatest empires in world history, achieved success.
Genghis Khan was born in the Delpun-Boldan tract, on the right bank of the Onon River. His father, Yesugei-bagatur, named his son Temuchin, in memory of the victory over the ruler of the Tatars, who bore this name. Having reached the age of 9, the boy was betrothed to 10-year-old Borte, the daughter of Dai-Sechen from the Ongir tribe. After the solemn ceremony, his father returned home alone and, having stopped by to visit the Tatars, was poisoned. With the last of his strength, Yesugei-Bagatur was able to get home and before his death wished that power over the clan passed to Temuchin. However, members of the clan immediately rebelled against Yesugei's wife and children, and they were actually left to fend for themselves.
They were in need and starving, feeding on the rhizomes of plants and hunting small animals; their situation was so difficult that quarrels began between family members over food. As a result of one of the quarrels, Temuchin and Kasar killed Bekter, who, in all likelihood, took the prey from them. Soon, during one of the attacks of the former tribesmen on their camp, Temuchin was captured and taken to the enemy camp. However, he managed to escape. Already a young man, the future great ruler went to Dai-Sechen for Borte, promised to him as a child.
The son-in-law was received cordially, and soon he entered the Uighur clan; now he was considered a real warrior and had his own family. But Temuchin decided to regain all the influence and power that once belonged to his father. For help and protection, he turned to his brother-in-law, the leader of the Kereites Togrul, who promised him protection and support. Temuchin attached particular importance to the attack on the Merkits, who had recently kidnapped his wife Borte. With the help of Togrul, as well as with the support of one of his vassals and childhood friend Jamukha, he organized a campaign that ended in a brilliant victory (euro fence price).
And although after a while Jamukha and Togrul became enemies of Temuchin and were defeated by him, that time participation in the campaign on the side of the famous commanders brought the first loud glory to the future creator of the great empire. Temuchin at the Teb-Tengri kurultai was elected khan of the Mongols and received the name Genghis Khan, which can be translated as “Sovereign of sovereigns”. Nevertheless, for several more years he did not use it to the fullest: Temuchin was neither the only nor the strongest candidate for this title, and many were ready to challenge this decision of the Magi. For almost six years, he had to fight both with the hostile steppe peoples and with his former allies - with his brother Jamukha, with whom they were once bound by an oath of eternal friendship.
He conquered the Tatars, ordering then to kill all men taller than the axis of the cart, Merkits, Naimans, as well as Kereits, headed by his long-term patron Togrul. When Genghis Khan subdued all the peoples of Central Asia - some with weapons, others with the help of diplomacy - a new kurultai of the steppe leaders gathered at the headwaters of the Onon River. It was then that Temuchin-Genghis Khan was proclaimed a kagan - a great khan. Having become the ruler of the steppe peoples, Genghis Khan began to strengthen his power, actively undertaking state and military reforms. Taking into account the large number of peoples and tribes, as well as the huge area of territories that were now in his power, the kagan began to strengthen the existing clan ties by vassal dependence.
The military power in the state of Genghis Khan was placed above civil or economic: for example, the ruler of the Minggan - a group of a thousand soldiers - was at the same time the administrative head of the tribes that fielded these soldiers, as well as the lands in which they lived. It is not surprising, therefore, that one of the first decisions of the new supreme ruler of the Mongols was the appointment of the heads of 95 Mingangs, who were chosen among the tried and true warriors. The army was divided into detachments according to the tens system: the smallest detachment, numbering a dozen soldiers, was called arban, the largest - jaun - consisted of a hundred people, the Minggan already mentioned was next, and the largest military unit that had the opportunity to act independently on the battlefield was called tumen and numbered 10 thousand people. A separate tumen, of which Genghis Khan himself became the head, became something like the imperial guard. Iron discipline reigned both in the army and in the state administration, and the death penalty for misconduct was by no means uncommon.
In the huge steppe power of Genghis Khan, there was no single legislation: customs and laws of individual clans or tribes reigned here, and relations between tribes were regulated by their leaders. However, the ruler of the Mongols realized that uniform laws would help to truly unite and strengthen his state, and ordered to create "Blue Book", in which all decisions made by his trusted advisor Shigei Kutuk began to be recorded. By that time, Mongolian speech was transferred to paper using an alphabet based on the Uyghur script; there was also a special chancellery dealing exclusively with state affairs.
In the business management system, the principle of remuneration for special merits was of particular importance: such could be, for example, exemption from tribute, the right to take part in feasts in the khan's tent, and for slaves - release. Having put in order the affairs of the state, Genghis Khan sent his troops to the south and west. Here the steppe warriors had to face urban, sedentary civilizations. The preparation for the conquest of Northern China, which was ruled by the Jurchens, was the conquest of the Tangut state of Xi Xia.
The actual campaign against the Jurchen state began in 1211. As usual in large campaigns, the Mongol army advanced in several directions at once, and in a small number of battles the Jurchen troops were defeated, and the country was devastated. However, Genghis Khan was interested not so much in the conquest of new territories as in rich booty, and at once three Mongol armies again attacked North China; they captured most of these territories and reached the city of Zhongdu. As a result of negotiations, it was decided that the defeated would pay Genghis Khan a huge indemnity.
A year later, another war broke out with the Jurchens. At first, Genghis Khan personally led the Mongol army in China, but then returned to his native steppes, entrusting the further leadership of a successful campaign to his generals. Around the same period, the Mongols also occupied the territory of the Korean Peninsula. Even before the attack on China, Genghis Khan headed west. The tribes of the Uighurs submitted to him, and two years later - the Karluts. He seized the state of that part of the Kitans, who at one time, under pressure from the Jurchens, moved from China to the west. Thus, the Mongol ruler and commander reached the borders of the Khorezm state, which, in addition to Western Turkestan, also occupied the territories of modern Afghanistan and Iran. The Khorezm state, which was under the active influence of Persian culture, was formed at the end of the 12th century and was not much older than the empire of Genghis Khan; ruled by the shah Muhammad II.
It came to war, the immediate reason for which was the murder of merchants and ambassadors of Genghis Khan in the border town of Otrar. The Mongolian army, the total number of which is estimated at 150-200 thousand soldiers, was much smaller than the Khorezm army, but better organized and trained; besides, Shah Muhammad oriented his troops towards defense, breaking them up into garrisons and placing them mainly near the border fortresses. Mongolian detachments marched simultaneously along the border and deep into Khorezm - and won victory everywhere. Genghis Khan took Bukhara and Samarkand; he expelled the surviving local residents, and destroyed the cities after plundering. A similar fate befell Urgench, the capital of Khorezm, in the spring of next year. By the end of the campaign, most of the Khorezm lands were in the hands of Genghis Khan, and the ruler of the steppe empire returned to Mongolia, leaving his garrisons on the conquered lands.
During this war, Genghis Khan allowed two of his generals - Jebe and Subedei- go on a reconnaissance campaign to the west. An army of about 30 thousand soldiers marched along the southern coast of the Caspian Sea, reached the Caucasus and attacked Georgia, and then turned south to Baghdad, the capital of the Caliphate ruled by the Abbasid dynasty. Once again heading for the Caucasus, the conquerors successfully crossed it and defeated the combined Polovtsian-Russian army on the Kalka River. After that, the warriors of Genghis Khan devastated the Crimea, and from there they turned back to Mongolia.
Returning after the end of the Khorezm campaign, Genghis Khan divided the lands of his empire among the four sons; these parts became known as ulus. The eldest of the sons - Jochi- received the western ulus, Chagatayu father gave land in the south. Ogedeyu, which due to its balanced character was declared the heir - the eastern part of the state. The youngest of sons, Toluyu, the kagan designated the ancestral lands of the Mongols over the Onon River. Genghis Khan went on his last military campaign, wanting to punish the Tangut state of Xi Xia for insufficient support during the war with Khorezm.
The capital of the Mongol Empire, Karakorum, has long attracted the attention of scholars. Numerous studies of historians and archaeologists, published in Russian and foreign languages, are devoted to it.
Karakorum is of great interest as the only large city that has existed in Mongolia since the beginning of the 13th century.
Two issues related to Karakorum have been discussed by science for a long time: determining the exact location of the city and the year of its foundation.
The extensive literature that existed named five different locations. According to ancient Chinese sources, the famous city was supposed to be located in the valley of the river. Orkhon. However, it was very difficult to establish the exact position of the Karakorum.
This problem was solved by Russian scientists.
Where is the city of Karakorum ?!
While working on the translation of the Mongolian chronicle "Erdenein Erikhe", the famous Russian Mongolist prof. A.M. Pozdneev found in it a specific indication of the location of the Karakorum, namely, near the oldest Mongolian monastery Erdenizu (translation published in 1883).
In his explanations for the translation of the chronicle, A. M. Pozdneev wrote: “This last composition (“ Erdeniyin erikhe ”- N. Shch.) Even more accurately defines the place of construction of Erdeni-tzu, precisely at Mount Sharga, aczhirga and says that this monastery was erected was on the site of the ruins of the city that was built by Ogedei Khan and served as his residence; Later, it was as if this city was renovated and the exiled from China Togon Temur lived in it, but after Togon Temur this city again fell into ruins. This is the location of the Karakorum! ".
Thus, the honor of the theoretical discovery of the location of the Mongolian capital belongs to A.M. Pozdneev.
Karakorum founded
Almost Karakorum was discovered in 1889 by the Russian traveler-archaeologist N.M. Yadrintsev, who, following the instructions of A.M. Pozdneev, found this mysterious city in the upper reaches of the Orkhon River near the Erdenizu monastery, southeast of the former Uyghur capital Karabalgasun.
Karakorum photo:
Of great interest is the assumption of the largest researcher of Central Asia, G.E. Pallady Kafarov also believed that Karakorum was originally one of the hordes of Genghis Khan.
These assumptions are interesting in connection with the clarification of the name of the city and the date of its construction.
In various works, the Mongolian capital is called differently. In ancient Chinese literature, the city is called Kholin, Horin, Helin, He-ning. Medieval European travelers called it Karakaron, Kara-Korum, Kara-Kuran, Karakuren. In Mongolian, the name of the city is pronounced as Khara-Khorin, Khara-Khorum.
Rashid ad-din claimed that Karakorum got its name from the name of a nearby mountain.
However, a different origin of the name of the city seems to be more probable. Karakuren (Mongolian Khara-khuren) translates as "Black camp" or "Black kuren". The Mongolian capital was also known under this name in literary sources. This name could have been formed to designate a cluster of many "black carts" in one place. Chang Chun, who visited the khanshi horde in the 13th century, noted that "there were thousands of carts and yurts on the southern bank of the river." In this regard, the assumption of Grumm-Grzhimailo that the Karakorum and the khanshi horde are one and the same seems very likely.
The date of the construction of the Mongolian capital has been controversial for a long time ...
Chinese and Persian sources reported that in the spring of 1235 Ogedei Khan surrounded Horin with a wall and built a palace. This gave many scholars a reason to believe that Karakorum was built in 1235, especially since Horin is not mentioned in the ancient biographies of Genghis Khan.
However, since the 18th century, many Russian scholars have argued that the Mongol capital was founded not by Ogedei Khan, but by Genghis Khan.
On page 325 of this interesting work, when describing the Khalkhas Horde, we find: "Of this horde was the glorious Genghis Khan, and in the 15th year of his reign (1220) he restored his capital in this horde."
Thus, the Russian scientists Leontiev and Bichurin, relying on Chinese sources, determined not only the time of the construction of the Karakorum (under Genghis Khan), but also the exact date of its construction (1220).
In the "Notes on Mongolian camps" (Meng-gu-yu-mu-tszi), published in China in 1867, on page 382 there is a confirmation of this: In the collection of Xu-yu-jen (1341), we find the following: in 1220 Temuchin founded the capital in Khorin. The construction of palaces and an idol was just begun under Ogodai (Ogedei) and continued by Hsien-tszyun (Mongke) "...
Karakorum capital of the Mongol Empire
The history of the Karakorum and its architecture in the most concise presentation is presented to us as follows.
In the fall of 1203, Chinggis Khan, inflicting a severe defeat on the Kereite tribe, seized the basin of the river. Orkhon. In this central part of Mongolia, on the slopes of the Khangai Range, there are the best pastures that have long attracted nomads. The Kereites who settled here after the Uighurs probably had their own horde here, which was captured by Genghis Khan.
This gave Marco Polo a reason to think that the Karakorum existed before the Mongols. He wrote: "The city of Karakoron is three miles in circumference, the Tatars were the first to seize it when they left their country."
It seems to us that at the site of the Kereite horde, Genghis Khan originally founded a temporary horde for his first wife. In the center of the horde were khan's tents and yurts. It is possible that already at this time the first capital buildings appeared in the horde. The horde received the name "Black Camp", the Chinese began to call it Horin.
Having become acquainted with the capital cities of the conquered countries, Genghis Khan gave instructions in 1220 to establish on the site of the "Black Camp" - the hordes of his beloved wife - the capital of the Mongol empire.
However, devoting all his time to predatory wars, Genghis Khan, apparently, did not have the opportunity to pay due attention to the construction of Karakorum, which after his death (1227) was continued by the second emperor of Mongolia, Ogedei Khan. The craftsmen and artisans captured during the campaigns to China and Central Asia were sent to Mongolia, since the Mongols themselves, born nomads, did not have the skills to build capital buildings.
Rashid-ad-din pointed out that the Mongols, when they took Urgench, "drove all the people into the steppe at once, separated about a hundred thousand artisans from them and sent (them) to the eastern countries."
Describing the plundering of Ghazna by the troops of Genghis Khan, the Persian chronicler noted: "... betrayed Ghazna to beating and plundering, sent (various) artisans and artisans to the eastern cities, and the others were immediately killed, but the city was destroyed."
At this time in Central Asia and China the art of building was at a high level, so it is possible that a significant part of the captive craftsmen were builders. In 1234, by order of Ogedei Khan, an imperial palace was erected in Karakorum by Chinese craftsmen, which was located in the southwestern part of the city. According to NM Yadrintsev, it was called the "Palace of the Common Peace", or Van-On-Kung. The entire palace complex was surrounded by a wall separating it from the city.
Rubruk describes this tree in detail: gilded snakes sat on its branches, from whose mouths wine and other drinks poured.
The architecture of the palace was presented to the artist as a mixture of Chinese and European architecture. This is not surprising, since craftsmen from different countries could work on the construction. Rubruk, for example, found many captive masters of different nationalities in Karakorum. At the court of Mongke Khan, he saw Hungarians, British, French and even a Russian architect!
According to modern excavations, the palace was a building with dimensions of 40X70 m. The roof and the upper ceiling of this palace rested on 64 wooden columns set on massive granite bases.
The combination of a wooden column with a stone base shows that the construction was based on the traditions of Chinese architecture.
The floor in the palace was covered with green glazed tiles, and the roof was made of green and red tiles.
In 1235 Karakorum was surrounded by a wall - probably an adobe wall. Rubruk wrote: "The city is surrounded by a clay wall and has 4 gates." Marco Polo says: "He (Karakorum - N. Shch.) Was all built of wood and clay and surrounded by an earthen rampart, for stone is rare in these places."
Until now, the city wall of the Mongolian capital has reached in the form of a low rampart surrounding a rectangle stretched from south to north, 2 km long and 1 km wide.
The central part of the Karakorum was built up with stone buildings that formed several streets. The central quarters of the city were surrounded by sites intended for placing yurts on them. A similar planning solution (a combination of monumental buildings with yurt sites) would later be found in some monasteries that began to be built in Mongolia after the 16th century.
According to Rubruk, there were 12 temples in the city, most of them probably Buddhist, but among them there were also two mosques and even one Christian church (it is known that Genghis Khan recommended his successors not to give preference to any religion).
In 1256, at the end of Mongke-khan's reign, a huge Buddhist temple was erected in Karakorum. Its description is given in the "Meng-gu-yu-mu-chi" and is of considerable interest to us: "... in 1256 a huge pagoda was built with a five-story tower on it, 300 feet high there were four sides around the room, in 7 links each, around which were placed images of the buddhas in the order indicated in the sacred books. In 1341, the emperor Shun-chzhi (Togon-Timur) ordered the head of the palace building chamber Putashiri and the Beilin (Khorin) governor to take over the exclusive management of the renovation of this pagoda.
It was all covered with gold paint and emitted a dazzling shine. The cornice inside the tower went from the ceiling with ledges in the form of porch steps
Its varnishing and plastering were distinguished by their strength and beauty. The emperor gave this tower the name Sin-yuan-ge "
As can be seen from the above, Buddhist scars of considerable height existed in Karakorum.
It is very interesting to mention the "palace building chamber", the creation of which was probably dictated by the large scale of construction. In the 13th century, during the reign of the first four Mongol emperors, construction took place not only in Karakorum itself, but also in its vicinity.
According to NM Yadrintsev, “... in 1236 the emperor (Ogedei-khan - N. Shch.) Moved to live in another palace, Kio-Kian-Tis, 70 li north of Kholin, where the city of Fulin was. The following year, a plan was drawn up for a palace 30 li from Kholin. A regional government was established here, which was later transferred to Kholin. "
Until the end of Mongke-khan's reign (1258), the steppe capital of Mongolia played a huge political role. The most prominent political figures of that time, including the outstanding politician and talented commander of Russia, Alexander Nevsky, visited it.
The death of Mongke-khan (1258) significantly influenced the fate of Karakorum. Mongke-khan's brother Khubilai was at that time in the eastern Chakhara, in his residence Shandu and soon declared himself emperor, without waiting for the decision of the congress of the Mongol princes.
His younger brother Ere-buge, who remained in Karakorum, rebelled against the impostor and, having summoned his supporters, also proclaimed himself the great khan of the empire. Karakorum becomes the center of the uprising.
In 1260-1261, Kubilai's troops took the city, partially destroying it. Having lulled the vigilance of Kublai Khan with his imaginary repentance and forcing the victor to return to Shanda, Ere-buge at the end of 1261 unexpectedly attacked Karakorum and, destroying the garrison, again captured the city. Kublai Khan surrounded Karakorum and ordered to stop the supply of food. Famine broke out in the Orkhon valley, and the rebels were forced to leave the steppe capital.
Since 1260, the temporary capital of Kublai Khan was his residence Shandu. In 1264, after the consolidation of the Yuan dynasty, the emperor officially moved the capital to Daidu ("Main Capital"), which was later renamed Beijing. Karakorum was turned into an ordinary provincial city, a period of desolation and slow extinction began for it.
Marco Polo, who visited Mongolia under Khubilai, wrote about Karakorum: "There is a very extensive fort near the city, in which there is a beautiful palace - the residence of the ruler of the city." Probably, the fortress was built at the founding of the voivodeship; in addition to the garrison, it also housed the governor's residence.
In 1275-1294, the city repeatedly became the site of military clashes between the armies of Kublai and Ugzdey's grandson, Khaidu, who claimed the throne.
Emperor Togon-Temur (1333-1370) decides to restore the steppe capital, which was badly destroyed by that time. " In 1341, he ordered the restoration of the largest Buddhist temple, Xingyuan-ge, built under Mongke-khan, to begin.
Restoration work begins precisely with Buddhist temples, since Buddhism was declared the state religion even under Khubilai Hak.
There is evidence that a significant number of Buddhist temples existed in the Karakorum in the XIV century. In this regard, of interest are the ancient Mongolian inscriptions on the fragments of stone slabs, which were discovered in 1926 by Soviet scientists in the fence of the Erdenizu monastery, built in the 16th century on the site of Karakorum. Despite the fragmentary nature of the inscriptions dating back to the time of Togon-Temur (1333-1367), the study of them makes it possible to conclude that there were large Buddhist temples in Karakorum.
One hundred twenty buildings were erected for the Buddhist clergy, indicating a significant number of monks who lived in Karakorum. The inscriptions give a description of a huge temple ("it is tall like a mountain, it is like a mountain Grdhrakuta ...") - perhaps, we are talking about the Xing-yuan-ge temple
In 1368, the Chinese people expel Togon Temur from Beijing. His son and successor Biliktu Khan (1370-1378) finally leaves China and declares Karakorum as his capital. The revival of the steppe capital begins. According to reports, Biliktu Khan not only renovated the old city, but also built a new city, which he also located in the Orkhon valley.
From the end of the 14th century and during the 15th century, Karakorum was the capital of the descendants of Togon-Temur, who were called "small khans" from the Chinese. We do not have materials that give an idea of the architecture of the Karakorum during this period. One can only assume that no temples of significant size were erected in the city, since Buddhism at that time was not widespread.
In 1380, the Chinese army invaded Mongolia and, occupying Karakorum, severely destroyed it.
Continuous internecine wars of the Mongol feudal lords lead to the gradual destruction of most of the cities of Mongolia. Karakorum, which was finally destroyed in the 16th century, did not escape this fate.
The last mention of the city is found in the description of the campaigns of the leader of the southern Mongols, Altan Khan, "who took away from the Oirats (Western Mongols) the city of Karakorum, which they had seized in 1552"
Ending summary history of the Mongolian capital, it is necessary to draw the following conclusions.
Karakorum was a major political center during the time of the first four khans of Mongolia and especially in the period from 1235 to 1259.
“Construction of the capital Karakorum on the river. Orkhon cannot be considered a sign of the rise of the country, since it was a city that served the needs of only the dynasty and the court, and not the people with its craft and trade ”. The Karakorum was mainly built by the hands of captive craftsmen from China and Central Asia, which undoubtedly influenced the nature of its architecture.
“The study of the finds made in Karakorum leads to the conclusion that during its construction and in its culture, especially in the initial period, the traditions of the old culture of the Uyghur cities of the 9th-13th centuries played a significant role. However, from the very beginning, the culture of Karakorum differs in that it is made up of various elements taken from the countries that the Mongols conquered. "
The description of the architecture of the Karakorum that has come down to us and the materials of the excavations show that the national architecture of the Mongols followed a different path, developing along the line of collapsible architecture; almost no monumental structures were erected in the usual sense of the word.
The formation of the Mongol Empire contributed to the expansion of ties between Europe and Asia, between Central and Central Asia. During the XIII-XIV centuries, Mongolia and China had relations with countries such as Russia, Iran, Azerbaijan, India, etc.
The material culture of the countries conquered by the Mongols undoubtedly influenced the development of the culture of the conquerors themselves.
In the 13th-15th centuries, the ancient culture of the Chinese people had a profound impact. After the formation of the Yuan Dynasty, the traditions brought to China by the Mongols quickly disappeared into the centuries-old and higher culture of the Chinese people. Therefore, the architecture and art of the Yuan Empire is a product of Chinese, not Mongolian culture, although power in China was held at this time by the Mongol feudal aristocracy.
However, it should be noted that in Mongolia itself, the culture of the Mongol people continued to live throughout the history of the Chinggisids, including the Yuan period.
Such stability of national traditions was facilitated by the constantly preserved way of nomadic, cattle-breeding economy. This, in particular, can explain the phenomenon that the architecture of the Mongolian people's dwelling - the yurt - in principle remained unchanged for many centuries. And, indeed, the conduct of nomadic cattle breeding at that time was unthinkable without the presence of a light portable dwelling.
It is characteristic that after many years of internecine wars that began in Mongolia after the fall of the Yuan dynasty, the yurt turned out to be almost the only example of Mongolian architecture of the 13th century, passed down to subsequent generations of Mongols.
The wars of conquest of Genghis Khan and his descendants, carried out in the interests of the feudal lords, brought only ruin to the Mongolian people and caused stagnation in the development of Mongolian culture.
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There are a large number of unique people in the history of the world. They were simple children, often raised in poverty and did not know good manners. It was these people who changed the course of history radically, leaving behind only ashes. They built new world, a new ideology and a new outlook on life. To all these hundreds of people, humanity owes its life today, because it is the mosaic of past events that has entailed what we have today. Everyone knows the names of such people, because they are constantly on the lips. Every year scientists can provide more and more interesting facts from the life of great people. In addition, many secrets and riddles are gradually revealed, the disclosure of which a little earlier could lead to horrific consequences.
Acquaintance
Genghis Khan is the founder of the first great khan of which he was. He rallied various scattered tribes in Mongolia. In addition, he conducted a large number of campaigns to neighboring states. Most military campaigns ended in complete victory. The empire of Genghis Khan is considered the largest of the continental in the entire history of the world.
Birth
Temujin was born in the Delyun-Boldok tract. The father named after the captive leader of the Tatars Temujin-Uge, who was defeated just before the birth of the boy. The date of birth of the great leader is still not known exactly, since different sources indicate different periods. According to documents that existed during the life of the leader and his biographers, Genghis Khan was born in 1155. Another option is 1162, but there is no exact confirmation. The boy's father, Yesugei-bagatur, left him in the family of the future bride at the age of 11. Genghis Khan had to stay there until he came of age, so that the children got to know each other better. The little girl, a future bride named Borta, was from the Ungirat clan.
Father's death
According to the scriptures, on the way back home, the boy's father was poisoned by the Tatars. At home, Yesugei had a fever, he died three days later. He had two wives. Both of them and the children of the head of the family were expelled from the tribe. Women with children were forced to live in the forest for several years. They managed to escape by a miracle: they ate plants, the boys tried to fish. Even in the warm season, they were doomed to starvation, since they had to make provisions for the winter.
Fearing revenge by the heirs of the great khan, the new head of the Targutai tribe, Kiriltukh, pursued Temujin. The boy managed to escape several times, but was eventually caught. A wooden block was put on him, which absolutely limited the martyr's actions. It was impossible to eat, drink, or even drive the annoying beetle off his face. Realizing the hopelessness of his situation, Temujin decided to run away. At night he reached the lake, in which he hid. The boy completely immersed himself in the water, leaving only his nostrils on the surface. Snoopers of the head of the tribe carefully looked for at least some traces of the escaped. One person noticed Temujin, but did not betray him. In the future, it was he who helped Genghis Khan escape. Soon the boy found his relatives in the forest. Then he married Borte.
Becoming a commander
The empire of Genghis Khan was created gradually. At first, nukers began to flock to him, with whom he attacked neighboring territories. Thus, the young man began to have his own land, army and people. Genghis Khan began to form a special system that would make it possible to effectively manage the rapidly growing horde. Around 1184, Genghis Khan's first son, Jochi, was born. In 1206, at the congress Temujin was proclaimed a great khan from God. From that moment on, he was considered the complete and absolute ruler of Mongolia.
Asia
The conquest of Central Asia took place in several stages. The war with the Karakitai Khanate ended with the Mongols receiving Semirechye and Eastern Turkestan. In order to gain the support of the population, the Mongols allowed Muslims to worship in public, which was forbidden by the Naimans. This contributed to the fact that the permanent sedentary population completely sided with the conquerors. The population considered the arrival of the Mongols "the grace of Allah", in comparison with the harshness of Khan Kuchluk. The inhabitants themselves opened the gates to the Mongols. It is for this that the city of Balasagun was named "the meek city". Khan Kuchluk could not organize a strong enough resistance, so he fled from the city. Soon he was found and killed. Thus, the way to Khorezm was opened for Genghis Khan.
The empire of Genghis Khan absorbed Khorezm, a large state in Central Asia. His weak point was that the nobility had complete power in the city, so the situation was very tense. Muhammad's mother independently appointed all relatives to important government posts without asking her son. Having thus created a circle of powerful support, she led the opposition against Muhammad. Internal relations were greatly aggravated when the heavy threat of the Mongol invasion hung. The war against Khorezm ended with neither side gaining a significant advantage. At night, the Mongols left the battlefield. In 1215, Genghis Khan agreed with Khorezm on mutual trade relations. However, the first merchants who went to Khorezm were captured and killed. For the Mongols, this was an excellent reason to start a war. Already in 1219, Genghis Khan, together with the main military forces, opposed Khorezm. Despite the fact that many territories were taken by siege, the Mongols plundered cities, killed and destroyed everything around. Muhammad lost the war even without a fight, and realizing this, he fled to an island in the Caspian Sea, having previously surrendered power to his son Jalal ad-Din. After long battles, the khan overtook Jelal ad-Din in 1221 near the Indus River. The enemy army numbered about 50 thousand people. To cope with them, the Mongols used a trick: after making a roundabout maneuver over rocky terrain, they attacked the enemy from the flank. In addition, Genghis Khan used a powerful guards unit of bagatur. Ultimately, Jalal ad-Din's army was almost completely defeated. He with several thousand soldiers fled from the battlefield by swimming.
After a 7-month siege, the capital of Khorezm, Urgench, fell, the city was taken. Jelal ad-Din fought against the troops of Genghis Khan for a long 10 years, but this did not bring significant benefits to his state. He died defending his territory in 1231 in Anatolia.
In just three short years (1219-1221), the kingdom of Muhammad bowed before Genghis Khan. The entire eastern part of the kingdom, which occupied the territory from the Indus to the Caspian Sea, was under the rule of the great khan of Mongolia.
The Mongols conquered the West through the campaign of Jebe and Subedei. After capturing Samarkand, Genghis Khan sent his troops to conquer Muhammad. Jebe and Subedei passed through the whole of Northern Iran, and then captured the South Caucasus. The cities were captured by certain treaties or simply by force. The troops regularly collected tribute from the population. Soon in 1223, the Mongols defeated the Russian-Polovtsian military forces on However, retreating to the East, they lost in. Small remnants of a huge army returned to the great khan in 1224, while he was at that time in Asia.
Hiking
The first victory of the khan, which took place outside Mongolia, happened during the campaign of 1209-1210 against the Tanguts. Khan began to prepare for war with the most dangerous enemy in the East - the state of Jin. In the spring of 1211 began Great War that claimed many lives. Very quickly, by the end of the year, the troops of Genghis Khan owned the territory from the north to the Chinese Wall. By 1214, the entire territory, covering the north and the Yellow River, was in the hands of the Mongol army. In the same year, the siege of Beijing took place. Peace was obtained through exchange - Genghis Khan married a Chinese princess, who had a huge dowry, land and wealth. But this step of the emperor was only a trick, and as soon as the Khan's troops began to retreat, waiting for the right moment, the Chinese resumed the war. For them it was a big mistake, because in speed the Mongols defeated the capital to the last stone.
In 1221, when Samarkand fell, the eldest son of Genghis Khan was sent to Khorezm in order to begin the siege of Urgench, the capital of Muhammad. In the same time younger son was sent by his father to Persia for plunder and seizure of territory.
Separately, it is worth noting what happened between the Russian-Polovtsian and Mongolian troops. The modern territory of the battle is the Donetsk region of Ukraine. The Battle of Kalka (year 1223) led to the complete victory of the Mongols. First, they defeated the forces of the Polovtsi, and a little later the main forces of the Russian army were defeated. On May 31, the battle ended with the death of about 9 Russian princes, many boyars and soldiers.
The campaign of Subadei and Jebe allowed the army to pass through a significant part of the steppes, which was occupied by the Polovtsians. This allowed the military leaders to appreciate the merits of the future theater of military operations, study it and think over a reasonable strategy. The Mongols also learned a lot about the internal structure of Russia, from the prisoners they received many useful information... Genghis Khan's campaigns have always been distinguished by their thoroughness, which was carried out before the offensive.
Rus
The invasion of the Mongol-Tatars to Russia took place in 1237-1240 under the rule of Chingizid Batu. The Mongols actively attacked Russia, inflicted strong blows, waiting for good moments. The main goal of the Mongol-Tatars was the disorganization of the warriors of Russia, sowing fear and panic. They avoided battles with a large number of warriors. The tactic was to dissociate a large army and smash the enemy piece by piece, exhausting him with harsh attacks and constant aggression. The Mongols began battles by throwing arrows in order to intimidate and distract opponents. One of the significant advantages of the Mongolian army was that the control of the battle was organized in the best way. The managers did not fight next to ordinary soldiers, they were at a certain distance, so as to maximize the angle of view of military operations. Instructions were given to the soldiers using various signs: flags, light, smoke, drums and pipes. The Mongol attack was carefully thought out. For this, powerful reconnaissance and diplomatic preparation for battle were carried out. Much attention was paid to isolating the enemy, as well as inflating internal conflicts. After this stage, it concentrated near the borders. The attack took place along the entire perimeter. Starting from different sides, the army strove to get to the very center. Penetrating deeper and deeper, the military destroyed cities, stole cattle, killed soldiers and raped women. In order to better prepare for the attack, the Mongols sent out special observation detachments that prepared the territory and also destroyed the enemy's weapons. The exact number of troops on both sides is not reliably known, since the information differs.
For Russia, the invasion of the Mongols was a severe blow. A huge part of the population was killed, the cities fell into decay, as they were thoroughly destroyed. Stone construction stopped for several years. Many crafts have simply disappeared. The sedentary population was almost completely eliminated. The empire of Genghis Khan and the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars to Russia were closely related, since for the Mongols it was a very tasty morsel.
Khan's empire
The empire of Genghis Khan included a vast territory from the Danube to the Sea of Japan, from Novgorod to Southeast Asia. During its heyday, it combined the lands of Southern Siberia, of Eastern Europe, The Middle East, China, Tibet and Central Asia. The 13th century marked the creation and flourishing of the great state of Genghis Khan. But already in the second half of the century, the huge empire began to split into separate uluses, which were ruled by the Chingizids. The most significant fragments of the huge state were: the Golden Horde, the Yuan Empire, the Chagatai ulus and the Hulaguid state. And yet the borders of the empire were so impressive that no commander or conqueror could achieve more.
Capital of the empire
Karakorum city was the capital of the entire empire. Literally the word is translated as "black stones of the volcano". It is believed to have been founded in 1220 by the Karakorum. The city was the place where the khan left his family for the duration of campaigns and military affairs. Also, the city was the residence of the khan, in which he received important ambassadors. Russian princes also came here to resolve various political issues. The 13th century gave the world many travelers who left notes about the city (Marco Polo, de Rubruk, Plano Carpini). The population of the city was very diverse, since each quarter was isolated from the other. The city was inhabited by artisans, merchants who came from all over the world. The city was unique in terms of the diversity of its inhabitants, because among them there were people of different races, religions and thinking. Also, the city was built up with many Muslim mosques and Buddhist temples.
Ogedei built a palace, which he called "The Palace of Ten Thousand Years of Prosperity." Each Chingizid also had to build his own palace here, which, naturally, was inferior to the building of the son of the great leader.
Descendants
Genghis Khan had many wives and concubines until the end of his days. However, it was the first wife, Borta, who gave birth to the most powerful and famous boys to the commander. The heir to the first son of Jochi, Batu, was the creator of the Golden Horde, Jagatay-Chagatay gave the name to the dynasty that ruled over the central regions for a long time, Ogaday-Ogedei was the successor of the Khan himself, Tolui ruled the Mongol empire from 1251 to 1259. Only these four boys had a certain power in the state. In addition, Borta gave birth to a husband and daughters: Khojin-bags, Chichigan, Alagai, Temulen and Altalun.
The second wife of the Merkit Khan, Khulan-Khatun, gave birth to a daughter, Dairusun, and sons of Kulkan and Kharachar. Genghis Khan's third wife, Yesukat, gave him a daughter, Charu-noynon, and the sons of Chakhur and Harhad.
Genghis Khan, whose life history is impressive, left behind descendants who ruled the Mongols in accordance with the Great Yasa of the Khan until the 20s of the last century. The emperors of Manchuria, who ruled over Mongolia and China from the 16th to the 19th century, were also the direct female heirs of the Khan.
The decline of a great empire
The fall of the empire lasted 9 long years, from 1260 to 1269. The situation was very tense, since there was a pressing question of who would transfer all power. In addition, it is worth noting the serious administrative problems faced by the management apparatus.
The fall of the empire happened because the sons of Genghis Khan did not want to live according to the laws established by their father. They could not live according to the main postulate "On the good quality, strictness of the state." Genghis Khan was shaped by a cruel reality that constantly demanded from him decisive action... Life constantly tested Temujin, starting from the early years of his life. His sons lived in a completely different environment, they were protected and confident in the future. In addition, we should not forget that they valued their father's possessions much less than he himself.
Another reason for the collapse of the state was the struggle for power between the sons of Genghis Khan. She distracted them from the vital affairs of the state. When it was necessary to resolve important issues, the brothers were engaged in sorting out the relationship. This could not but affect the situation in the country, the world status, the mood of the people. All this led to a general deterioration in the state in many respects. Dividing the empire of their father among themselves, the brothers did not understand that they were destroying it by dismantling it into stones.
Death of a great leader
Genghis Khan, whose history is impressive to this day, returning from Central Asia, marched with his army through Western China. In 1225, near the borders of Xi Xia, Genghis Khan was on a hunt, during which he fell and was badly hurt. By the evening of the same day, he developed a strong fever. As a consequence of this, a meeting of managers was called in the morning, at which the question of whether or not to start a war with the Tanguts was considered. The council was also attended by Jochi, who did not enjoy special trust at the top of the government, since he regularly deviated from his father's instructions. Noticing this constant behavior, Genghis Khan ordered his army to go against Jochi and kill him. But due to the death of his son, the campaign was never completed.
Having recovered his health, in the spring of 1226, Genghis Khan with his army crossed the border of Xi Xia. After defeating the defenders, and giving the city to plunder, the khan began his last war. The Tanguts were completely defeated on the outskirts of the Tangut kingdom, the path to which became open. The fall of the Tangut kingdom and the death of the khan are very connected, because the great leader died here.
Causes of death
The scriptures say that Genghis Khan's death came after he accepted gifts from the king of the Tangut. However, there are several versions that have equal rights to exist. Among the main and most probable causes are the following: death from illness, poor adaptation to the local climate, the consequences of falling from a horse. There is also a separate version that the khan was killed by his young wife, whom he took by force. The girl, fearing the consequences, committed suicide that very night.
Tomb of Genghis Khan
Nobody can name the exact burial place of the great khan. Various sources disagree on the hypotheses for a number of reasons. Moreover, each of them indicates different places and methods of burial. The grave of Genghis Khan can be located in any of three places: on Burkhan-Khaldun, on the northern side of Altai Khan, or in Yehe-Utek.
The monument to Genghis Khan is located in Mongolia. The equestrian statue is considered the largest monument and statue in the entire world. The opening of the monument took place on September 26, 2008. Its height is 40 m without a pedestal, the height of which is 10 m. The entire statue is covered with stainless steel, the total weight is 250 tons. Also, the monument to Genghis Khan is surrounded by 36 columns. Each of them symbolizes the khan of the Mongol Empire, from Chinggis to Ligden. In addition, the monument is two-story and houses a museum, art gallery, billiards, restaurants, a conference room and a souvenir shop. The horse's head serves as a viewing platform for visitors. The statue is surrounded by a large park. The city authorities plan to equip a golf course, an outdoor theater and an artificial lake.
