Historical and comparative method. The main methods of historical research Historical typological method of studying history
Typologization - as a method of scientific knowledge, has as its goal the division (ordering) of a set of objects or phenomena into qualitatively defined types (classes) based on their common essential features. This is the method of essential analysis. The entire set of objects appears in this case as a generic phenomenon, and the types included in it - as species of this genus.
Historical and systemic method
Its use is due to the deepening of historical research both from the point of view of the holistic coverage of the cognizable historical reality, and from the point of view of disclosing the internal mechanisms of the functioning and development of various kinds of socio-historical systems.
Systems analysis methods are structural and functional analyzes. The system under study is considered not from the side of its individual aspects, but as an integral qualitative definiteness with a comprehensive account of both its own main features and its place and role in the hierarchy of systems.
From the point of view of the specific content, the solution to this problem is reduced to identifying the system-forming (system) features that are inherent in the components of the system being distinguished. These include features, the relationship between which, first of all, determines the essence of the structure of the system.
After identifying the corresponding system, its analysis as such follows. The central point here is structural analysis, i.e., the identification of the nature of the relationship between the components of the system and their properties.
The result of the structural-system analysis is knowledge about the system as such. This knowledge is of an empirical nature, since by itself it does not reveal the essential nature of the revealed structure. Transferring the knowledge gained to the theoretical level requires identifying the functions of a given system in the hierarchy of systems, where it appears as a subsystem. This problem is solved by functional analysis, which reveals the interaction of the system under study with systems of a higher level.
Recently, the importance of methods that expand the possibilities of historical research and are at the intersection of several disciplines (linguistics, demography, statistics, history of collective psychology and mentality) has been growing. When analyzing a particular method, one should clearly highlight its essence, possibilities of use, requirements for application and disadvantages.
1. Actual problems of Soviet source study: Round table in the editorial office of the journal "History of the USSR" // History of the USSR. - 1989. - No. 5.
2. Blok, M. Apology of history or the craft of a historian. - M., 1993.
3. Ivanov ,. G.M., Korshunov A.M., Petrov Yu.V. Methodological problems of historical knowledge. - M., 1982 .-- Ch. 2.
4. Source study: Theory. History. Method. Sources of Russian history: Textbook / I.N. Danilevsky, V.V. Kabanov, O. M. Medushevskaya, M.F. Rumyantsev. - M., 1998.
5. Kovalchenko. I. D. Historical source in the light of information theory: to the formulation of the problem // History of the USSR. - 1982. - No. 3.
6. Kovalchenko, I. D. Historical research methods. - M., 1987.
7. Kurnosov, A.A. To the question of the nature of the types of historical sources // Source study national history... - 1976 .-- M., 1977.
8. Medushevskaya, OM Source study and humanitarian culture // Domestic archives. - 1992. - No. 4.
9. Medushevskaya, OM Theoretical problems of source study. -
M., 1977.
10. Medushevskaya, OM Source study: theory, history and methodology. - M., 1996.
11. Pushkarev, L.N. Classification of Russian written sources in Russian history. - M., 1975.
12. Medushevskaya, О.М. History of source studies in the XIX - XX centuries: Textbook. - M., 1988.
13. Medushevskaya, O. M., Rumyantseva, M.F. History methodology. -
M., 1997.
14. Nikolaeva, A.T. The main stages in the development of domestic source study of the XVIII - XX centuries: Textbook. - M., 1976.
15. Nikulin, P.F. Theory and methodology of source study in Russian history of the 10th - early 20th centuries. - Tomsk, 2000.
16. Pronshtein, A.P. Methodology of historical source study. - Rostov-n / D., 1976.
17. Pronshtein, A. P., Danilevsky I. N. Questions of theory and methods of historical research. - M., 1986.
18. Pushkarev, L.N. The concept of a historical source in the works of Soviet philosophers // Source study of Russian history. - 1975. -
M., 1976.
19. Tartakovsky, A.G. Social functions of sources as a methodological problem of source study // History of the USSR. - 1983. - No. 3.
20. Farsobin, V.V. Source study and its method. - M., 1983.
21. Schmidt, S.O. On the classification of historical sources // Auxiliary historical disciplines. - L., 1985. - Issue. XVI.
The historical-comparative method has also been used for a long time in historical research. In fact, no scientific study is complete without comparison. The objective basis for comparisons is that socio-historical development is a repetitive, internally conditioned, natural process (p. 172)
Historical and typological method
Like all other methods, it has its own objective basis. It consists in the fact that in socio-historical development, on the one hand, they differ, and on the other hand, the individual, the particular, the general and the universal are closely interconnected. Therefore, an important task in the knowledge of socio-historical events, the disclosure of their essence is the identification of that single, which was inherent in the variety of certain combinations of the individual (singular).
Kovalchenko S. 176
In modern historical research, it is increasingly widespread historical-systemic method ... The objective basis of the systemic approach and the method of scientific knowledge is the unity in social and historical development (and in general in objective reality) of the single (individual), particular and general. This unity is real and concrete and appears in socio-historical systems. different levels... The functioning and development of historical systems includes and synthesizes those main constituent components that make up the socio-historical reality.
Ibid, pp. 183-184.
History is not only a spatial, but also a continuous temporary activity of people, taking place under certain and changing social relations. Obviously, this activity should be studied only in spatially synchronous (i.e., simultaneous), but also in diachronic (i.e., multi-temporal) expression. It is in the diachronic study of social historical development that many see the main task of historical science. Diachronic analysis is aimed at studying historical processes, i.e. essential-temporal changes in historical reality, in contrast to synchronous analysis, which has the goal of revealing the essential-spatial nature of this reality.
In the same place. S191.
The emergence of new knowledge is a complex process of interaction between the cognizing subject and the object of cognition, an organic combination of the objective and the subjective. It takes place both at the stage of sensory perception and at the stage abstract thinking... At the stage of sensory perception, it is based on already existing ideas about objective reality, and at the stage of abstract rational thinking - on categories, i.e. on the already existing knowledge.
In the same place. P.199.
Lyapustin B.S. Introduction (from the book "Ancient East" edited by B. S. Lyapustin)
Introduction (abridged version for workshop # 1)
……. Civilization naturally replaced the clan system and marked a new stage in historical development and the emergence of a qualitatively new and complex historical phenomenon.
The term civilization has several meanings. One of them denotes a qualitatively new, higher and more progressive stage in the life of society and the level of development of culture in comparison with the primitive savagery and barbarism. The main features of this stage are: 1) city, 2) monumental construction, and 3) writing. The city, as a fortified settlement, which served as the center of power and cult for the immediate vicinity, was born at the final stage of the primitive system. But having turned into a center of crafts and commodity exchange and the seat of the royal power, it was the city that became the personification and center of civilizational development. In the city, monumental construction is unfolding: the construction of palace and temple complexes necessary for the royal administration and clergymen in the performance of their functions. New conditions and changes in the life of society led to the emergence of writing, which not only made it possible to record and transmit the sharply complicated forms of socio-economic, political and spiritual life, but also acted as a new form of collective memory focused on multiplying the amount of information and fixing all that new, unusual , single, which brought society a new civilizational stage of development. The connection between the city, which personified the achieved civilizational progress, the high level of public works, construction technology, the division of labor and the writing they brought to life is natural and natural. It was the early societies of the Ancient East that opened the beginning of the civilizational development of mankind.
Often the term civilization denotes a major era, emphasizing the stadial difference of some societies from others: modern civilization, medieval civilization, etc. In this sense, modern industrial civilizations are contrasted with pre-industrial (ancient and medieval), the main branch of which was agriculture.
The era of ancient civilizations, which belong to agricultural, pre-industrial civilizations, is the subject of study of a special historical discipline - "the history of the ancient world." ...
... But most often in historical science, the term civilization denotes an integral socio-cultural system, the structure and forms of development of which are determined, on the one hand, by the natural foundations of life, and on the other hand, by its objective historical preconditions. One of the main elements of civilization is society (society). Socium in historical science is understood as a collective of people, “their own” for each other, continuing and reproducing themselves in time, bound by hereditary obligations of various forms of mutual assistance and non-aggression, guaranteed and organized by a single power that subordinates all members of society. A group of such societies create, uniting them, the unity of material, behavioral and spiritual culture. Thus, the objective socio-cultural unity, which is called civilization, crumbles.
At the center of civilization is a person, a cultural-historical type, which represents society and the social ties created by it, and also acts as the creator of culture in its civilization. Outside social structure and human culture does not exist, he is, as it were, dissolved in these two spheres.
The first and most important form of relationship within the framework of civilization for the cultural-historical type is the relationship with nature, which infinitely dominated over man in the era of the ancient world. In the process of social practice, a person, on the one hand, had to actively cultivate the natural world, receiving products for his existence. On the other hand, it is optimal to adapt to the objectively given conditions of the natural environment. In the course of this, he is forced to improve the social model of society, optimizing social structures and their functions. Finally, in order for his creative activity to be successful, he needed to create mechanisms and ways of understanding the surrounding world (natural and social) in the forms of spiritual culture harmonized as much as possible with the needs of society.
With each of the three spheres (natural, social and spiritual) with its creative activity, the cultural-historical type, in accordance with its inherent picture of the world, seeks to harmonize its relationships as much as possible. The picture of the world predetermined a person's ability to find forms of response to the challenges of the surrounding world. Responding to these challenges, each cultural and historical type creates its own way of resolving its material, associated with the natural environment, socio-political and spiritual and ethical problems.
Thus, the practical activity of a subject, of a cultural-historical type, with the aim of harmonizing the conditions of its existence, appears to be the driving principle of history. And the code of civilization is expressed through the universalism of the style of life and the picture of the human world.
In the course of the development of civilization from its inception to its flowering, a person creates a certain complex of material and spiritual objects and values. As a complex socio-cultural system, it also includes the entire set of human-created political institutions and elements of economic life, as well as diverse connections both within them and between them and spiritual culture, which appears in all its diversity from everyday, everyday to artistic , elite. In the complex internal structure, the originality of its elements and the variety of connections that distinguish each civilization, both objective laws inherent in a certain stage of historical development and human subjectivity, manifested in the lifestyle of individuals, in the way they communicate with nature and others like themselves, have been expressed and embodied.
All these civilizational structures were formed for the first time in the era of the ancient world in the East. The time of existence of the civilizations of the Ancient East, which arose in different regions and with a wide spread in time, lasted more than three millennia. The first civilizations that developed in limited areas within the fertile river valleys of the Nile, Tigris and Euphrates, arose at the end of the 4th thousand. BC. Separated from each other by vast spaces, they and the like are called primary or local ...
Typological method in archeology, the method of systematizing and chronologizing archaeological sites; began to be developed in European archeology from the 2nd half of the 19th century. (O. Montelius) .
T. m. Is based on the classification of ancient things (weapons, tools, jewelry, vessels, etc.) according to material, processing method, shape and ornament. Things of the same type, that is, of the same purpose, homogeneous in appearance, but differing in details, are placed in typological evolutionary series, the comparison of which makes it possible to identify groups of objects characteristic of a particular era. Typological rows are also built for structures, graves and other archaeological sites. T. m. Is an important auxiliary method in archeology.
Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M .: Soviet encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .
See what the "Typological method" is in other dictionaries:
- (in archeology) the method of systematization and chronologization of archeological. monuments; began to be developed in Europe. archeology from the 2nd half. 19th century The most significant was the contribution of the Swede. archaeologist O. Montelius. T. m. Is based on the classification of ancient things (weapons ... Soviet Historical Encyclopedia
typological method in the social sciences- TYPOLOGICAL METHOD IN SOCIAL SCIENCES is based on the introduction of the concept of "type" and typological generalization and description. Belongs to one of the forms of generalization and idealization, an important methodological means of scientific knowledge and social ... ...
COMPARATIVE-HISTORICAL METHOD- a method with the help of which, by comparing, the general and specificity is revealed. in history, in phenomena, knowledge of the differences is achieved. history, stages of development of the same phenomenon or two different coexisting phenomena. M.S. and. allows you to identify and ... ...
typological- (typology) Related to typology; T. classification of languages includes analytical, agglutinative, isolating languages; T. classification is based on the description of differences and similarities different languages... The T. method in Russian linguistics is aimed at ... ... Vocabulary linguistic terms T.V. Foal
Aya, oh. Related to the type of l. objects, phenomena. Those are the differences. These are the features. // Based on the establishment of the commonality of the characteristics of which l. objects, phenomena. T th classification of languages. T. method ... encyclopedic Dictionary
typological- oh, oh. a) Related to the type of what l. objects, phenomena. Those are the differences. These are the features. b) Ott. Based on the establishment of the commonality of the characteristics of what l. objects, phenomena. T th classification of languages. Typology / chic method ... Dictionary of many expressions
Relatively historical method, scientific method, with the help of which, by means of comparison, the general and the particular in historical phenomena are revealed, knowledge of various historical stages of development of the same phenomenon or two different ones is achieved ... ...
I Comparative historical method a scientific method, with the help of which, by means of comparison, the general and the particular in historical phenomena are revealed, cognition of various historical stages of development of the same phenomenon or two is achieved ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia
comparative historical method- COMPARATIVE HISTORICAL METHOD the method of natural and social sciences, with the help of which, by means of comparison, the general and the particular are revealed in related, genetically and historically related forms, knowledge of various historical ... ... Encyclopedia of Epistemology and Philosophy of Science
TYPOLOGICAL ANALYSIS- a method of studying complex social. objects, consisting in the allocation of socially significant, qualitatively different from each other, internally homogeneous groups of objects, characterize. a set of signs of an arbitrary nature. In sociology, AT research ... ... Russian Sociological Encyclopedia
Books
- , Tuzkov Sergey Alexandrovich, The textbook presents an original interpretation of over thirty Russian stories of the Silver Age. These are the works of M. Gorky, V. Brusov, L. Andreev, A. Kuprin, B. Zaitsev, ... Category: Textbooks for universities Publisher: Flint, Science, Manufacturer: Flint, Science,
- Russian story of the early XX century. Genre and typological aspect. Tutorial, Tuzkov Sergey Alexandrovich, The tutorial presents an original interpretation of over thirty Russian stories of the Silver Age. These are the works of M. Gorky, V. Bryusov, L. Andreev, A. Kuprin, B. Zaitsev, A. ... Category:
Historical-comparative method
Historical-comparative method- a specific expression of the general scientific method of comparison. Natural recurring historical process. Many phenomena are similar only in spatial or temporal variation of forms. Many forms can carry different content. In the process of historical development, the possibility of explaining the development and disclosure of the essence of the phenomena under study opens up - this is the epistemological concept of comparison. It makes it possible to reveal the essence of the phenomenon both by the similarity and by the difference in their inherent properties. Horizontal and vertical comparison - both in space and in time. As for the logical basis - an analogy. The bottom line is that on the basis of the similarity of some features, a conclusion is made about the similarity of others.
Has ample opportunities:
1. Reveals the essence of the phenomenon when it is not obvious. In this way, gaps are filled in, and research is brought to a logical form.
2. It makes it possible to go beyond the studied phenomena and, on the basis of analogies, come to parallels.
3. Allows the use of all other general historical methods. Less descriptive than genetic.
Requires compliance with a number of rules:
1. It is necessary that historical research is based on concrete facts that reflect the essential features of phenomena, and not their formal similarity.
2. Consider general character historical eras, the stages of development and the technological essence of the compared phenomena and processes.
3. You can compare both the same type and different types. The essence will be revealed by identifying similarities and differences.
Deviation from the rules is fraught with erroneous conclusions. A certain range of the most effective use: the study of socio-historical development in a wide spatial and temporal aspects; studies of less broad phenomena and processes, the essence of which cannot be revealed by means of analogies due to their complexity, inconsistency and incompleteness - here the historical-comparative method replaces experiment. It is impossible to reveal the essence of the phenomenon if it is not completed.
The basis is the singular, the particular and the general, on the one hand, they differ, but, on the other hand, they are intertwined with each other. The need to identify the only common thing that is inherent in the variety of certain combinations of the singular. Historical development- a dynamic process, which is characterized by the presence of qualitatively static states, replacing each other. The identification of stages is an important task for the historian. Revealing the general into the spatially individual in the dynamic aspect of socio-historical development requires special means.
To identify the stages, you need typology- selection from a set of objects or phenomena of qualitatively defined types on the basis of more essential features. Logically, typologization is a kind of classification, but it differs in that it is a method of essential analysis. If the classification can afford not to assign belonging to one or another qualitative definiteness, then for typologization this is the main goal. Typologization is a complex cognitive process that requires adherence to a number of methodological principles:
1. Justified choice of a criterion for identifying the types of qualitatively defined objects and phenomena. The neo-Kantians have an ideal typification (M. Weber). The social sciences must construct pure or ideal types - concepts that are mental images and do not have reality in reality. Description with their help of concrete reality. Ideal types are loaded with meaning by the researcher himself.
2. Allocation of criteria for typology. Identification of types based on the consideration of the essential properties of the studied historical reality. A collection of objects containing types - this approach needs to be defined. The entire set of objects appears as a generic phenomenon, and the types included in it act as species of this genus. Without understanding the nature of the whole, it is impossible to single out qualitatively definite parts. The relationship between genus and species can have both vertical and horizontal expression.
3. Requires a high level of knowledge, the essential nature of the study of the object and phenomena.
4.4. System-typological concept
The implementation of a systematic approach and a typological method for studying the essence of a book as an objective phenomenon of social reality and as a fundamental bibliological category, as well as the very knowledge about the book (its object, subject, methods, composition, structure, terminology) began in the depths of the functional concept. The system-typological concept arose and developed as a form of removing theoretical contradictions that were insoluble within the framework and means of the functional approach.
System-typological developments were initially carried out in the subject of the theory and practice of editing and in the form of research and substantiation of the typology of book publications of various types of literature.
The cognitive capabilities of the systemic approach and the typological method ensure the solution of problems of a higher class, which made it possible from these positions to implement in this textbook the process of research and obtaining new holistic knowledge about the essence of the book as an objective phenomenon of social reality and fundamental bibliological category, as well as the systemic integrity of the multidimensional , multilevel scientific knowledge about it.
The system-typological bibliological concept assimilated all the previous historical experience of the science of the book itself, the general theory of systems, the general scientific systems approach, the methodology of systems analysis, the general scientific concept of the structural-level organization of matter, science of science and methodological research of science.
The basic theoretical principles of the system approach as a general scientific methodological cognitive technique have been developed in the science of science quite deeply, any specific scientific discipline can rely on them.
A qualitative feature of the modern stage of development of science and practice is the awareness of consistency as one of the properties of objective reality. The concepts of "system", "systemicity", "systemic quality" deepen and concretize what was said back in the 70s. XIX century. F. Engels fundamental thesis: “In nature, a universal connection of development was revealed, it was determined that some forms of matter develop from another ... From science, the accidental presence of such and such a number of physical forces was removed, for their mutual connection and transitions into each other. "
A system is a holistic education consisting of components (or subsystems), stable relationships between which ensure the structural integrity of this education and generate a new, integrative quality of the system, not identical to the sum of the qualities of all components and not reducible to the quality of any one component.
In systems education, components are subsystems consisting of elements (indivisible objects within a given system), the interaction between the properties and relations of which determine the stable structure of the subsystem. Therefore, a holistic study of a system also presupposes a structural analysis of its subsystems (or components), the interconnection of properties and relations of which forms the structure of a given system and predetermines its systemic qualities.
Consistency is both a way of thinking in the process of reflection, cognition of systemic education, and a way of obtaining new knowledge about it, and a property of the knowledge obtained. And it is always multidimensional, multilevel, since it results in the knowledge of the system object. Therefore, consistency is a special dimension of reality.
A systematic approach to scientific knowledge concretizes the principles of dialectics in relation to the study and design of objects as systems and is an installation on the systematic nature of the phenomenon under study.
An object qualifies as systemic if it: 1) reveals the integrity and hierarchy of the internal structure; 2) is a link, a subsystem in a certain hierarchy of objects; 3) has, as a systemic integrity, a specific relationship with the environment.
The book science system-typological concept is based on the realization that the book and the book business as a way of its existence are not only systemic in themselves, but are also subsystems of a more general developing dynamic system of the information process that objectively exists in nature and society.
Based on the fundamental philosophical position that there is nothing in the world except moving matter, that the development of the material world is an endless process of transitions from one form of motion of matter to another, the system-typological concept names and investigates that attribute property of forms of motion of matter, which is substantial book sign. This is information objectively existing in nature and society in the process of its movement.
The book in its most general form is one of the ways of existence and movement of social information in society. The dialectical definition of a book is based on a sequential study of the process of transition from one form of information to another, up to the one that is a book, and the identification of the essential properties of the book and its relationship to the previous and subsequent forms of movement of information.
The substantial, essential feature of the book also determines its main social function - informational, i.e. the function of exchange, distribution and redistribution of such a form of social information as semiotic, in the process of conscious social and practical activity. Hence the need for the communication aspect in the approach to the analysis of the essence of the book. The starting point is the interpretation of "consciousness" as a communication process, a process of social communication, exchange of social information and abstraction from other qualitative characteristics of the content of this category. Thus, the study of the essence of the book is based on the dialectical principle of reflection and the principle of activity.
In the social and practical activities of people, reflection has a conscious, purposeful character and exists in the form of a conscious organization of one relatively simple form of social information into another, relatively more complex one.
Dialectical cognition and reflection of the essence of any object, phenomenon as a system presupposes its study in the process of movement, change of forms, i.e. adherence to the dialectical principle of development. The general model of a systemic phenomenon in the process of its movement can be represented as follows:
Here by the concept of "phenomenon" we denote the object under study, its essence as a system of necessary internal and external interrelationships; the concept of “mode of existence” is a process of change, development and manifestation of these interrelations, ie the process of movement of the content of a given object, phenomenon; the concept of "form" is a transitory intermediate result of expressing the content of a given object and at the same time - the process of this expression, i.e. a way of being at the next stage of movement.
In the above diagram, every three lower levels (phenomenon - the way of its existence - form), taken in their unity, represent a subsystem of the phases of the process. The essence of the subsystem is the transition of a phenomenon from one qualitative state to another, from one form to another.
Since the process of movement of a phenomenon is a system of successively repeated internal phases of it, the general pattern of development is identical to the principle of the development of individual cycles. The levels of "forms" of the general system and "phenomena" in its subsystems coincide, giving rise to the dialectical unity of the process and its transitory intermediate result, the interdependence of the general system and subsystem phases of development, the cyclical, spiral nature of their mutual transitions, and, ultimately, the multilevel unity of the process in the whole.
The model formalizes the principle of unfolding the content of a phenomenon through the way of its existence and the principle of the structural organization of the same phenomenon at different stages of the process of its movement and development. Following these principles, it is possible to reveal the content of any bibliological phenomenon both as relatively independent and as a subsystem of a more general system.
With regard to general bibliology, this will primarily be a book - its essence, mode and form of existence, structural levels of organization, in their dialectical unity reflecting the integrity of the book, as well as scientific bibliological knowledge brought into a system, i.e. structured in accordance with the levels of organization of the book and the levels of its knowledge (history, theory, methodology, methodology).
Such a stage in the development of knowledge of the book marks the transition from description to the study of the essence and structures of systems and processes, from fixing functions to justifying them on the basis of the revealed essence. Based on this, the book can be qualified as one of the ways of purposefully organizing one form of social information into another, relatively more complex one. The further task is to investigate and determine: which one - which one.
The book arose in human society as a way of social communication between people, which determines its main social function - the function of purposeful distribution and redistribution of social information in the process of social and practical activities. Hence, another principle on which the system-typological concept is based - the principle of communicativeness, which presupposes the study of a book as an integral part, stage, level of a single communication process in which it realizes its essence, features, properties and relations, and outside of which its essence is impossible to know.
The transition from description to explanation, from phenomenon to essence, coincides with the knowledge of the structure of the studied systems and processes, with the transition from one structural level to another. That is why systemic and structural studies, as well as the methods corresponding to them, have become widespread in modern science.
The most common of these is typological, i.e. a method for identifying and substantiating a feature, and more often a set, a system of features that characterize the essence of a phenomenon in a given or necessary coordinate system.
In combination with a systematic approach, the typological method makes it possible to analyze and generalize at any level of the structure of the studied system in its integrity and in interaction with the external environment. The unity of the system approach and the typological method gives the name to the system-typological concept.
