Asia. Ancient asia asia history
Ancient India is the name of the territory of several ancient states on the Indian subcontinent.
2800-2600 BC NS. Small agricultural settlements in Northwest India. Pre-Kharappan cultures. The cult of the mother goddess is widespread.
2500-1600 BC NS. Harappan civilization of the Bronze Age in the Indus Valley. Created, possibly, by the Dravidians, the ancestors of most of the peoples of South India.
1500-1000 BC NS. Penetration of Aryan tribes into India from the northwest.
Late II-mid-1st millennium BC NS. In Northern India, several dozen states were formed - Magadha, Koshala, Vriji, etc. At the same time, a system of varnas (caste system) was formed: brahmanas (priests), rajanya (nobility), vis (common people), sudras (engaged in hard physical labor , practically slaves). The transition from one varna to another and mixed marriages were forbidden.
491-459 BC NS. The reign of King Ajatashatru in the state of Magadha (modern state of Bihar) with the capital Pataliputra (modern Patia). He defeated the main enemy, the state of Koshara, as a result, Magadha became the strongest state in North India. After the death of Ajatashatru, the territorial expansion of Ma-gadhi was continued by his successors
325-324 BC NS. The invasion of the army of Alexander the Great. Revolt against the conquerors in 324 BC e., as a result of which they were expelled, led by Chandragupta.
322-298 BC NS. The reign of King Chandragupta I, the founder of the Maurya dynasty in Magadha. He extended power to all of Northern India, annexed (305 BC) part of the territories of modern Baluchistan and Afghanistan, and founded the Mauryan empire. Became the first emperor of India. The reign of Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan dynasty.
268-232 BC NS. The highest flowering of the empire, which during this period occupied the territory of almost all of modern India (except for the extreme southern part of the peninsula). Under him, Buddhism became the ideological basis of the state. After the death of Ashoka, the process of disintegration of his state began.
180-72 BC NS. The reign of the Shunga dynasty in Magadha. The power of the kings was limited only to the middle and lower part of the Ganges valley.
28 BC BC - the first half of the 3rd century. n. NS. The reign of the Andhra kings in Magadha. The reasons for the fall of their state are still unknown.
320-VI c. The Gupta State is the last major state of Ancient India. Founded by Chandragupta I (Gupta dynasty). During the period of greatest power - the reign of Chandragupta II Vikramaditya (380-414) - included "almost all of North India and a number of other territories, had access to the Arabian Sea. This entire period is characterized by extreme instability of political power.
606-646 Rule of Harsha in the State of Sthaneshwar in North India. After his death, the state collapsed, mainly due to the absence of an heir. The beginning of a long period of fragmentation and internecine strife in India.
Iranian and Armenian highlandsThe Iranian Highlands is a mountainous region on the territory of the modern states of Iran (67% of the country's area), Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iraq and the south of Turkmenistan.
Armenian is a mountainous region mainly on the territory of modern Turkey, partly in Iran, Armenia and Azerbaijan.
UrartuUrartu is an ancient slave state on the territory of the Armenian Highlands with its capital in the city of Tushpa (the shore of Lake Van, modern Turkey).
864-845 BC NS. The rule of Aramu, the first ruler of the united Urartu.
825-810 BC NS. The reign of the king Ishpuini. It was noted for its vigorous activity to strengthen a unified state.
786-764 BC NS. Board of Argishti I. Zenith of the power of the Urartian state. Gradual displacement of the Assyrians by the Urarts from the Upper Euphrates valley. 780-760 BC NS. - campaigns of Urartu to Assyria.
735-714 BC NS. The reign of Tsar Rusa I ended with the final defeat of Urartu from Assyria in the struggle for political hegemony in Western Asia.
640 BC NS. King Sarduri III voluntarily declared himself subject to Assyria.
600 BC NS. The conquest of Urartu by the Medes.
Persia558-530 BC NS. The reign of Cyrus II the Great, the first king of the Achaemenid dynasty. He conquered Media, Lydia, Greek cities in Asia Minor, a significant part of Central Asia. He conquered Mesopotamia, including Babylonia, relegating it to the status of an ordinary province. The Achaemenid empire created by him for short term became the largest in the world.
530-522 BC NS. The reign of King Cambyses P. He conquered Egypt (525), was officially proclaimed pharaoh (founder of the XXVII dynasty).
522-486 BC NS. The reign of King Darius I. He suppressed the uprisings in Babylonia, Media, Elam, Egypt and Parthia. He conquered the northwestern part of India (518 BC). Failed in the Greco-Persian Wars. He carried out a number of military-political and socio-economic reforms. The heyday of the Persian Empire, its borders stretched from the Indus in the east to the Aegean in the west, from Armenia in the north to the first Nile threshold in the south.
486-465 BC NS. The reign of King Xerxes I. He continued his attempts to create a world Persian monarchy. Military failures in Greece led to his death at the hands of the conspirators.
465-424 BC NS. The reign of Tsar Artaxerxes I Dolgoruky. He concluded the Peace of Kallia with Athens (449 BC), which recorded the defeat of the Persians in the Greco-Persian wars.
424-404 BC NS. The reign of the Persian king Darius II. Further weakening of the state, strengthening of the influence of the court nobility, palace intrigues and conspiracies, uprisings of the conquered peoples.
404-358 BC NS. The reign of King Artaxerxes II Mnemon. Further weakening of the power: Egypt, Cyprus, and the region of Asia Minor separated from Persia.
358-338 BC NS. The reign of King Artaxerxes III Och. He sought to strengthen the state, weakened under his predecessors. He suppressed an uprising (345 BC) in the city of Sidon (modern Saida, Lebanon), whose inhabitants were killed or enslaved. He fell victim to palace intrigues.
336-330 BC NS. The reign of Darius III, the last king of the Achaemenid dynasty. After being defeated at the Battle of Gaugamela with the troops of Alexander the Great, he fled to Bactrir, where he was killed by a local satrap.
330 BC NS. The conquest of Persia by Alexander the Great.
264-651 n. NS. Sassanid state. Governing body Iranian shahs from the Sassanid dynasty. Founder - Shah Ardashir I.
531-579 The reign of King Khosrov I Anushirvan from the Sassanid dynasty. He concluded a peace beneficial for Persia with Byzantium (533-540), expanded the territory of his state. His fame is associated with administrative reforms (including military), land reclamation work, a fair tax system, a policy of tolerance towards foreigners and Christians, and the promotion of education. Mid-7th century The conquest of Persia by the Arabs.
ParthiaParthia is an ancient kingdom southeast of the Caspian Sea, inhabited by nomadic Iranian tribes. Rival of Rome in the East.
250 BC NS. The arrival of the Parna tribe (Parthians) to the province of the Seleucid state (centered in Syria) - Parthia. The leader is King Arshak I, the founder of the only dynasty of Parthia - the Arshakids.
171-138 BC NS. King Mithridates I creates the Parthian Empire. First, he annexes Media to Parthia, and then extends his power to Mesopotamia, where in 141 BC. NS. recognized by the Babylonian king.
127-87 BC NS. The reign of King Mithridates II the Great. Expansion of the territory of the Parthian kingdom from Mesopotamia to the Indus River, the conclusion of an agreement with Rome, the annexation of Armenia.
36 BC NS. Unsuccessful campaign of Mark Antony, husband of the Egyptian queen Cleopatra VII, against the Parthians.
51-77 n. NS. The reign of the king Vologes I. In 62 he founded the dynasty of the Armenian kings Arshakids, planting his brother Trdat on the throne of Armenia. The Arshakids ruled in Armenia until 428.
224 Death of the last Parthian king Artaban V during an attempt to suppress the uprising in the Iranian regions of the state. The entry of the territory of Parthia into Persia (the state of the Sassanids).
Elam. MusselXIII-XII centuries Heyday of power ancient state Elam in the southwestern part of the Iranian Highlands. The capital is the city of Susa (modern Shush). Elam's rule extended from the Persian Gulf in the south to the Media region in the north.
1155 BC NS. The Elamite king Kutir-Nahhunte II conquered Babylonia (the rule of the Elamites ended 40 years later).
672 BC NS. The emergence of the independent state of Media in the northwestern part of the Iranian Highlands with its capital in the city of Ektabana (modern Hama-dan) after the expulsion of the Assyrians.
625-584 BC NS. The reign of the Medes king Kiaxar. In an alliance with Babylonia, he destroyed the Assyrian state (605 BC), annexed the territories of Mana (the territory of modern Azerbaijan), Urartu and the eastern part of Asia Minor to Media.
550-549 before and. NS. The conquest of Media by the Persians.
It just so happens, purely historically, that the continent is located on one common continent with such a part of the globe as Europe. Based on this, some of the territory of the countries located on the Eurasian continent, partly geographically belongs to Asia, and partly to the same Europe. In particular, states such as Kazakhstan, Turkey and Russia "suffer" from this kind of duality. So, if you are planning to travel to these countries, then you can get a unique opportunity to visit two parts of the world at once, Europe and Asia.
It should be noted that the states with the largest population on the planet today are located in Asia. Namely, these are India and China, on the territory of which more than one billion people live. And besides this, these same countries have the most ancient thousand-year-old culture. So, any trip to these Asian countries will provide you with the opportunity to see firsthand not only their modern achievements, but also their ancient culture.
Countries of Asia
When planning your trip to Asian countries, it is imperative to remember that many of them differ quite significantly in their national traditions and religious preferences from what we are used to in the European part of this continent. In particular, almost all Asian countries are mainly Muslim countries, which presupposes rather strict rules of behavior in society, and this is especially true for the female half of those traveling to these Asian countries.
Parts of the world of Asia
Today, after a series of parades of sovereignties, which took place mainly in the first half of the last century, the countries of Asia have forty-ten independent states that are located in this territory. However, this figure does not include five states mainly located in Western Asia, which today are not legally recognized by the world community. So that all these countries are located on one or another parts of the world of Asia have their own rather complicated history.
In particular, this applies to such states as the Republic of Abkhazia, the Republic of Nagorny - Karabakh and South Ossetia, which were formed as a result of the annexation of certain territories by other independent countries, such as Georgia and Azerbaijan. In addition, two more unrecognized states are located in Central Asia... In particular, this is the Republic of Cyprus, which, as a result civil war was divided into two territorial entities with relatively independent jurisdiction and a territory that is part of the sovereign territory of Turkey.
And almost a similar situation in East Asia, where for more than seventy years there has been such a state as the Republic of China, which is more often called Taiwan. And although, over the past seventy years, the dispute over the ownership of this island nation China has not found a legal solution, the Republic of China as an independent state.
It should be noted that, despite the fact that Central Asia in this regard looks more or less favorable, but in this part of the Eurasian continent there are latent territorial disputes and claims that do not have such a pronounced confrontation of certain states ...
Asia map
According to the existing statistics of travel agencies and operators of this market, almost two-thirds of travelers in Asia prefer to make their voyages to those countries that have a developed tourist infrastructure. At the very least, in addition to comfortable hotels and well-developed transport services, this implies the presence of a fairly wide range of entertainment and attractions. However, small travelers have slightly different preferences, namely travel along extreme routes that run not only in the mountains of this part of the Eurasian continent, but also in such parts as the Gobi Desert. And here without detailed Asia maps it is simply indispensable, even if you have the most modern navigator.
Asia tour
A significant difference between modern travelers to Asia is the fact that in the middle of the same last century, getting to almost any point in this part of the Eurasian continent was quite problematic, because in those years, the same civil aviation and railway transport were not so developed. But today any Asia tour is publicly available and depends solely on your desire and financial capabilities.
History of Asia
Based on existing historical documents confirmed by archaeological finds history of Asia, has for all modern mankind, rather exceptional value, because according to one of the scientific versions, the spread of primitive man throughout the planet began precisely from the Asian part of our Planet. And although this is a somewhat controversial theory, in any case, taking a trip to such historical places in China or India will give any history lover the most unforgettable experience.
Asia News
And if you really plan on your next tariff vacation, take a trip to the countries of Asia, then it will not be superfluous to inquire about the latest events in this part of the Eurasian continent and in this regard, the last Asia news... Which today, you can glean not only from print publications, but also from the Internet. That, in turn, will at least give you the opportunity not to get into an unfavorable situation for a carefree pastime, at least in terms of the weather.
Asia.
The total area of Asia is 43 million km 2, the area of Foreign Asia is about 27 million km 2. In latitude, Asia stretches for 93 0, in longitude, Foreign Asia extends from 53 0 N. up to 12 0 S The remoteness of some territories from the ocean is 1000-1500 km, which determines a clear manifestation of the sector. The variety of natural conditions is enhanced by the sharp contrasts of the relief. Asia is the highest part of the world (average elevation 950 m). More than 3 \ 4 of its surface is occupied by mountains, highlands, and plateaus. Within Asia, there is the highest peak, Everest (Jamalungma, Sagarmatha) and the deepest depression on land - the Dead Sea (El Ghor) -395 m.The massiveness, size and height of the inland uplands are an important factor contributing to the cooling of Asia in winter and continentality. Therefore, another distinctive feature of the nature of Asia is the unusually wide development of the continental sector. Asia is characterized by a fairly strong dismemberment. For islands and peninsulas it is approximately 25%. Asia is one of the main centers of the origin of mankind, the cradle of world culture, the arena for the formation of a number of the largest centers of autochthonous agriculture.
The history of the formation of Asia.
Asia is characterized by the greatest complexity and heterogeneity of the geo-structural plan. There are several platforms at the base of Asia: Siberian (Russian territory), Arabian, Hindustan and Chinese. They have a Precambrian folded basement, composed of igneous and metamorphic rocks, whose age is more than 2.6 billion years.
Unlike the European and North American Asian platforms, they are mobile (paraplatforms). They are characterized by active movements along deep faults, a higher hypsometric level, the predominance of processes of erosion and accumulation of continental deposits. The Chinese platform was distinguished by the greatest mobility throughout its development. In the Precambrian, the Chinese platform extended from the Pamirs to the Japanese Islands in the east and the Indochina Peninsula in the south. Then the single Chinese platform split into 2 parts - north and south. The northern part (or the Sinai shield), was distinguished by a tendency of predominant uplift and was land most of the geological time. In the southern part (the South China Plate), subsidence prevailed and significant areas were covered by sea waters. The northern part of the Chinese platform entered the phase of continental development at the end of the Permian, and the south at the end of the Triassic. An important role in the formation of the structural plan of the Chinese Platform was played by the intense folded dislocations of the MZ, which led to the emergence of specific linear epiplatform fold-block structures (Yanshanids), separated by relatively stable massifs, such as: Shandong-Korean, Ordos, Tarim.
In the troughs, where the folded basement is covered by a sedimentary cover, there are plains (Great China, Sun-Liao). Yantanids are distributed mainly in the southern part of the Chinese Platform (Qinlin Ridge and are located south of its territory). The South China plate is represented by separate massifs: Sinobirtan, East Chinese and Indo-Sinian.
In the Precambrian, the Chinese platform was framed by geosynclinal basins: Ural-Pien Shan (in the north), Pacific (in the east), Mediterranean (in the south).
The first mountain-building movements took place in the Ural-Pien Shan basin. At the end of the Permian and the beginning of the Cambrian, the Baikal folding is noted here; manifested mainly in the northern part of Mongolia, adjacent to Lake Baikal. In the Lower Paleozoic, Caledonian structures (undifferentiated strata of the mountains of Northern Mongolia) join the Baikalides. At the same time, in the Mediterranean geosyncline, separate massifs were formed, which then represented the islands: Asia Minor, Armenian, Iranian.
In the Upper Paleozoic, the Hercynian folding begins. At this time, the Ural-Tien Shan geosyncline is closed. Mountains are being formed: Tien Shan, Altai, Khentei, Khangai, Big and Small Khingan, Kun-Lun, Nanshan. Areas of massifs in the Mediterranean basin are increasing. As a result of the Hercynian orogeny, the Chinese platform merged with the Siberian and European ones: Laurasia was formed.
By the Mesozoic, the Chinese platform turned into a whole series of depressions and uplifts, alternating with each other. In the depressions, thick sedimentary strata were accumulating. In the late Jurassic-early Cretaceous, mountain-building processes occur in the body of the Chinese platform, which formed mountain systems (Yanshan folding). Its structures include: Liaoxin, Yinshan, Taihanshan, Wutaishan, Uyshan, Qinlin, Nanlin. Due to the fact that parts of the platform were involved in the mountain building process, the Yanshanids are either one-sided horsts, or arched uplifts, or monoclinal structures. The Yangshan folding did not give an increase in land mass, because took place in the body of the Chinese platform. Cretaceous tectonic movements were accompanied by violent tectonic activity. In a vast area from the Great Khingan in the north to the southern part of Eastern China, huge flows of lavas of various compositions poured out. In the Alpine-Himalayan and Pacific geosynclines, the Yanshan folding was the beginning of the Alpine orogeny. Alpine folding in Asia went in 2 branches, framing from the north and South Paleozoic massifs of Asia Minor. The first branch is the continuation of the Alpids Western Europe and is represented by the Pontine Mountains.
The second branch (continuation of Dinarids) is the Taurus Mountains. Both branches merged into the Armenian Highlands, forming the first corner of the gathering of the Alpine folds. As a result, the Paleozoic Armenian Highland was broken up by a system of faults, along which lava was poured out. At present, it is the largest volcanic plateau in the world, where there are systems of extinct and active volcanoes: Big Ararat, Small Ararat, Aragats, Sahen, Alagez, etc.
From the Armenian Highlands, the Alpine folds again follow in 2 branches, framing the Iranian Highlands. Northern arc: Elburz, Turkmen-Kharasan, Parapamiz, Hindu Kush. Southern arc: Zagros, Mekran, Suleimanovs. Both arcs joined in the Pamirs, forming the 2nd knot of the Alpine folds clustering.
From the Pamirs, the Alpine structures go to the east, forming two arcs, passing along the northern and southern outskirts of the Himalayas and joining in the Sino-Tibetan mountains - the third cluster of alpine folds.
From the Sino-Tibetan knot, the Alpine folds turn south at an angle of 90 0, framing the structures of the Chinese platform from the west, forming: Padkai, Arakan, Pegu-Yoma, Andamandsike and Nicobar Islands, mountains of the islands of Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi. As a result of alpine folding, a powerful piece of land joins the mainland. At the same time, two fragments of Gondwana join in the southwestern and southern parts of the mainland: the Arabian and Hindustan peninsulas. At the point of joining, foothill troughs are formed: the Mesopotamian, Indo-Gangetic lowlands, the Ayeyarwaddy river valley.
Alpine folding has affected the adjacent areas of Central Asia. Already existing mountain systems were again crumpled into folds and thrown up to a great height (up to 7,500 m). These mountain building processes have no equal in the world. Were raised: Kunlun, Altintag, Khangai, Nanshan, Alashan, Tien Shan, Mongolian Altai, Hentei. Thanks to these processes, Central Asia has become a separate sub-continent, representing vast territories devoid of external runoff and characterized by a sharply continental arid type of climate.
At this time, the largest tectonic changes are taking place in the east of the mainland. The Chinese plate splits and its eastern periphery sinks below sea level. The outer seas are formed, framed by arcs of volcanic islands.
Thus, the eastern sector of the mainland is losing land areas. A specific coastal border is being formed, which still exists.
At the end of the Neogene, the outlines of the continent and its main orographic elements acquire modern contours. From the point of view of the theory of plate tectonics, neotectonic processes in Eurasia develop in the following directions: The Eurasian plate comes into contact with three lithospheric plates: African, Indian and Pacific. The most difficult situation is observed in the subduction zone between the Eurasian and African plates. Here at the forefront there are small lithospheric plates contacting each other and complicating the tectonic situation in the region. The Asia Minor, Iranian, Arabian plates, as a result of interaction, contribute to the squeezing out of the "young mountain chains". These processes are accompanied by seismism and volcanism. In general, West and South-West Asia is currently a tectonically active region. There is also a spreading zone - the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden (as Arabia moves away from the African plate). In the south, the Eurasian plate interacts with the Indian plate. The latter "leaks" under the first. The place where the Indian plate is buried is the Indo-Gangetic lowland, and the meeting point of the two plates is the Himalayas.
In the east, the Eurasian plate meets the Pacific plate, flowing into the latter. The deep-sea trenches are the places where the Pacific Plate is buried; the meeting point of two plates of the arc of volcanic islands, where tectonic processes are still very active today. The situation here is complicated by the presence of a small oceanic Philippine plate, due to which the nature of the topography of the ocean floor is very diverse.
On the territory of Eurasia, there are areas where the oceanic crust is formed - the Baikal graben (Lake Baikal - northern Mongolia - Khubsugul). Tectonic processes are also active here.
The formation of alpine structures on the territory of Foreign Asia contributed to a change in climatic conditions. The northern part of the mainland as a result experienced glaciation. There was no cover glaciation in Overseas Asia. Until recently, it was believed that it was in Tibet. However, it is now argued that there were only local, local glaciers here. But large areas were occupied by mountain glaciation. The height of the snow border in the Pleistocene is 2.5 km higher than the present one. In the northern part of Overseas Asia, ground glaciation (permafrost) was widespread, which has survived to this day in spots in northern Mongolia and northeastern China. During the glaciation period, the modern desert regions of Asia (Central Asia, Arabia, Iranian Highlands) were characterized by a more humid and milder climate than now. These wet periods are called pluvial. At this time, the river network was laid, underground waters were laid, vegetation flourished. The retreat of the glaciers was accompanied by a drying out of the climate. At present, the former rivers have dried up, and dry river valleys - saury (Central Asia, wadi (Arabia)) are preserved in the relief.
The territory of Central Asia and South Siberia in the II and I millennium BC was inhabited by Neolithic and Eneolithic agricultural and cattle-breeding ethnic communities, largely Iranian-speaking. The southern part of this region gravitated towards the Middle Eastern civilization and was, in essence, its outskirts. As for more northern regions(especially the steppe zone), they have been well studied by domestic archaeologists who have discovered and investigated here a great many sites and burial grounds of various archaeological cultures of the Neolithic and Eneolithic.
Since ancient times, many ethnic communities moved along the steppe belt of Eurasia (in this way, in particular, during the late Paleolithic, America was inhabited through the Bering Isthmus, until it became a strait). In the Neolithic era, here, in the zone of risky agriculture or in conditions that did not contribute to agricultural pursuits in general, subneolithic groups, mainly engaged in cattle breeding, found their niche. Initially, these were hunters, fishermen and owners of domesticated cattle grazing in the steppe. Later, approximately at the turn of the 2nd-1st millennium BC, they were replaced by horse-riding nomads. It took a lot of effort to master riding, not to mention purely technical innovations (harness and saddle), as well as changes in clothing (without trousers made of strong material, best of all leather, you cannot go far on horseback).
Experts most often associate the spread of horse riding and the associated nomadic cattle breeding with the Iranian-speaking tribes, the number of which in the 1st millennium BC. in the Central Asian and South Siberian regions, as well as in the Iranian lands proper, has increased significantly. In the southern part of the region in the middle of this millennium, two Iranian-speaking tribal groups of nomads prevailed - saki and Massagets. It was in the struggle with the Massagetae that the Persian king of kings Cyrus II found his death from an accidental arrow. To the north of the Sakas and Massagets, nomadic tribes of Kazakhstan and Altai lived. The center of the distribution of the South Siberian bronze was the Minusinsk Basin, which was part of the zone of risky agriculture. Further to the east, nomads absolutely prevailed, and also, in the forest-steppe and forest zones, semi-primitive hunters and gatherers.
The conquests of Alexander the Great led to the inclusion of the southern part of Central Asia into his empire, and after Alexander's death - into the composition of the ruins of Bactria and Parthia that appeared on its ruins, which were already discussed. This naturally contributed to the development of the region, especially in the field of trade relations. The nomadic tribes of Central and Central Asia, including the Huns (Huns) and their neighbors, including the Yuezhi (Kushans) who migrated to the west, gradually joined the commercial and cultural achievements of the Hellenistic world in the western part of the region and China in its east. After the opening of the Great Silk Road, contacts between the two centers of civilization, the Middle East and the Far East, increased sharply, and the tribes of Central and Central Asia even more actively borrowed the achievements of world culture. Moreover, those of the tribes that lived along the trade route or not far from it, developed rapidly, and in some cases turned into city-states with clear elements of quite noticeable urbanism. This, in particular, applies to the territory of the future Chinese East Turkestan (Kashgaria), to Fergana Valley and Khorezm.
The first large state formation in Central Asia was Kushan kingdom, which included at the turn of our era, in addition to northern India, Afghanistan and a large part of Central Asian lands. Cities with their crafts and trade developed here, much attention was paid to irrigation works, which contributed to the fertility of arid arable lands. Art flourished, especially associated with sculptures and reliefs on Buddhist themes (Gandhara style). As for the Aral Khorezm, which was a separate satrapy in the time of the Achaemenids, it was also initially included in the Kushan kingdom, but after the collapse of this kingdom it continued to develop independently. However, a notable state formation in the 1st millennium BC. he hasn't been there yet.
Among the large states of Central Asia, a somewhat later period should be attributed Turkic kaganate. Its emergence is closely related to the problem of the emergence of an ethnic community. Turk, which subsequently grew so much. There are many legends and legends about this. But the truth ultimately boils down to the fact that in the middle of the 1st millennium, on the basis of mixing a series ethnic groups and tribal proto-state formations (Iranians, Tochars, Avars, Huns-Ashina, Oguz-Tele, etc.) in the region of Dzungaria and northwestern Mongolia, a new ethnic community of Turks emerged, which quickly tribalized and created its own state. In 551, the leader of the Turks took the title kagan and began to vigorously expand their possessions. His successors continued this policy, so that by the end of the 6th century. The Turkic Khaganate turned into one of the strongest states in the region, with the power of which the Chinese empire had to reckon at the time of its highest prosperity (the Sui and Tang dynasties).
At the turn of the VI-VII centuries. the Khaganate split into Eastern and Western, and both of them eventually turned out to be dependent on China and only at the turn of the 7th-8th centuries. freed from this addiction. The so-called Second Turkic Kaganate, inwardly stronger than before. This was facilitated by useful borrowings from China, especially in the administration. But in the middle of the VIII century. this kaganate ended its existence after being conquered Uyghurs, also a Turkic-speaking people. Uyghur Kaganate lasted until the 9th century, after which most of the Uyghurs moved to East Turkestan, where a considerable number of them still live today.
The fragility of the first Turkic states (it should be borne in mind that a large part of their population was nomads or semi-nomads) should be considered a natural phenomenon. The Turks did not seek to gain a foothold in any one territory. On the contrary, continuing to lead a semi-nomadic lifestyle, they slowly but very successfully migrated mainly towards more fertile western territories, gradually incorporating and assimilating neighboring agricultural peoples. Already in the middle of the VI century. the Turks reached the Volga and Ural regions, waged wars with Sassanian Iran. Gradually, they were quite firmly entrenched in the western part of Central Asia and even in the eastern part of Europe. In the east, on their ancestral home, in Central Asia, there are relatively few Turks left.
At that time, ancient Iranian-speaking ethnic communities and state formations still prevailed in the southern territory of Central Asia. Many of them became part of the Arab Caliphate or were Islamized, remaining independent. At the end of the IX century. actually separated from the disintegrating caliphate emirate of the Samanids with the capital in Bukhara became the center of attraction for the southern part of Central Asia. It included Maverannahr (areas between the Syr Darya and Amu Darya with the cities of Samarkand, Bukhara, Khujand), Khorezm and some other territories, including the Iranian Khorasan. In addition to official Arabic, the Dari and Farsi languages, to a much lesser extent Turkic, began to prevail in everyday life. Bukhara and especially Khorezm were famous for their active trade relations with different countries including India, China and even Kievan Rus.
The end of the Samanids at the beginning of the XI century. was associated with the onslaught of the Islamized Turks, first immigrants from Kashgaria (the state of the Karakhanids), and then the aforementioned nomads of the Oguz-Seljuk, who gradually moved west and southwest, until they captured the center of the caliphate, Baghdad, and began to successfully press against Byzantium ... At that time, conditions were created in the Aral Sea region for the rise of an independent Khorezm led by the shahs. This state was strong for two centuries. It made the nomads of the Caspian and Aral Sea regions dependent on itself and conducted an active trade. Its capital, Urgench, was a major trade and cultural center, where Ibn Sina and Al Biruni lived and worked. Khorezm has become a natural intermediary between the rich Middle Eastern lands and the nomadic world of the northern territories. Its internal structure and system of administration were typical of the developed states of Islam. Successful foreign policy allowed Khorezm in the XI century. free from temporary vassal dependence on the Seljuks. Moreover, it led to the fact that at the beginning of the XIII century. Bukhara, Samarkand and Herat were ruled by the Khorezm shahs. The country was at the zenith of its power. And it was at this time on its borders, as mentioned, that the first emissaries of the warlike Mongols appeared. Genghis Khan.
Whirlwind passing at the beginning of the XIII century. through the Mongolian steppes and northern Chinese lands, on which at that time the states of the Jurchens (Jin) and Tangut (Xi Xia) were located, Genghis Khan approached the Central Asian lands. Shah Muhammad sent him a message with a proposal to conduct trade and divide the spheres of political influence (the ruler of the East and the ruler of the West). In response, envoys of Genghis Khan were sent to Bukhara, who offered to conclude a peace treaty and consider Muhammad one of his sons. A Mongol caravan with goods arrived after. Offended by the proposal of Genghis Khan, the shah ordered the destruction of the Mongols who had arrived with the caravan. Then the Mongols opposed Khorezm and in a short time turned into ruins its flourishing cities, including Bukhara, Samarkand, Herat and Urgench. Muhammad's son Jalal-ad-din tried to organize resistance, but after a few years he was defeated and died. Central Asia was ruled for a long time Mongol khans dynasty of Genghisids(mainly within the Chagatai ulus).
At the beginning of the XIV century. center Chagataid states became a fertile region of Maverannahr. The Mongols converted to Islam and even did a lot to restore the ruined city life with its crafts and trade. In the middle of the same century, the ulus split into two khanates: Maverannahr and Mogolistan . Soon, the son of one of the beks of the Turkic Mongol tribe advanced in Mogolistan Timur. Having put together a fighting squad, he arrived in Maverannahr and captured Samarkand, made it the capital of his possession. The semi-nomadic freemen, who formed the basis of Timur's army, demanded military campaigns and rich trophies, and in 1381, opposing Khorasan, Timur began his conquests.
Cruel and insidious, leaving behind destruction and death, ruthlessly cracking down on many tens of thousands of captives and the civilian population of captured areas, especially cities, lame Timur (Timur-leng, or Tamerlane) in a relatively short time conquered the whole of Central Asia and a number of adjacent to it regions. Successful campaigns in Iran, the Golden Horde, India, the defeat of the troops of the Turkish Sultan Bayazid allowed Timur to become the ruler of a huge empire. The conquered countries and peoples were subjected to ruthless plunder, paid unbearable tribute, weakened and ruined. The best artisans from all over the world were taken to Timur's beloved Samarkand, which, through their efforts, was quickly and richly rebuilt. They sent their embassies to Timur as Byzantium, which saw in him a possible counterbalance Ottoman Empire and Minsk China. The emperor of the Ming dynasty arrogantly demanded recognition of his priority, which angered Timur, who began his campaign in China.
It is not known how it would have ended if, in the midst of the movement towards China, Timur had not died. The bloody internecine struggle for power of the Timurids and other contenders for it after the death of Tamerlane led to the collapse of his empire, literally torn to pieces. Samarkand went to the son of Timur Shakhrukh, who made the ruler of the city his son, the grandson of Timur, the famous Ulugbek, famous, unlike his grandfather, not by wars and the destruction of people, but by his interest in science. Ulugbek was a mathematician and astronomer. It was he who built an observatory in Samarkand and compiled astronomical tables.
After the assassination of Ulugbek by the conspirators, the influence of Samarkand began to diminish, and the Persian Tajik Khorasan came to the fore in the Central Asian region for some time, where (in Herat) in the second half of the 15th century. the famous poet and thinker Navoi lived and worked. At the turn of the XV-XVI centuries. The Turkic-Mongolian nomadic tribes of Desht-i-Kipchak (Polovtsy, Uzbeks), who lived on the territory of Kazakhstan and the southern Russian steppes, invaded the possessions of the Timurids. Their leader Sheibani Khan by 1507 conquered almost all of Central Asia, but not for long. In 1510 he was killed in a decisive battle with the Safavid khan Ismail. The Sheibani state disintegrated, and it was at this time that a native of Fergana, and then the ruler of Kabul, Timurid Babur managed to capture Samarkand, strengthened and begin his successful campaign against India.
By 1513, the Uzbeks securely entrenched themselves in the territory of Maverannahr and settled here, gradually turning into farmers. The 16th century was the heyday of the Uzbek state of the descendants of Sheibani, who took care of irrigation, strengthened economic ties and developed trade. Under them, cities flourished again, starting with Bukhara and Samarkand. The 16th – 17th centuries passed under the sign of a new political redistribution in the region. As independent state entities, Bukhara and Khiva Khanate. A little later, at the beginning of the 18th century, on the territory of Maverannahr, Kokand Khanate, under whose authority the region of Tashkent soon fell. Wars between Bukhara and Kokand in the 18th and especially in the 19th century. contributed to the strengthening of the influence of Russia here, which has long sought to strengthen its ties, primarily trade, with the rich lands of Central Asia.
The Bukhara Khanate covered most of modern Tajikistan. In the XVIII century. Bukhara was conquered for a short time by the Iranian Nadir Shah. Agriculture and trade in the khanate flourished, despite the wars with Kokand. Iranian-speaking Tajiks here quite peacefully coexisted with Turkic-speaking Uzbeks. The Khiva Khanate was dominated by the Turkmens, akin to the Seljuks-Oguz. Part of the Turkmens was under the rule of Bukhara. In the XVII century. Turkmen and Uzbeks were at enmity in the struggle for power in Khorezm. The proximity to Russia contributed to the strengthening of ties with it (trade went mainly through Astrakhan). The Turkmen lands and the Khiva Khanate were in the XVIII and early XIX in. at the center of Russia's geopolitical interests in Central Asia. Various missions and expeditions were sent here. Help was provided in case of need. Certain groups of Turkmens were given permission to resettle in the southern Russian lands.
The Turkic-Mongol tribes of Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan consolidated around the 15th century. mainly in Mogolistan. The Kyrgyz as a nationality were formed in the Tien Shan. In the fight against the Dzungarian oirats(Kalmyks) they are in the XVI century. for the most part, they migrated to the Pamir-Alai region and later ended up in Kokand. More numerous Kazakhs, after the Uzbeks of Sheibani Khan left for agricultural areas, settled the territory of modern Kazakhstan, creating here Kazakh Khanate, consisted of three zhuzes- Senior (near Semirechye), Middle (Syrdarya, Ishim and Tobol valleys) and Younger, in the western part of the khanate. In the XVII century. on the basis of these zhuzes, independent khanates arose, each of which led its own policy, gravitating, depending on geopolitical interests, to Qing China or to Russia. Already at the beginning of the 18th century. the khans of the Younger Zhuz were ready to accept Russian citizenship. A little later this example was followed by the Middle Zhuz. Senior zhuz in the middle of the 18th century. was divided between Dzungaria, soon conquered by Qing China, and Kokand. In the first half of the 19th century. many Kazakhs of the Senior Zhuz preferred to migrate from Kokand and Qing China under the patronage of Russia, which by that time had built many of its fortresses on the lands of Kazakhstan, including the city of Verny (Alma-Ata). In conclusion, we note that part of the Dzungarian Kalmyks under the pressure of the Mongols, Qing China and Kazakh zhuzes in the 17th century. migrated to the lower Volga region, where they created Kalmyk Khanate, in the same century, which became part of Russia.
- Mogolistan, or Moghulistan, (XIV-XV centuries) - the territory of East Turkestan and Semirechye with a predominantly nomadic population. It was ruled by representatives of the noble Turkic-Mongolian families. Mogul- the term that the Mongols were called in Iran.
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