Income inequality: causes and consequences. Income inequality in a market economy Gender pay gap in European enterprises
The British government intends to eradicate discrimination against women in matters of pay. In Russia, such inequality also exists, and they have been doing this for a long time. Now, according to experts, several fundamental bills need to be adopted in Russia.
So, the UK government has obliged companies with more than 250 employees to provide data by April next year to study gender discrimination in pay.
"The gender pay gap will not disappear on its own, we need to take consistent action. We must see a qualitative change in the number of companies publishing data on the gender gap and offering development and flexibility to all workers," said the Prime Minister of this country. Theresa May. “As for Russia, the problem can be solved if the country has a law on equal pay for work of equal value. There is a corresponding convention of the International Labor Organization, which we have not yet ratified,” says Elena Mezentseva, Candidate of Economic Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of Sociology at the National Research University Higher School of Economics . But before we get to ratification, we need to do some preliminary work, she continues.
Women often underestimate themselves and ask for lower salaries than men when applying for jobs.
First we need to pass a law on equal rights and opportunities. This is a legislative framework that, in principle, proclaims equal rights and opportunities for men and women. This law has been adopted in almost all CIS countries.
“Another law that we are sorely lacking is on domestic violence, which has also been adopted in many CIS countries. It should define domestic violence and spell out sanctions for those guilty of it,” the expert continues. And then it will be possible to take steps to equalize the salaries of men and women.
Why do genders earn differently? There are several factors. The first is that men are more often employed in hard and dangerous work, for which they pay more. They can work longer hours, get sick less often, and hardly go on maternity leave.
The second is discrimination. According to various studies, the contribution of discrimination to the wage gap is 12-18 percent, says Mezentseva. Self-discrimination also adds fuel to the fire - a woman who comes to get a job most often asks for a lower salary than any man would ask for. However, this psychological feature is inherent not only to Russian women, but also to women in developed countries, such as the USA or Germany.
The gap between the salaries of men and women in Soviet times was 70 percent. Now this difference is an order of magnitude lower
Thus, according to an expert at the Federal Institute of Secondary Education in Germany, Michael Thiemann, young girls, for various reasons, choose professions where the pay is, in principle, less than in those professions chosen by men. “And the second component: they underestimate themselves a little when negotiating salaries,” he said.
Income inequality is determined by the uneven distribution of material wealth. In a market economy, it occurs in the markets of various production factors: capital, natural resources, labor. Depending on the degree of possession of these, a redistribution of benefits occurs, as a result of which income inequality arises. Among the main reasons for this phenomenon are the following:
Income inequality. Lorenz curve
Economists use the Otto Lorenz curve to graphically depict the degree of inequality in a society. It is an image of the distribution function
income, in which all numerical shares are accumulated and that is, it displays the income of a specific category of the population relative to its size.
Income inequality and its consequences
The consequences of this phenomenon include economic and social. The first, for example, includes the growing stratification of categories of the population: that is, a small number of the population concentrates in their hands an increasing amount of resources, taking them away from the poor. The consequence of this is discontent in society, social tension, unrest, and so on.
On March 29, a seminar was held in Tashkent on the topic “Wages in the world in 2016-2017”, based onGlobalWage Report. The event was organized by the International Labor Organization (ILO) and the Ministry of Labor of the Republic of Uzbekistan (Ministry of Labor).
Representatives of the Council of the Federation of Trade Unions, the Chamber of Commerce and Industry, the Central Bank, consultants and experts in the field of remuneration and labor standards were invited to the seminar.
The opening speech was taken by the chief technical adviser of the project “Support for the implementation of the Decent Work Program in the Republic of Uzbekistan” Anton Hausen. Mr. Housen introduced the participants to the seminar program and the main ILO Conventions governing wage issues.
Then, Mr. Nicolas Studer, a specialist on wage issues at the ILO Regional Office for Europe and Central Asia, made a presentation on issues of wage inequality in enterprises.
During the presentation, emphasis was placed on:
- level of wage inequality;
- inequality in salary among and within enterprises;
- gender pay gap.
Two main factors were noted to explain the dangers of pay inequality:
1) Negative impact on economic growth. A stratification of society occurs when it is almost impossible to move from one social layer to another. As a result, consumer demand decreases, and the purchasing power of the bulk of the population stagnates or declines.
2) In practice, it is generally accepted that inequality occurs due to differences in the characteristics of workers, the influence of technology and globalization on changes in the demand for skilled and unskilled workers. However, as will be demonstrated below, this is not always the case. This allows us to conclude that inequality arises not only due to natural processes, but can be created artificially by business owners and top management.
The study was carried out mainly in European countries. Data is as of 2010.
Thus, in terms of total monthly wages, the increase in salary within the enterprise, depending on the category of employees, it happens mostly smoothly, however, at the highest, top level, there is a sharp jump. As a result, the highest category personnel (managerial personnel) receive 7.4 times more than the average category of employees. This can be seen in the diagram below. The figures are presented in thousands of euros.
In some countries this gap is lower (Finland - 4.4 times), and in others it is much higher. Thus, in the UK the difference between the earnings of middle-level and senior staff is 13.3 times.
At the same time, the distribution of the wage budget among the enterprise’s employees is also of interest. Thus, the lowest paid categories of employees (about 50% of the enterprise’s staff) receive 29.1% of the enterprise’s budget per salary, and the highest paid, who number only 10% of the total number of employees, receive 25.5%.
As part of the study, a salary forecasting model was built taking into account the qualifications and other characteristics of workers, including age, education and length of service. As the result showed, these factors are important, but the difference between the actual size of the employee’s salary and that predicted from the model is huge. This is especially evident for the highest paid workers (where actual wages are higher than predicted) as well as for the lowest paid workers (where wages are lower than predicted).
Thus, we can conclude that the growth of inequality within enterprises is often determined by an increase in wages for highly qualified specialists, on the one hand, and a reduction in allowances for low-skilled personnel in large enterprises, on the other.
In terms of economic sectors, the highest level of wages is in the financial sector and real estate, and the lowest in the construction and utilities sector. The transport and communications industry received the “golden” mean. These percentage differences are clearly demonstrated in the following chart:
It follows that differences in average wages among enterprises can be explained by differences in productivity among enterprises, or by the polarization of enterprises by their focus.
Also, the issue of gender equality among employees leaves much to be desired. For example, among the highest paid category of personnel, women make up only 21%, and even if a woman managed to get into this elite part, she will receive half as much as a man. This comes as the gender pay gap reaches 45% overall and more than 50% among the top 1% of executives.
Based on the sensitivity of this issue, the next Global Wage Report will be devoted specifically to this topic.
Remaining part The report was devoted to statistics and dynamics of real wage growth. Thus, the specialist provided figures for the average annual growth rate of real wages in the period from 2006 to 2015. Due to the impact of the global economic crisis of 2009, until 2012 there was an inert growth in real wages. Since 2012, there has been a decline in growth rates from 2.5 to 1.7%.
However, these indicators are given taking into account the growth of labor productivity and wages in developing countries, in particular in the People's Republic of China (PRC). Thus, during this period there was an active growth in real wages in China, which could not but affect global indices. If we look at the figures excluding China, we see a drop in growth rates from 1.6 to 0.9%.
Statistics for G20 countries show similar data. Over the same period (2012-2015), these countries experienced a decline in real wage growth from 2.7 to 2.0%.
Moreover, if we take into account the dynamics in developed countries that are members of the G20, then we can note an increase in rates from 0.2% in 2012 to 1.7% in 2015.
While in the G20 countries with transition economies there was a decrease from 6.6 to 2.5%.
Thus, we can conclude that the dynamics of the decline in the growth rate of real wages. in G20 countries is associated with the dissonance between the increase in developed countries and the decrease in countries with economies in transition (developing countries).
Data were also provided for the countries of Central Asia and the Russian Federation:
The specialist noted that, unfortunately, it was not possible to obtain data on real wages in the context of Uzbekistan for the period from 2005-2015.
From the editor: Online State Committee on Statistics, you can get acquainted with the dynamics of growth of averagenominalaccruedwages in Uzbekistan by downloading the report for the period of interest. According to data for the period 2012-2015. nominal wages grew by an average of 14% annually.
Figures were also provided for differences within the group of developed countries and separately between developing countries for the period from 2006 to 2015. Thus, the growth leaders according to the real wage index. in the group of developed countries - South Korea, Australia, Canada. Germany and France are also doing well. The USA, Japan and Italy are “catching up”, and the worst situation is in the UK.
Among developing countries in the above period, the greatest growth was demonstrated by China, India and Türkiye. Indonesia demonstrated good dynamics. South Africa, Brazil, the Russian Federation, and Saudi Arabia are in stagnation or at the stage of gradual decline. The situation is most dire in Mexico.
In addition, the tendency for labor productivity growth in isolation from wage growth has clearly emerged.
From the above it follows that wage growth in many cases was lower than potential.
Mr. Nicolas Studer, based on existing experience, in order to reduce excessive inequality in wages, proposed to develop and implement for each country sustainable wage policy. It should be adopted on the basis of a tripartite dialogue between the Government (Ministry of Labor), representatives of employers (CCI) and workers (Council of the Federation of Trade Unions). Within the framework of this policy, it is advisable to address the following issues:
- increased labor productivity in viable enterprises;
- minimum wage and collective bargaining;
- executive compensation: self-regulation or increased regulation;
- eliminating the gender gap and other differentiation based on discriminatory grounds in wages.
From the editor: In our opinion, in Uzbekistan, in addition to the understandable economic factors for increasing the level of wages, it is necessary to bring into uniform the terminology used in existing legal regulations: subsistence minimum, minimum wage, first category of the unified wage scale, minimum wage.
It also seems advisable to prepare and implement transparent methods and principles for establishing minimum wages, pensions, benefits and scholarships.
In addition, legislators need to pay attention to the level and complexity of personal income tax and other mandatory payments related to the remuneration and work activities of employees in general. Otherwise, the complex mechanism and size of these payments can stimulate informal employment, which will ultimately affect the state budget, guarantees for workers and employers, and the level of real wages.
Also, in order to improve the personnel assessment procedure, it is necessary to develop regulations on certification based on uniform standards. This provision may be mandatory for budgetary organizations and recommendatory for private ones. In general, the practice of adopting acts of a recommendatory nature can be a good help for all interested parties.
Alexey Niyazmetov,
our expert.
income inequality
One of the sources of social tension in any country is the difference in the levels of well-being of citizens and the level of their wealth. The level of wealth is determined by two factors: the amount of property of all types owned by individual citizens and the amount of current income of citizens.
People receive income as a result of creating their own business (becoming entrepreneurs) or providing their own factors of production (their labor, capital or land) for the use of other people or firms, and they use this property to produce necessary goods. This mechanism of income generation initially contains the possibility of income inequality.
The reason for this:
- 1) different values of factors of production belonging to people;
- 2) different success in using factors;
- 3) different amounts of factors of production owned by people.
All people are born different and endowed with different abilities, some of which are rarer than others. Therefore, in the national labor market, the demand for such abilities far exceeds the supply. And this leads to an increase in the price of the labor abilities of such people, that is, their income.
No economic system has succeeded in eliminating inequalities in income and family wealth. Even under the conditions of the command system of the USSR, the state was forced to abandon the principles of complete equalization and move to generating income according to the principle: “From each according to his abilities, to each according to his needs.” But since people have different abilities, their work has different values and this entails unequal rewards for work, that is, differences in income.
Of course, in the USSR, for the vast majority of the population, differences in income levels were much smaller than now in the Russian Federation, but, nevertheless, they existed. Income and wealth inequality can reach enormous proportions and then pose a threat to the political and economic stability of the country. Therefore, almost all developed countries of the world are constantly implementing measures to reduce such inequality.
But first, let’s try to understand why absolute income equality is undesirable. The fact is that the egalitarian organization of economic life kills people's incentives for productive work. The result of this will be a reduction in the country's economic progress and a slowdown in the growth of the well-being of all its citizens. Because of this, a certain income inequality should be considered normal. Moreover, it is an extremely important tool for encouraging people to work.
During the 90s, significant changes in incomes occurred in Russia. The diversity of incomes has increased, their structure has become more complex, and differentiation has clearly increased. Population groups with significant incomes, as a rule, direct their income to savings, purchase of real estate and foreign currency.
The standard of living as a calculation and statistical category is determined primarily through the ratio of the level of income and the cost of living, which can be simplified by the value of the subsistence minimum.
Based on this, society, according to the level of material wealth, is divided into the following social strata:
- 1) poor - income (disposable resources) below the subsistence level (LS).
- 2) low-income - incomes above the subsistence level, but below the minimum consumer budget (2CP).
- 3) middle-income - incomes above the subsistence level, but below the high-income budget (7PM).
- 4) high-income (wealthy) - incomes above the high-income budget (7RM).
The cost of living is expressed by the value of the consumer basket. The cost of living per capita in the fourth quarter of 2004. amounted to 2451 rubles.
Let us present the following diagram showing what part of the total population constitutes one or another social group.
Diagram 1 - Structure of social strata of the Russian population (11, p. 59)
As we see, the bulk of the Russian population consists of low-income groups, so solving the problem of income inequality largely comes down to reducing the number of poor people.
It is also worth noting that different regions differ in the level of well-being of the population. Let's take the following table as an example:
Table 2 - Regional income inequality. (11, p. 59)
Interregional differentiation in income is largely related to unemployment. Thus, unemployment is below the national average in Moscow, St. Petersburg, the Tyumen region, and the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug. On the contrary, in depressed regions the unemployment rate is significantly higher than the average: in the republics of Ingushetia - almost 5 times, Dagestan - almost 2 times, in the republics of Tyva, Komi-Permyak Autonomous Okrug. and Chita region - 1.5 times.
Income inequality is the price that society has to pay to increase its prosperity faster. Russia has not reached the level at which social differences are smoothed out, which is normal for many European countries.
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE
RUSSIAN FEDERATION
FSBEI HPE "ORYOL STATE UNIVERSITY"
Faculty of Economics and Management
Department of Applied Economic Disciplines
COURSE WORK
Discipline: “Labor Economics”
On the topic: “Wage inequality as a source of economic inequality”
Completed:
2nd year student, group 26
Kolganova A.N.
Supervisor:
Samoilova N.N.
Eagle 2012
Table of contents
Introduction
The problem of fair distribution of income has faced humanity at all times. Conflicts and wars broke out over the division of profits. However, we live in a civilized society and the issues of income differentiation are more than important for all of us.The relevance of the topic is explained by the fact that the problem of wage inequality is one of the most important socio-economic problems of our time. The question of how income should be distributed has a long and controversial history, both in economics and in philosophy. The debate over equality has revealed a wide range of opinions and positions. Proponents of one of the extreme positions prove to us that greater equality is a basic prerequisite for the survival of capitalism. Proponents of the opposing view warn us that “the pursuit of equality” will undermine the system and lead to its destruction.
Regulating wages and ensuring a more equitable distribution of income are the main tasks of the state. Today, this problem is addressed in government programs, for example, the progressive personal income tax program and transfer payment systems.
The purpose of this course work is to examine wage inequality as a source of economic inequality.
This goal defines the following tasks:
- study the theoretical aspects of wage inequality and economic inequality
- consider concepts such as government regulation of wage inequality
- find and analyze ways to solve the problem of economic inequality.
The object of study of the course work is wage inequality as a source of economic inequality.
The subject of study is the causes of inequality.
Research methods - induction, deduction, comparative analysis.
Various sources were used when writing the work. Including textbooks and periodicals, the authors of which examine the problem of economic inequality and its causes in sufficient depth, and also identify ways to solve it in Russia.
The course work includes three chapters. The first chapter provides theoretical information about the essence of wages and economic inequality. The second chapter analyzes the problems of wage inequality in Russia and their consequences. Chapter three provides information on ways to address economic inequality.
Chapter 1. Theoretical aspects of wage inequality and economic inequality.
1.1 The essence of wage inequality as a source of economic inequality, its factors.In order to understand the essence of wage inequality, we first need to know what wages are. So, wages are income in cash received by an employee for providing a certain labor service. It can also be defined as the price of the factor of production “labor”.
A market economy is characterized by significant inequality in wage levels. Differences in wages depend on a number of factors, among which it is necessary to name, first of all, professional and qualification parameters: a person’s natural abilities (“mental” and physical), the level of his training and qualifications, the field or industry of employment, the degree of labor mobility (professional -sectoral and territorial). Often, wage inequality has a completely different nature: it is a direct result of the still practiced discrimination in wages based on the age, gender and nationality of workers. Russia also encountered this sad phenomenon during the transition to a market economy. The essence of economic inequality is that a minority of the population always owns the majority of national wealth. In other words, the highest incomes are received by the smallest part of society, and the average and lowest incomes are received by the majority of the population.
There are many reasons for economic inequality, these reasons are interconnected, non-linear and complex. Recognized factors influencing inequality are the labor market, natural abilities, education, gender, culture, and personal preferences in work and leisure.
The main cause of economic inequality in modern market economies is market-determined wages. Inequality from this point of view is determined by the supply and demand of different types of labor. Where supply is small and demand is high, wages will be high. These jobs include those that require either advanced skills, rare abilities, or a willingness to take risks. The result of the existing supply and demand for different types of work is the gradation of wages, representing income inequality in society.
Another important factor in creating inequality is differences in access to education. Many Western economists believe that the main reason for the increase in inequality since the 1980s is the increase in demand for highly skilled workers in high-tech industries. This was the reason for the increase in wages for those who have an education, but did not lead to an increase in the wages of people without education, i.e. led to greater inequality. In Russia, the reasons for the increase in economic inequality are more complex due to perestroika, but the role of education in inequality, both economic and informational, is just as strong.
1.2 The impact of wages on economic well-being. Problems of inequality.
Wages are a significant component of the population's income. Consequently, consumer welfare depends on wage levels. Rising wages contribute to consumer welfare.
Salaries in Russia are usually two-tiered. The lower level is a fixed salary or payment according to a tariff, the upper level is all kinds of bonuses, additional payments and bonuses, the size of which varies depending on how well the company is doing.
The problem is that all companies vary greatly in their efficiency or access to budgetary resources. Linking a worker’s salary to the performance of his company or enterprise means that it does not depend on his human capital and individual productivity, but on where exactly he works. It turns out that the same work costs different things.
Since the same job is paid differently, people flee from work where wages are lower to where they are higher. As a result, enterprises that lag behind in terms of wages are losing mass professions. This primarily concerns manufacturing industries. Engineers, technicians, turners, mechanics, electricians and in general everyone who can, are trying to move up the salary ladder simply by changing jobs. As a result, a huge layer of enterprises with lower salary opportunities are depleted. He begins to demand from the education system to prepare new specialists for him, but the education system cannot do this, because the output is free people who go where the salary is higher.
The demand for a profession today is tied to how much they pay for this profession. If it’s not enough, then it turns out that enterprises need such a profession, but people don’t! They would rather do what they are paid for, rather than what they were taught.
Ultimately, it is precisely the peculiarities of wage formation that largely explain the amazing fact that we are world leaders in the share of people with higher and secondary specialized education, and many enterprises complain about the shortage.
The origins of many social problems that trouble society stem from here. Consider, for example, the problem of inequality. Economic theory says: people with the same level of human capital and education should receive approximately the same amount. Of course, other things being equal. Here are two workers engaged in the simplest unskilled labor. Two women - both cleaners, of the same age. With the same experience and education, living and working on the same street. They both perform the same amount of work of similar complexity. The difference is that one works in a municipal kindergarten, and the other works in Gazprom. Naturally, they receive very differently.
This is one of the strong mechanisms of inequality. Of course, everywhere in the world, more successful companies pay more, but there are no such differences between similar workers. This mechanism is tied to the original model of the labor market, when it is very difficult to fire someone for economic reasons, but wages are tied to the results of the enterprise’s activities, and not to individual productivity.
1.3 Consequences of economic inequality
Changes in incomes and stratification of society lead to the most negative consequences. Layers of people are being created who are below the poverty line, which is unacceptable in a developed society. There is a moral stratification of society into “us” and “strangers”; the commonality of goals, interests, and sense of healthy patriotism are lost. As a result of the division of society, regional populations and individual citizens into rich and poor, interregional and even interethnic contradictions arise, which leads to the destruction of the unity of Russia. There is an outflow of qualified workers to areas that do not require relevant knowledge abroad. As a result, the educational and professional potential of society is deteriorating, and knowledge-intensive industries are degrading. As a result of a low standard of living, the labor activity of the population decreases, health deteriorates, and the birth rate decreases, which leads to demographic crises.
Income and wealth inequality can reach enormous proportions and then pose a threat to the political and economic stability of the country. Therefore, almost all developed countries of the world are constantly implementing measures to reduce such inequality. But first, let’s try to understand why absolute income equality is undesirable. The fact is that such an organization of economic life kills people's incentives for productive work. After all, we are all born different and endowed with different abilities, some of which are less common than others. Therefore, in the national labor market, the demand for such abilities far exceeds the supply. And this leads to an increase in the price of the labor abilities of such people, that is, their income. However, people with the same type of abilities perform the same duties in different ways, with different labor productivity and product quality. How to pay for these different results of labor? What is more important - the fact of labor or its result? If you pay the same - “based on the fact of work”, then people who work with greater productivity and are endowed with talents useful to society will be offended. Many of them will stop working at full capacity (why bother if everyone gets paid the same?). This means that the effectiveness of their work will drop to the level of the least gifted and hardworking members of society. The result of this will be a reduction in the country's economic progress and a slowdown in the growth of the well-being of all its citizens. It was precisely these consequences of “equalization” in wages that had an extremely disastrous effect on the economy of the USSR and became one of the main reasons for the gradual cessation of its growth. Therefore, people have to pay for their activities in different ways. And since people have different innate abilities to work, and this is also layered with differences in acquired qualifications and experience (human capital), the result is significant differences in income levels. Because of this, there is a certain income inequality; should be considered normal. Moreover, it is an extremely important tool for encouraging people to work.
Chapter 2. Government regulation and wage inequality.
2.1 Wage inequality. Differentiation, discrimination.The main factor determining the high level of poverty in Russia is the low level of wages. Today, even the average wage does not provide normal conditions for the reproduction of workers and members of their families. The low wages of the majority of hired workers are combined with economically and socially unjustified differentiation in wages. The differences between the minimum and maximum pay are 10-15 times within an enterprise, 20-40 times within an industry and 20-45 times between regions.
Interregional differentiation in wages exists in all countries. Remuneration cannot be the same for all regions of the country, since regional labor markets place demand for workers of different qualifications and at the same time value the work of workers of similar professional and qualification groups differently.
Residents of the Southern, Volga and Siberian federal districts earn the least. If the average monthly nominal accrued wage in August 2009 in Russia as a whole was 17,226 rubles, then, for example, in the Southern District it was 12,024 rubles.
Differences in the level of income per capita, or per person employed, are called income differentiation. Income inequality is common to all economic systems.
The question of what is and what is not discrimination is quite confusing and does not have a clear solution. Traditionally, discrimination has been understood as restricting rights on grounds that “are not acceptable and appropriate grounds in the circumstances in which they occur,” but “acceptability” itself has not been precisely defined. It is usually considered unacceptable to restrict rights on grounds that do not objectively affect a person’s ability to realize these rights. Thus, race, nationality, sexual orientation, political or religious beliefs, and to a large extent gender, usually do not directly affect a person’s ability to perform a certain job, so taking them into account when deciding whether to provide a job is not justified and can be considered discrimination. On the other hand, restrictions on rights based on citizenship are common in most countries, are enshrined in law and are not considered discrimination.
On the other hand, for example, men and women, due to different physiology, may be more or less suitable for a certain job. Women, on average, are physically weaker, and if there are harmful factors in production, they are more susceptible to the risk of adverse consequences in their offspring, but at the same time they are better suited for work that requires long-term concentration or places increased demands on tactile sensitivity. As a result, restrictions on access to certain jobs based on gender may not be recognized (and are not recognized by prevailing opinion) as discrimination. In the same way, restrictions on the rights of children, disabled people, and people with mental disabilities sometimes find justification that denies the classification of such restrictions as discrimination. The same opinion prevails regarding the widespread practice of preventing persons with insufficiently acute vision and hearing from driving vehicles - this practice is based on the objective limitations of the capabilities of such people and is aimed at ensuring the safety of others. Typically, such controversial cases are reflected in the legislation of democratic states, although there has never been an absolutely unanimous opinion on such issues among legal experts.
2.2 Levels of economic inequality. (?)
2.3 Problems of wage inequality in Russia, their consequences.
The gap between rich and poor Russians is widening against the general background of economic growth, accompanied by accelerated growth in household incomes. The main share of the increase in average income falls on the group of the wealthiest citizens of Russia, while the real incomes of the poor and their standard of living may decline.
Data are presented in Figure 1
|
average salary |
Regions |
Federal districts |
|||
| 6 594 |
The Republic of Dagestan |
Southern |
|||
| 8 742 |
Republic of Kalmykia | ||||
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