The exam social studies topic is economics. Economics section in the subject of social studies in preparation for the Unified State Exam
ECONOMY.
1. The concept of economics 1. set of relations in the field of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of materialgood; organization of people's activities aimed at creating goods that can satisfy their needs, as the concept of economy and manifests itself as action; 2. a science that studies how, in what ways, with the help of what means people produce the goods they need.
manifestations of economic activity -economy (economic activity) of a specificsubject (state, company, family)
Economics is complex and simple actions performed by people in the field of:
1.production- creation of goods, implementation of works, services
2.distribution- exchange of production results for money or other products
3. consumption of labor products- final use of the results of labor.
process of cognition by means of economic science area of knowledge about specialbenefits of people’s behavior in the process of production and consumptionknowledge of material goods, methods of distribution and consumption limited resources.
Economic relations:
Production- this is the process of creating material and spiritual goods necessary for the existence and development of man.
Distribution- this is the process of determining the share, the proportion in which each economic entity taking part in the production of a product appropriates a part of the production result.
Exchange- the process of movement of material goods and services from one subject to another, a form of indirect (market) connection between producers and consumers.
Consumption- the process of using the results of labor to satisfy personal and production needs.
2.Limited resources which is understood as the insufficiency of production resources necessary to create economic benefits. Production resources are a set of natural (material) and social forces used in production. Society's needs are limitless, but resources are limited. Needs- everything that a person needs to satisfy the spiritual and material interests of a person for normal life. Any society strives to find ways to optimally use limited resources, and is forced to choose options for their distribution.
3. Supply and demand. Demand - this is the solvent need for goods and services that are ready and can be purchased by consumers at a market price.
Offer is the quantity of goods and services that producers are willing to produce and sell at a certain market price.
Market mechanism eliminates price controls, so supply and demand in a competitive market come into balance and the market price of the product is established. Equilibrium occurs when the quantity of goods that buyers want to buy matches the quantity of goods that sellers want to sell. As a result, equilibrium price - that is, the agreement price when the volume of supply corresponds to the volume of demand.
Main economic issues :
What(which product or service to produce is decided by the manufacturer by studying consumer demand)
How(what kind of production, technology, raw materials, labor is decided by the manufacturer)
And for whom to produce(studying the needs of the market for products and services, searching for consumers)
4. Factors of production - these are the resources actually involved in the production process and used in a certain combination; it's eco- economic resources directly involved in economicspecific technological process.
three main factor of production:
1.labor, that part of the working population that is directly employed in the production process inof this or that enterprise, their income is salary.
2. capital,set of materialfinancial and financial resources of the enterprise, presented in two forms -
naturally material (buildings, structures, machine tools)ny park, equipment, etc.)
and cost (money in accounts, securities));
3.ground,includes all natural resources used in production, as well as the land itself as an economic object and an object of ownership. The income received from the use of land is called rent.
in a broad sense means all uses natural resources used in the production process;
in a narrow- object of management (arable land) or property).
As independent factors modern productionindustries highlight
information
and entrepreneurial abilities human ability to organize production optimallycombining factors of production and defining a strategyproduction activities in conditions of market competition, to achieve the required result in the form of profit.
category- Riya "factors of production" used in relation to the economics of the company
5.Economic systems
Economic system - this is a system of social production, covering production processes va, distribution, exchange and consumption.
varyways to solve basic economic issues.
There are economic systems
traditional, typical for economically underdeveloped countries. What goods and services to produce and for whom are determined by the traditions and experience of generations. The economic role of an individual is determined by class and family affiliation. Technological progress often conflicts with traditions and threatens the stability of the existing system.
command (planned, centralized), All decisions on economic issues are made by the state. Resources are mainly the property of the state. Central planning covers all levels - from household to state. Resource allocation is based on long-term priorities (values and plans)
market Characterized by private ownership of resources and the use of market mechanisms to coordinate economic behavior and manage the economy. What to produce is decided by payment demand. How to produce is decided by the manufacturer seeking to earn more income. For whom to produce is decided in favor of consumers with low incomes.
mixed Characteristic of the modern market economy of the most developed countries. In this system, the main way to connect production and consumption is the mechanism of price signals sent by the market, that is, the sphere of exchange. However, the role and influence of the state and regulation of economic processes, maintaining the stability of the system, reducing inflation and unemployment, and solving social issues are noticeable.
6.Property Own- this is a social form of appropriation of material and spiritual benefits; this is the ownership of any values op- to selected persons.
There are two type of property- general (public) and private.
In legalthere are plans three powers of ownership
Possession(to have)
use(benefit)
order(change the fate of property and change the owner)
7. entrepreneurial activity .
Entrepreneurship called the initiative independent activity of people aimed at making a profit or personal income, carried out on one’s own behalf or under legal personal responsibility of a company or enterprise.
Types of business activities:
Production
a commercial
Financial
Mediation
Businesscan be arranged
in an individual form
in collective forms : full and limited partnership, cooperative, joint stock company,limited liability company, municipal andstate unitary enterprise, etc.
EnterprisesThis is a specialized technical and production complex designed to produce goods and services useful to society.
Company -a diversified technical and production complex, with an appropriate internal management structure and scale of activity.
Organizational and legal forms:
Private enterprises
Business partnerships
Business societies
Industrial cooperatives
State and municipal unitary enterprises
8.Market this is a special way of organizing social production, based on freedom of enterprise and independent decision-making on volumes and sales prices; it is a mechanism for coordinating the interests of producers and consumers based on the interaction of demand, price and supply.
Market economy - it is the functioning unity of the flow of goods, money and prices, as well as competition.
Product - This is a product of labor intended for exchange on the basis of purchase and sale. The exchange of goods in a market economy is mediated by the movement of money. Money is a commodity of a special nature that acts as a special equivalent.
Price - This is the monetary expression of the economic value of goods, determined by the costs of their production and utility. Utility means the ability of goods and services to satisfy human needs.
Competition - this is the relationship of coexistence of participants in economic processes, taking the form of rivalry, competition, struggle for the best conditions for allocating resources and obtaining maximum benefits.
9. economics of the company
Production costs - This is a set of costs associated with the production of goods and the provision of services; they add up when using limited resources.
company profit- is the difference between total revenue and total costs; it is net profit that reflects the result of the most favorable use of resources in the chosen area under the conditions of the existing market and competition.
10. Taxes
Taxes - mandatory payments of individualsand companies in favor of the state
Functions of taxes:
Fiscal- filling the revenue side of the state budget
Distribution - redistribution of income collected in the budget in favor of any group of the population
Regulatory- changing tax conditions to solve the most important problems for the country’s economy
Stimulating- development of scientific and technological progress, investments in basic sectors of the economy.
Tax benefit - this is a complete or partial exemption of the taxpayer from taxation in accordance with current legislation.
Types of taxes
straight - these are taxes that are levied on the income of legal entities (enterprises, firms) and individuals, as well as the property of taxpayers.
indirect - taxes on goods or services, which are fixed in the form of a premium to the price or tariff. (excise taxes, value added tax, customs duties, fiscal monopoly tax)
Tax policy is a system of measures carried out by the state in areas of taxation.
11.Money - uh then a product of a special property, playing the role of a universal equivalent
Functions:
Measure of value
Means of circulation and payment
Store of value
Inflation This is the depreciation of a paper monetary unit, resulting from the overflow of monetary circulation with excess money supply, as a result of which prices rise. The value of money decreases, that is, purchasing power, when one monetary unit can buy fewer goods and services than before.
its essence, causes, types and social consequences, anti-in inflationary policy.
12. family budget
Living wage - this is the cost of the minimum set of goods necessary for a person (consumer basket) , necessary to maintain life;
Important characteristics of labor relations this is the correspondence between the worker’s labor efforts and the remuneration for work that the worker must receive in order to support his family and himself.
Family budget comprises income(nominal and real income: salary, pension, scholarship, social benefits, etc.) and expenses families (which can be divided into planned - payment of utility bills, telephone, food and current).
13.Employment - this is the availability of jobs for the economically active population.
Under unemployment understand the excess of labor supply over demand for it, surplus labor.
types of unemployment :
Frictional unemployment - unemployment caused by constant and necessary changes in the allocation of society's resources between the spheres of production of goods and services. This is the case when employers do not have information about the availability of the necessary workers, or employees do not know about the availability of available workers places In a situation of frictional unemployment, workers spend quite a long time looking for a job that best suits their needs. meeting their needs.
Structural unemployment called changes in the structure of the national economy: they die off,Entire industries and professions are becoming a thing of the past.
Cyclical unemployment arises as a result of production declines that occur regularly (cyclically). A decline in production entails a decrease in demand for all its factors, including labor.
Seasonal unemployment - corresponds to temporary activities in certain areas of production.
Hidden unemployment - associated with part-time or part-time employment.
14. State budget - This is a centralized fund of monetary resources that the country’s government has at its disposal to maintain the state apparatus, the armed forces, and also perform the necessary socio-economic functions. The country's budget embodies the income and expenses of the state, which determined the presence of two of its components. State budget deficit - this is the excess of expenditure over revenue. State budget surplus - is the excess of budget revenues over expenditures.
15. Economic culture manifests itself in relation to the use of natural resources.
Intensive type of production development - means an increase in production results due to qualitative improvement of the means used.
Extensive type of production development - this is an increase in production results due to an increase in already used means of production. Rational use of resources based on the use of materials and energy-saving technologies improves not only results, but also the appearance of the enterprise itself.
Functions and methods of economics as a science; sciences that study economics.
The role of economics in the life of society, the main issues of economics, factors of production and factor income, the law of rising needs, the productive forces of society.
Types of economic goods and needs, types of public goods, Engel's law.
Traditional, command-administrative, market, mixed systems, their criteria and features, pros and cons. Infrastructure and its types.
Features of the economic system of Russia at the present stage, directions of economic development, problems.
Economic schools: mercantilism, physiocrats, classical political economy, Marxism, Keynesianism and other schools and trends in economic science.
Works and views on economics of famous Russian politicians, statesmen and economists.
GDP, GNP, NI, labor productivity, exports and imports, cost of living, consumer basket.
Profit, cost, capital productivity, profitability, production efficiency.
Phases of the economic cycle: recession, depression, recovery, recovery. Causes and types of crises.
Production and its spheres, exchange, distribution, consumption, enterprise and its types, functions of enterprises.
Signs of the market and its types, the law of supply and demand, elasticity of supply and demand, price, deficit, surplus.
Competition, its functions and types. "Law on Protection of Competition"
The reasons for the emergence of monopolies, types and forms of monopolies, state antimonopoly policy, negative and positive consequences of monopolies.
The essence of money, its properties and signs, types.
Definition, functions and types of currency.
Definition of securities, their characteristics and types.
The concept of inflation, causes, types, consequences, anti-inflationary policy.
Definition, functions and types of banks. Features of the banking system in the Russian Federation.
Concept, principles and types of credit, credit policy in the Russian Federation.
Concept, principles, objectives, goals and types of insurance.
The concept of the state budget, its sources, functions, public debt.
Taxes, their functions and types. Tax policy in the Russian Federation. Taxes and fees. Rights and obligations of the taxpayer.
Types of labor markets, their features. Features of the Russian labor market model. Constitution of the Russian Federation on labor. Types and functions of wages.
The concept and essence of unemployment, its types, negative and positive consequences, measures to combat unemployment.
Standard of living and quality of life, main indicators of the standard of living of the population, areas of activity in the Russian Federation to improve living standards.
The concept of property. Types of property, the Constitution of the Russian Federation on types of property and its protection.
Firm, enterprise, company, partnership, LLC, JSC, unitary enterprise and other business entities. Their features.
The concept of economic culture, its functions; economic freedom and responsibility, economic interest.
International economic relations. MRI, its features, international organizations, Russian economy.
The role of the state in the economy under traditional, command and market economic systems. Methods and methods of state regulation of the economy.
Unified State Exam. Economy. Topic 31. The Constitution of the Russian Federation on the economy
Theoretical materials on economics. At the end of each document there are assignments for consolidation from the collection “Model exam options, social studies 2016”. Author O.A. Kotova, T.E. Liskova. When preparing the material, a social studies textbook was used, author Bogolyubov
"2.1 economics as a science"
2.1. Economics and economic science
Economy – 1) farming in the broad sense of the word, i.e., a set of natural and anthropogenic means, objects and processes used by people to ensure conditions of existence and meet their needs (an economic system that ensures the satisfaction of the needs of people and society by creating and using the necessary goods of life);
2) economic relations that arise between people in the process of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material and spiritual goods and services at a particular historical period of time;
3) the science, which studies the economy and related human activities aimed at meeting the vital needs of individual members and society as a whole.
Economy as a management system (social production)
Economy - This is an economic system that ensures the satisfaction of the needs of people and society through the creation and use of necessary goods.
Economic activity:
1) Production(the process of creating economic goods and services), which is divided into
- material production(production of material goods and material services - transport, trade, utilities and consumer services)
- immaterial production(production of intangible goods and intangible services - education, healthcare, etc.)
Economic activity is necessary in order to transform resources into the necessary economic benefits - goods and services that satisfy one or another human need.
Product- a product of labor produced for sale on the market.
Service– economic activity that satisfies the personal needs of the population and society as a whole.
The production of tangible and intangible services is called services sector.
Spheres of the economy:
1) Production – the process of creating tangible and intangible goods (goods and services)
2) Distribution- division of a product or income between those involved in its production.
3) Exchange- a process in which money or another product is received instead of a product.
4) Consumption– stage of use (durable goods) or destruction (food) of the product.
The main problem of the economy – meeting the unlimited (constantly growing) needs of people through limited resources. Need– the need for something to maintain and develop the life of the individual and society as a whole.
Scarcity is the insufficiency of the volume of available resources of all types to produce the amount of goods that people would like to receive.
Economic benefits- means necessary to satisfy people's needs and available to society in limited quantities. To create economic benefits, resources are needed.
Free benefits in economic theory, these are goods that for consumption do not require the renunciation of other goods and can be consumed in unlimited quantities. For example: air, sea water
Resources– a quantitative measure of the possibility of performing any activity; conditions that make it possible to obtain the desired result using certain transformations.
Resources that are involved in the production of goods and services are calledfactors of production .
Under economic activity imply a set of actions at various levels of management that are aimed at meeting the needs of the people of society. Such actions are carried out through constant production and exchange of services and goods between people
Economics as a Science
Economics is a science about the economy, ways of running and managing it, relationships between people in the process of production and exchange of goods, patterns of economic processes.
Main stages in the development of economic science
The main tasks of economic science: finding ways to effectively manage the economy; search for optimal mechanisms for using resources in conditions of their limitation and limitless needs. Subject of study: economic relations, connections and interdependencies that arise in the process of economic development with the production of goods and services.
Levels of economics as a science:
Microeconomics (small)– the science of consumers, firms and individual industries, examines the problems of limited resources, choice, opportunity cost, price, changes in demand and supply of individual goods in individual markets, etc.
Macroeconomics (long, large)– the science of the economy as a whole, the economic health of the country and the world, examines the problems of unemployment and employment, increasing production volumes, economic growth, overcoming inflation, etc.
International economics– the subject of her research may be international trade, international monetary relations, etc.
Hint words
| farming |
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| Explanation Study Development studying models of stock market functioning analysis of factors in the formation of money supply identifying patterns of demand formation research into network marketing principles | Production Opening a store (pharmacy) provision of educational services to the population development of mobile communication networks production of large quantities of passenger cars provision of medical services to the population |
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“2.10 types and causes of inflation”
2.10. Types, causes and consequences of inflation
Inflation – the process of depreciation of money, which manifests itself in the form of long-term increases in prices for goods and services. In other words, it occurs when the money supply increases significantly, but the quantity of goods and services does not increase
Causes of inflation: excessive growth in military spending; state budget deficit and growth of domestic public debt (covering the budget deficit through borrowing on the money market); credit expansion of the bank to the Russian government (providing loans); inflationary expectations of the population and producers (expressed in the fact that the purchase of goods occurs in excess of the necessary needs due to fear of rising prices).
Types of inflation
* Demand inflation: the balance of supply and demand is disrupted by the demand side. Occurs at full employment, when wages increase, excess aggregate demand appears, which pushes prices up. To overcome this, government intervention is necessary.
* Supply (cost) inflation: an increase in production costs (due to rising wages and due to rising prices for raw materials and energy) causes an increase in prices for goods and services. A decrease in supply leads to a reduction in production and employment, i.e., to a recession and further reduction in spending and a gradual recovery from the crisis. Factors in supply-side inflation can include high taxes, high interest rates on capital, and rising prices on world markets. In the latter case, imported raw materials and, accordingly, domestic products become more expensive.
* Stagflation: inflation, accompanied by stagnation of production, high unemployment and a simultaneous increase in the price level.
Classification of types of inflation
1. By the nature of the course: open (characterized by a prolonged increase in prices for goods and services); hidden (suppressed; occurs with constant retail prices for goods and services and a simultaneous increase in the monetary income of the population), characterized by a shortage of goods while restraining price increases, open, manifested when prices rise.
2. Depending on the rate of price growth:
Moderate (creeping; prices rise at a moderate pace and gradually, up to 10% per year);
Galloping (rapid price growth of approximately 50% per year);
Hyperinflation (extra-high price increases of up to 100% per year or more).
Consequences of inflation
* For the production sector: decline in employment, disruption of the entire system of economic regulation; depreciation of the entire accumulation fund; loan impairment
* When distributing income:
a) redistribution of income by increasing the income of those who pay fixed interest debts and reducing the income of their creditors (governments that have accumulated significant public debt often pursue policies of short-term inflation stimulation, which contributes to the depreciation of debt);
b) negative impact on the population with fixed incomes, which are depreciating;
c) depreciation of household income, which leads to a reduction in current consumption; d) determining real income no longer by the amount of money a person receives as income, but by the number of goods and services that he can buy;
e) reduction in the purchasing power of the monetary unit. Thanks to inflation, “imaginary” income arises, which may not enter the financial system.
* For economic relations: business owners do not know what price to put on their products; consumers do not know what price is justified and what products are more profitable to buy first; suppliers of raw materials prefer to receive real goods rather than rapidly depreciating money, barter begins to flourish; Lenders avoid lending. Distorts all main economic indicators: GDP, profitability, interest, etc.; the rise in prices is accompanied by a fall in the exchange rate of the national currency.
* For the money supply: money loses its value and ceases to serve as a measure of value and medium of exchange, which leads to financial collapse. All cash reserves (deposits, loans, account balances, etc.) depreciate. Securities also depreciate. The problems of issuing money are sharply aggravated;
Types of anti-inflationary policies
– adaptation measures (adjustment to inflation) – income indexation, control over price levels;
– liquidation (anti-inflation) measures – active reduction of inflation through economic recession and rising unemployment.
If these measures do not help, then the state will be forced to carry out monetary reform– complete or partial change in the country’s monetary system.
Methods of monetary reform:
Deflation (reduction of the money supply by removing excess banknotes from circulation);
Denomination (enlargement of a monetary unit by exchanging a certain proportion of old banknotes for new ones);
Devaluation (a decrease in the gold content of a monetary unit (under the gold standard) or a decrease in its exchange rate in relation to foreign currencies);
Revaluation (increase in the gold content or exchange rate of the state currency);
Nullification (declaring old depreciated banknotes invalid, or organizing their exchange at a very low rate).
Reinforcement of topic 2.10 “Inflation”
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“2.11 economic growth. concept of gdp"
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“2.12 the role of the state in the economy”
2.12. The role of the state in the economy (grade 11, paragraph 7)
Economic policy state is the process of implementing its economic functions through a variety of government measures to influence economic processes to achieve certain goals.
Goals of the state in a market economy:
Will ensure economic growth
Create conditions for economic freedom (the right of economic entities to choose the form and scope of economic activity, methods of its implementation and use of income from it)
Ensure economic security and economic efficiency (the ability of the entire economy to obtain the maximum result from the limited resources available
Ensure full employment (everyone who can and wants to work should have a job)
Provide assistance to those who cannot fully support themselves
Functions of the state
Economic stabilization
Protection of property rights (we will study in the law section)
Regulation of money circulation
Redistribution of income (separate topic)
Regulation of relations between employers and employees (section of law)
Control over foreign economic activity (separate topic)
Production of public goods
Compensation for external effects
Let's take a closer look at the last function.
Public goods – These are goods and services provided by the government on an equal basis. For example: visiting parks, libraries, education, healthcare, etc. These benefits are equally available to everyone and there is no charge for using them.
The production of public goods is undertaken by the state; the state collects funds for production from citizens in the form of taxes (taxes are a separate topic)
The role of the state is also significant in those areas in which exclusively private enterprises operate. State intervention in these areas is caused by the problem external (side) effects.
External effects – costs and benefits associated with the production or consumption of goods for third parties.
Exist negative and positive external effects.
Negative effects arise when costs arise for third parties who are not involved in production. Positive – if these individuals benefit.
For example:
Let’s imagine a wood processing plant on the bank of a river (the first person is the manufacturer, the second person is the one who buys their goods), which pollutes the river with waste. This is an example of a negative production externality for the population (third party) living along the river. Remember (Petrovskaya gas tower). Who will help the population cope with the negative consequences of production? The state is forced to incur additional costs for water purification, maintaining people's health, etc. It compensates for the side effects of the plant's activities.
An example of a positive externality is the activity of a military plant. In an effort to provide such a public service to the population as defense capability (for which the consumer pays taxes), manufacturers contribute to scientific and technological progress, the results of which we all benefit from.
Compensating for external effects is an important function of the state in a market economy.
Now let's talk about such a function as “monetary regulation”
To ensure the stabilization of the economy, the state carries out fiscal (fiscal) and monetary policies (monetary).
Monetary policy
Monetary policy means control of the money supply in the economy. Its goal is to support stable economic development.
The conductor of the state's monetary policy is the Central Bank (repeat topic 2.6.).
The Central Bank lends funds to commercial banks, and they issue funds to their clients for a fee called “loan interest.”
Discount interest rate - the rate of interest at which the central bank lends to commercial banks. By raising or lowering the discount rate, the central bank makes credit expensive or cheap.
If loans become expensive (the Central Bank increased the discount rate), then the number of people willing to take them decreases. This results in less money in circulation and helps reduce inflation (inflation occurs when the money supply exceeds the quantity of goods and services produced).
By raising the interest rate and making credit cheap, the state increases the number of borrowers, stimulating their economic activity, which contributes to an increase in production.
Budgetary and tax (fiscal) policy
The activities of the state in the field of taxation, regulation of public expenditures and the state budget are called fiscal policy.
We will study this topic separately (2.14)
Answers
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"2.13 taxes"
2.13 Taxes
Taxes – these are mandatory payments by individuals and legal entities to the state
Individuals – creating material and intangible benefits directly through their labor and receiving income
Legal entities – economic entities
Functions of taxes
Fiscal – to ensure financing of government spending on
B) country defense
B) and the sphere that cannot provide for itself: education, healthcare (public goods)
2. distributive - redistribution of income between different social strata in order to smooth out income inequality (pensions, subsidies, subsidies, etc.)
Stimulating – a) stimulating the development of scientific and technological revolution,
B) an increase in the number of jobs
C) capital investments in expanding production through the use of preferential taxation
Social and educational – curbing the consumption of unhealthy products by imposing increased taxes on them
Specific accounting – recording the income of citizens, enterprises and organizations
Basic principles of taxation
Uniformity means uniformity of rules and uniformity of approach to taxpayers
Certainty – clarity and immutability of tax rules
One-time use – each income should be taxed only once
Types of taxes
1.straight - mandatory payments levied by the state on the income or property of individuals and legal entities (explicitly)
A) income tax
B) corporate income tax
C) property tax, real estate, gift, inheritance
2.indirect – are established in the form of surcharges on the price of goods or services (paid unnoticed when performing certain actions, for example: purchasing goods, currency exchange)
A) excise taxes
B) sales tax
Customs duties
Export tax
Partial value added tax
Taxes paid by enterprises (grade 11, p. 50)
1.direct tax from the company –income tax. In most cases, this tax is 35% of gross profits.
There are tax incentives that allow the government to stimulate actions that are beneficial to society: part of the profit that is used for investment in the development of production, scientific research, etc. is partially exempt from tax.
Profit received from the production and sale of agricultural products is not subject to taxation
2.indirect tax from the company –value added tax (VAT).
Value added tax is levied on the increase in the value of a product, which is created at all stages of its production as the product moves to the final consumer.
3.payments to various extra-budgetary funds: pension, social insurance, compulsory health insurance
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"2.2. factors of production"
2.2. Factors of production and factor income (grade 11 p. 43)
| Firm is a commercial organization that spends economic resources to produce goods and services sold on the market for the purpose of making a profit The main goal of the company: making a profit. What does it depend on: Rational choice of the type and volume of goods produced Production technology Skillful combination and use of production resources Competent management of the production process and sales of finished products on the market | |
| Production process – transformation of economic resources (factors of production) into goods and services. Factors of production – These are the main groups of resources that are used in the production process. Main factors: labor, land, capital, entrepreneurial ability Under earth as a factor production, refers to all natural resources. This factor includes the following elements of nature: Work - is a human activity aimed at transforming natural substances to satisfy their needs. Labor as a factor of production refers to any mental and physical effort exerted by people in the process of economic activity. Capital- a set of goods, property, assets used to make a profit. Physical capital - means of production created by people to produce goods and services. For example: equipment Under monetary or financial capital understand money with the help of which physical capital is acquired. The direction of material and monetary resources into the economy, into production, is also called capital investments or investments. Entrepreneurial skills – these are the organizational and managerial efforts of the entrepreneur to make the best use of available production resources (factors of production) Limited resources insufficient volume of available resources of all types to produce the amount of goods that people would like to receive. | Factors of production = economic resources: 1) work(the activity of people producing goods and services by using their physical and mental capabilities); 2) Earth(all types of natural resources available on the planet and suitable for the production of economic benefits); 3) capital(production building, machines, tools). No less important is another factor that connects all the others, 4) entrepreneurial skills. |
| Factor income – remuneration for factors of production. 1) labor - wage; 2) earth - rent(income of someone who owns land); 3) capital - percent(payment for using other people's money); 4) entrepreneurial abilities - profit. Rent- income regularly received by the owner from the use of land, property, capital, which does not require the recipient of the income to carry out entrepreneurial activities, the cost of additional efforts. Loan capital– temporarily available funds provided as a loan on the terms of repayment and payment. Percent 1) credit interest(loan interest) - the fee that the borrower must pay for using a loan, money or material assets; 2) deposit interest– payment to a bank depositor for providing the bank with money on a deposit for a certain period. | |
| Economic and accounting costs and profits Production costs – These are the costs of the manufacturer (firm owner) for the acquisition and use of production factors. Production costs are divided into internal (or implicit) costs and external costs Internal (implicit) costs – These are the costs of resources belonging to the owner of the company. For example, the premises in which the company is located are the property of its owner, which means that the owner will not pay rent. External costs – This is payment for factors of production that are not the property of the owner of the firm. These include costs of raw materials, energy, labor, etc. They are called Accounting or explicit costs, since they are reflected in accounting documents. Economic costs – include external and internal costs | |
| Economic profit – it is the difference between a firm's total revenue and economic costs. Accounting profit – is the difference between total revenue and accounting costs |
2.5. Fixed and variable costs (11th grade p. 49)
| Fixed costs- this is that part of total costs that does not depend at a given time on the volume of output. For example: rent, building maintenance costs, utility costs. Variable costs- this is that part of the total costs, the value of which for a given period of time is directly dependent on the volume of production and sales of products. For example: costs of purchasing raw materials, wages, energy, fuel, transportation costs, packaging costs. Variable costs increase as production volume increases and decrease as production volume decreases. |
Consolidation “Factors of production”, “Fixed and variable costs”
way of regulating economic life, human activities both companies and type of property for economic resources
Criteria for identifying economic systems: form of ownership of the means of production (private, collective, state); the method of coordinating and managing economic activity is market, planned.
Elements of the economic system
Production of goods and services with their subsequent distribution, exchange, consumption and redistribution.
Solving basic economic issues: what and how to produce, on what basis to distribute the created national product.
Differences in their fundamentals: forms of ownership; economic mechanism.
The existence of diverse models of economic development of individual countries and regions.
Types of economic systems and their characteristics
Traditional economic is a way of organizing economic life in which land and capitalare in common ownership , and limited resourcesdistributed in accordance with long-standing traditions and customs
The traditional economic system is based on joint (collective) communal ownership of the main resource for this system - land.
Characteristic features of traditional economies: poor development of technology and production technologies; a large share of manual labor in all sectors of the economy; an insignificant role in the traditional economy of entrepreneurship, including small ones, with a constant increase in the scale of activity of large divisions; the predominance of traditions and customs in all aspects of society.
Natural economy- This is a farm in which everything is produced not for sale, but for one’s own consumption. The exchange is random in nature. The conditions for exchange between subjects are economic isolation, that is, each subject has the right to exchange only the product that belongs to it;
Command (command-administrative, centralized, planned, directive, state) economic system is a way of organizing economic life in which capital and land are owned by the state, and distribution limited resources carried out according to the instructions (directives) of centralized authorities and in accordance with plans.
It is characterized by state ownership of almost all material resources and collective economic decision-making through centralized economic (directive) planning.
At the same time, most of the land and capital belongs to the state, economic power is centralized, the main economic entity is the state, the market does not function as an economic regulator, and prices for most goods are set by the government. Another characteristic: shortage of goods, low technology
Market economy of free competition- this is an economy in which private property dominates, economic activity is carried out by economic entities at their own expense, and all major decisions are made by them at their own peril and risk.
Characterized by :
-private property on resources and the use of markets and prices to coordinate and manage economic activity;
-inequality in wealth distribution;
-decentralization of economic power;
The function of an economic regulator is performed by market system,
In the behavior of economic entities, personal interest dominates over general interest;
--freedom of entrepreneurial choice;
- competition;
-limited role of the state and others.
4. Mixed economic system
Most modern developed countries have a mixed economy, combining elements of all three types.
Mixed economy is an economy in which both government and private decisions determine the structure of resource distribution; in society, along with private property, there is state property; the economic system is managed and coordinated not only by the market system, but also by the state.
The state carries out antimonopoly, social, fiscal (tax) and other types of economic policies, which to one degree or another contribute to the economic growth of the country and improve the living standards of the population.
Each system is characterized by its own national models of economic organization, since countries differ in their unique history, level of economic development, social and national characteristics.
Nationalization– transition of private property to state property
Privatization– transition of state property to private property
Consolidation
Social science. A complete course of preparation for the Unified State Exam Shemakhanova Irina Albertovna
2.1. Economics and economic science
Economy – 1) economy in the broad sense of the word, i.e. a set of natural and anthropogenic means, objects and processes used by people to ensure living conditions and meet their needs (an economic system that ensures the satisfaction of the needs of people and society by creating and using the necessary life benefits); 2) economic relations that arise between people in the process of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material and spiritual goods and services at a particular historical period of time; 3) a science that studies the economy and related human activities aimed at providing for the vital needs of individual members and society as a whole.
Economy as a management system (social production)
Economic activity:
1) Production(the process of creating economic goods and services), which is divided into
* material production (production of material goods and material services - transport, trade, utilities and consumer services)
* intangible production (production of intangible goods and intangible services - education, healthcare, etc.)
The key concepts of production are the concepts of “product” and “service”.
Product- a product of labor produced for sale on the market. Signs of a product: must be intended for exchange (has value - labor embodied in the product); must satisfy a human need (has use value - usefulness for the consumer); must have the ability to exchange for another product (has exchange value).
Service– the result of useful activities of enterprises (organizations) and individuals aimed at meeting certain needs of the population and society. The production of tangible and intangible services is called services sector.
2) Distribution- division of a product or income between those involved in its production.
3) Exchange- a process in which money or another product is received instead of a product.
4) Consumption– stage of use (durable goods) or destruction (food) of the product.
The main problem of the economy – meeting the unlimited (constantly growing) needs of people at the expense of limited resources. Need– the need for something to maintain and develop the life of an individual and society as a whole.
Economic benefits- means necessary to satisfy people's needs and available to society in limited quantities. To create economic benefits, resources are needed. Resources– a quantitative measure of the possibility of performing any activity; conditions that make it possible to obtain the desired result using certain transformations. Resources that are involved in the production of goods and services are called factors of production .
Under economic activity imply a set of actions at various levels of management that are aimed at meeting the needs of the people of society. Such activities are carried out through the constant production and exchange of services and goods between people. There are certain areas that relate to economic activity - industrial, import and export, agricultural, handicraft, and the activities of individuals.
2. Economics as a Science is a set of specific economic disciplines, such as industrial economics, agricultural economics, labor economics, finance and credit, economic statistics and mathematics. The main emphasis is on functional rather than cause-and-effect relationships.
Main stages in the development of economic science
The first attempts to theoretically comprehend the economic structure of society were made in the works Xenophon(for the first time gave an analysis of the division of labor), Plato(assigned to the state the function of resolving the contradiction between the diversity of people’s needs and the uniformity of their abilities), Aristotle(made an analysis of the forms of value, the duality of goods and the development of forms of trade).
The first, early movement of economic thought in the 15th–17th centuries. – mercantilism was to understand the laws of trade. The founder of classical bourgeois political economy is W. Petty, who laid the foundations of the labor theory of value.
Representatives of classical bourgeois political economy in France in the 18th century. were F. Quesnay And A. Turgot. They transferred the question of the origin of social wealth from the sphere of circulation to the sphere of production, limiting the latter only to agriculture.
Outstanding English economist A. Smith went down in history as the “prophet of free competition.” The main idea in the teaching A. Smith– the idea of liberalism, minimal government intervention in the economy, market self-regulation based on free prices that develop depending on supply and demand. Smith made a significant contribution to the theory of value, to the doctrine of income, of productive and unproductive labor, of capital and reproduction, and of the economic policy of the state.
D. Ricardo formulated a series of economic laws: theories of value and money, wages and profits, land rent, the doctrine of capital and reproduction.
K. Marx And F. Engels created the doctrine of surplus value, which revealed the nature of capitalist exploitation.
During the years of the “Great Depression” in the United States, an economic doctrine appeared that substantiates the need for active state intervention in the capitalist economy in order to mitigate its contradictions and regulate the economy - Keynesianism.
Monetarism (M. Friedman) - the theory of economic stabilization, in which monetary factors play a dominant role (1970s), the slogan of abandoning methods of active state regulation was put forward.
Neoliberalism (F. von Hayek) is a direction in economic science and practice of business management that upholds the priority importance of the freedom of economic entities (private entrepreneurship). The state must provide conditions for competition and avoid excessive regulation of the market.
Institutional-sociological direction (D. Galbraith– convergence theory) considers the economy as a system where relations between economic entities develop under the influence of economic and foreign economic factors, especially technical and economic ones; exceptional importance is attached to the transformation of modern society under the influence of scientific and technological progress.
Economic science studies economic relations between people, includes the study of economic theories and basic economic processes, economic categories and concepts, models that reflect reality to the maximum extent possible.
The main tasks of economic science: finding ways to effectively manage the economy; search for optimal mechanisms for using resources in conditions of their limitation and limitless needs. Subject of study: economic relations, connections and interdependencies that arise in the process of economic development with the production of goods and services.
Functions of the economy: educational; methodological; practical (pragmatic); educational; ideological.
Microeconomics (small)– the science of consumers, firms and individual industries, examines the problems of limited resources, choice, opportunity cost, price, changes in demand and supply of individual goods in individual markets, etc.
Macroeconomics (long, large)– the science of the economy as a whole, the economic health of the country and the world, examines the problems of unemployment and employment, increasing production volumes, economic growth, overcoming inflation, etc.
From the book Great Soviet Encyclopedia (BL) by the author TSB From the book Great Soviet Encyclopedia (KO) by the author TSB From the book Great Soviet Encyclopedia (EC) by the author TSB From the book International Economic Relations: Lecture Notes author Ronshina Natalia Ivanovna From the book Lawyer Encyclopedia by the author From the book The Newest Philosophical Dictionary author Gritsanov Alexander Alekseevich From the book Understanding Processes author Tevosyan Mikhail From the book Thoughts, aphorisms, quotes. Business, career, management author Dushenko Konstantin Vasilievich From the author's bookEconomic crime ECONOMIC CRIME is one of the structural parts of crime, which includes the totality of all crimes committed in the economic sphere that encroach on property relations, the legality of entrepreneurship and freedom
From the author's bookECONOMIC SOCIOLOGY is a social discipline that studies the patterns of economic life using a system of categories developed within the framework of sociological science. Economic development E.S. describes as a social process driven by activity
From the author's book From the author's bookEconomic Statistics See also Quantitative Measures (p. 274) Don't accept any numbers until you understand where they come from. Jack Stack (b. 1948), American businessman If statistics look interesting, they are probably wrong. Motto Central
Preparation for the Unified State Exam.
Test – test for the block “ECONOMY” (grade 11)
Block of questions No. 1
Citizen R., a qualified accountant, after a long break from work, cannot find a job in her specialty. She refused the positions of secretary and concierge offered to her and is awaiting offers in her specialty. The above example illustrates unemployment
frictional
seasonal
cyclical
structural
The government of the country V. approved new rules for certification of agricultural products. What economic function of the state can be illustrated by the example given?
management of state-owned enterprises
formation of a legal basis for the functioning of a market economy
protection of domestic producers from competition from foreign producers
combating unfair competition and collusion leading to inflated prices on the market
The company has a number of vacancies that can be filled subject to retraining of workers. What type of unemployment are we talking about in this industry?
frictional
structural
cyclic
An instrument of the state's monetary policy includes:
coordination of conditions for concluding collective agreements
control over the conclusion of merger transactions between large companies
determination of the discount rate of bank interest
sale by the state to private hands of ineffective enterprises
State expenditures this year have exceeded the amount of revenue collected from taxes and duties. This indicates:
increasing labor productivity
the emergence of a state budget deficit
growth in the number of private enterprises
reduction in consumer spending
Non-tariff methods of protectionism do not include:
customs duties
quotas
Accounting profit is:
difference between total revenue and accounting costs
difference between total revenue and economic costs
the sum of total revenue and accounting costs
the sum of total revenue and economic costs
growing number of computer sellers on the market
the transition of many users to laptops and netbooks
reduction of duties on the input of components for desktop computers
significant reduction in the cost of system units and monitors
The average wage, in terms of its indicators, has become closer to the minimum wage.
The average pension, compared to the initial period, has increased significantly compared to the cost of living.
An alarming trend has emerged for the minimum wage to lag behind the subsistence level.
The hardest thing is for pensioners; their incomes throughout the entire study period were below the subsistence level.
Are the following statements about production costs correct?
A. External (explicit, accounting) costs are all the costs of an enterprise recorded according to accounting documents, for example, payment of wages to employees.
B. Hidden (internal) costs can be costs associated with lost profits, with the expenses of the enterprise's own funds (for example, on the purchase of shares), with the placement of the enterprise in its own building.
only A is correct
only B is correct
both judgments are correct
both judgments are wrong
Are the following statements true?
A. When calculating GNP, the cost of services provided within one's own household is not taken into account.
B. GDP can be calculated using expenses, income and added value.
only A is correct
only B is correct
both judgments are correct
both judgments are wrong
Block of questions No. 2
Below are a number of terms. All of them, with the exception of two, characterize types of costs.
alternative
variables
accounting
rational
temporary
Find terms that “fall out” from the general series and write down the numbers under which they are indicated, separated by commas. Answer: 4.5.
Establish a correspondence between concepts and their inherent characteristics. For each element given in the first column, select the corresponding element from the second column. Write down the resulting sequence of letters.
Read the text below, in which a number of words are missing.
Bank loan is a sum of money issued by a bank for a certain period on the terms of repayment and payment established in the agreement _______________(1).
The agreement between the bank (lender) and the citizen (borrower) specifies the amount of the loan, its purpose, repayment period, interest paid to the bank for the loan, _______________ (2) money to the bank. Interest is the price paid to the owner of money for the use of _______________(3) for a specified time. Loan repayment can be a lump sum or in installments; Typically, payments are made monthly. Credit to individuals is provided in two main forms: personal loans (without specifying the purpose of the loan), usually issued under a personal signature and with installment payment, and _______________(4). The most common type of lending to citizens in the world is consumer credit. It is provided by the bank to citizens for the purchase of consumer goods with installment payment.
A loan allows you to actively use the free funds of some for the needs of others. Credit _______________(5) are the most profitable item in the banking business, but also risky. There is a possibility of non-repayment of the loan, non-payment of interest, violation of loan repayment terms. Banks strive to reduce these risks and are searching for and developing effective methods for assessing _________________________(6) borrowers. Select from the list provided the words that need to be inserted into the gaps. The words in the list are given in the nominative case. Remember that there are more words in the list than you need to select.
A) operations
B) state
B) creditworthiness
D) percentage
D) consumer loan
E) liquidity
G) return guarantee
H) payback
I) borrowed funds
Please note that the gaps are numbered. The table below shows the pass numbers. Under each number, write down the letter that represents the word you chose in the list.
The graph below shows the ratio of average and minimum wages in country Z to the cost of living in 2002–2008. Draw conclusions about the relationship between a) the minimum wage and the cost of living; b) average salary with a living wage in 2002–2008. Explain why the current socio-economic situation in country Z is dangerous.
-
1) conclusions from the given data, for example:
– Minimum wage in 2002–2008. was below the subsistence level, i.e. did not provide satisfaction of basic human needs.
– Average salary in 2002–2008. slightly exceeded the subsistence level, i.e. made it possible to satisfy an extremely limited set of human needs.
Other conclusions may be drawn.
2) explanation, for example: such a situation (poverty) slows down economic development and creates preconditions for social conflicts.
Another explanation may be given.
Two valid conclusions are made and an explanation is given.
One valid conclusion is made and an explanation is given.
Only two valid conclusions have been made.
OR Only explanation given.
There is only one conclusion.
OR General considerations are given out of context
Maximum score
(other wording of the answer is allowed that does not distort its meaning)
C2. The author of the document emphasizes the role of the state in maintaining and developing competition. Based on the text and knowledge of the social studies course, provide three evidence of the importance of competition for a market economy.
(other wording of the answer is allowed that does not distort its meaning)
The answer may include the following items explaining the role of competition:
1) ensures freedom of market pricing;
2) creates conditions for the realization of the economic freedom of the producer, promoting the independence of the economic choice of the consumer;
3) stimulates improvement of the quality of goods and services produced;
4) stimulates reduction of production costs.
Other correct answers are possible.
Three positions indicated
Two positions indicated
One function specified
Wrong answer
Maximum score
C3. Different points of view are expressed on the issue of the relationship between a market economy and democracy. What position does the author take? Name the two arguments he gives and explain either of them with an example.
(other wording of the answer is allowed that does not distort its meaning)
The correct answer must contain the following elements:
2) two arguments are given, for example:
in a democratic society
A mechanism for voter control over the state apparatus has been established;
The judicial system provides legal protection to citizens.
3) an example is given as an explanation, let’s say:
An entrepreneur can file a lawsuit regarding the illegality of the actions of the city department in relation to his enterprise;
Voters can demand a record of their votes on economic issues from their MP.
Other arguments and other examples may be given
The author's point of view is indicated, two arguments are named, an example is not given, OR the author's point of view is indicated, one argument is named and one example is given OR the author's point of view is clearly not given, two arguments and one example are given
The author's point of view is indicated, an argument is given without an example OR the author's point of view is indicated, an example is given, there are no arguments OR the author's point of view is clearly not given, two arguments are given, there is no example OR the author's point of view is not clearly indicated, one argument and an example are given
Maximum score
Block of questions No. 3
Text for assignments.
The state in a market economy
All agents of the economy are united by a single market space of the country, where the same rules of the game are monitored and supported by special state institutions... The market itself is not able to support competition. Maintaining and stimulating competition in the economic sphere is the function of the state. By fighting monopoly and supporting competition, the state is both within the market model and outside it, guaranteeing the stability of the market system as a whole. Supporting stability plays no less a role than protecting competition. The favorable social climate in the country, the stability of the financial system, and... the expansion of the production of public goods - especially in the sphere of services, education, science, healthcare, culture, - the creation of a legal framework in the business sphere... Therefore, depend on the verified, active role of the relevant state institutions. Even in a theoretical market model, the state has a critical role - preserving the market system itself by expressing common, or public interests. No private business, no matter how gigantic it may reach, by its nature can ignore its own interests and shoulder the interests of the entire society. However, the state can only cope with such responsibilities if it is part of a democratic society. In such a society, along with the market mechanism, a democratic mechanism of voter control over the state apparatus has been established, and the judicial system provides legal protection to all citizens in accordance with the law.
(A. Porokhovsky)
Answer:
C1. What three economic functions of the state in a market economy are named in the text?
| | |
| The answer may include the following functions: 1) fight against monopolies; 2) support and development of competition; 3) supporting the stability of the market system. |
|
| Three functions specified | |
| Two functions specified | |
| One function specified OR the answer is incorrect | |
| Maximum score | |
