During what centuries did the Viking campaigns take place? Vikings, who are they? Chronology of Viking campaigns. The main routes of sea travel
Vikings- early medieval predominantly Scandinavian sailors, in the VIII-XI centuries, made sea voyages from Vinland to Biarmia and from the Caspian Sea to North Africa. For the most part, these were free peasants who lived on the territory of modern Sweden, Denmark and Norway, who were pushed outside their native countries by overpopulation and a thirst for easy money. Religiously, the vast majority are pagans.
Swedish Vikings and Vikings from the Baltic Coast, as a rule, traveled to the east and appeared in ancient Russian and Byzantine sources under the name of the Varangians. Norwegian and Danish Vikings moved mostly to the west and are known from Latin sources under the name of the Normans. A look at the Vikings from within their society is provided by the Scandinavian sagas, but this source should be approached with caution due to the often late date of their compilation and recording. Other non-Scandinavian peoples of the Baltic were also seen to be involved in the Viking movement. The Vikings included the Baltic Slavs (Vends), in particular, the Vagrs and Ruyans became famous for their pirate raids on Scandinavia and Denmark. This information is also preserved in the sagas. In the “Saga of Hakon the Good” it is written “Then King Hakon sailed east along the banks of the Skani and ravaged the country, took ransoms and taxes and killed the Vikings, where he only found them, both Danes and Wends.”
Lifestyle. Abroad, the Vikings acted as robbers, conquerors and traders, and at home they mainly cultivated the land, hunted, fished and raised cattle. The independent peasant, who worked alone or with relatives, formed the basis of Scandinavian society. No matter how small his allotment was, he remained free and was not tied like a serf to the land that belonged to another person. In all strata of Scandinavian society, family ties were strongly developed, and in important matters its members usually acted together with relatives. The clans jealously guarded the good names of their fellow tribesmen, and trampling on the honor of one of them often led to cruel civil strife. Women in the family played an important role. They could own property, decide on their own about marriage and divorce from an unsuitable spouse. However, outside the family hearth, women's participation in public life remained negligible.
Food. In Viking times, most people ate two meals a day. The main products were meat, fish and grains of cereals. Meat and fish were usually boiled, rarely fried. For storage, these products were dried and salted. From cereals, rye, oats, barley and several types of wheat were used. Usually porridge was cooked from their grains, but sometimes bread was baked. Vegetables and fruits were rarely eaten. From the drinks consumed milk, beer, fermented honey drink, and in the upper classes of society - imported wine.
Cloth. Peasant clothing consisted of a long woolen shirt, short baggy trousers, stockings and a rectangular cape. Vikings from the upper classes wore long pants, socks and capes in bright colors. Woolen mittens and hats were in use, as well as fur hats and even felt hats. Women from high society usually wore long clothes, consisting of a bodice and a skirt. Thin chains hung from buckles on clothes, to which scissors and a case for needles, a knife, keys and other small items were attached. Married women put their hair in a bun and wore conical white linen caps. Unmarried girls had their hair tied up with a ribbon.
Dwelling. Peasant dwellings were usually simple one-room houses, built either from tightly fitted vertical beams, or more often from wicker wicker coated with clay. Wealthy people usually lived in a large rectangular house, which housed numerous relatives. In heavily forested Scandinavia, such houses were built of wood, often in combination with clay, while in Iceland and Greenland, in conditions of a shortage of wood, local stone was widely used. Walls 90 cm thick or more were folded there. The roofs were usually covered with peat. The central living room of the house was low and dark, with a long hearth in the middle. They cooked food, ate and slept there. Sometimes inside the house, along the walls, pillars were installed in a row to support the roof, and the side rooms fenced off in this way were used as bedrooms. 
Literature and art. The Vikings valued skill in combat, but they also revered literature, history, and art. Viking literature existed in oral form, and only some time after the end of the Viking Age did the first written works appear. The runic alphabet was then used only for inscriptions on tombstones, for magic spells and short messages. But in Iceland, a rich folklore has been preserved. It was written down at the end of the Viking Age using the Latin alphabet by scribes who wanted to perpetuate the exploits of their ancestors. Among the treasures of Icelandic literature stand out the long prose narratives known as sagas. They are divided into three main types. In the most important, the so-called. family sagas describe real characters from the Viking Age. Several dozen family sagas have survived, five of them are comparable in volume to large novels. The other two types are the historical sagas, which deal with Norwegian kings and the settlement of Iceland, and the adventurous fictional sagas of the late Viking Age, reflecting the influence of the Byzantine Empire and India. Viking art was primarily decorative. The predominant motifs - whimsical animals and energetic abstract compositions of intertwining ribbons - were used in wood carvings, fine gold and silver work, and decorations on runestones and monuments that were placed to commemorate important events. 
Religion. In the beginning, the Vikings worshiped pagan gods and goddesses. The most important of these were Thor, Odin, Frey and the goddess Freyja, of lesser importance were Njord, Ull, Balder and several other household gods. The gods were worshiped in temples or in sacred forests, groves and near springs. The Vikings also believed in many supernatural creatures: trolls, elves, giants, water and magical inhabitants of forests, hills and rivers. Bloody sacrifices were often made. Sacrificial animals were usually eaten by the priest and his entourage at feasts held in temples. There were also human sacrifices, even ritual killings of kings to ensure the welfare of the country. In addition to priests and priestesses, there were sorcerers who practiced black magic. The people of the Viking Age attached great importance to luck as a type of spiritual power inherent in any person, but especially leaders and kings. Nevertheless, that era was characterized by a pessimistic and fatalistic attitude. Fate was presented as an independent factor standing above gods and people. According to some poets and philosophers, people and gods were doomed to go through a powerful struggle and cataclysm, known as Ragnarök (Isl. - "end of the world"). Christianity slowly spread to the north and presented an attractive alternative to paganism. In Denmark and Norway, Christianity was established in the 10th century, the Icelandic leaders adopted the new religion in 1000, and Sweden in the 11th century, but in the north of this country pagan beliefs persisted until the beginning of the 12th century.
military art
Viking expeditions. Detailed information about the campaigns of the Vikings is known mainly from the written reports of the victims, who spared no colors to describe the devastation that the Scandinavians carried with them. The first campaigns of the Vikings were made on the principle of "hit and run". They appeared without warning from the sea in light, high-speed vessels and struck at weakly guarded objects known for their riches. The Vikings cut down a few defenders with swords, and the rest of the inhabitants were enslaved, seized valuables, and everything else was set on fire. Gradually, they began to use horses in their campaigns.
Weapon. Viking weapons were bows and arrows, as well as a variety of swords, spears and battle axes. Swords and spearheads and arrowheads were usually made of iron or steel. For bows, yew or elm wood was preferred, and braided hair was usually used as a bowstring. Viking shields were round or oval in shape. Usually, light pieces of linden wood, upholstered along the edge and across with iron stripes, went to the shields. In the center of the shield was a pointed plaque. For protection, warriors also wore metal or leather helmets, often with horns, and warriors from the nobility often wore chain mail. 
Viking ships. The highest technical achievement of the Vikings was their warships. These boats, kept in exemplary order, were often described with great love in the poetry of the Vikings and were a source of their pride. The narrow frame of such a vessel was very convenient for approaching the shore and quickly passing through rivers and lakes. The lighter vessels were especially suited to surprise attacks; they could be dragged from one river to another to bypass rapids, waterfalls, dams and fortifications. The disadvantage of these ships was that they were not sufficiently adapted for long voyages on the high seas, which was compensated by the navigational skill of the Vikings. Viking boats differed in the number of pairs of rowing oars, large ships - in the number of rowing benches. 13 pairs of oars determined the minimum size of a warship. The very first ships were designed for 40-80 people each, and a large keel ship of the 11th century. accommodated several hundred people. Such large combat units exceeded 46 m in length. Vessels were often built from boards laid in rows with overlapping and fastened with curved frames. Above the waterline, most warships were brightly painted. Carved dragon heads, sometimes gilded, adorned the prows of ships. The same decoration could be on the stern, and in some cases there was a wriggling dragon's tail. When sailing in the waters of Scandinavia, these decorations were usually removed so as not to frighten the good spirits. Often, when approaching the port, shields were hung in a row on the sides of the ships, but this was not allowed on the high seas.
Viking ships moved with the help of sails and oars. A simple square-shaped sail, made of coarse canvas, was often painted in stripes and checks. The mast could be shortened and even removed altogether. With the help of skillful devices, the captain could navigate the ship against the wind. The ships were steered by a paddle-shaped rudder mounted on the stern on the starboard side. 
Vikings in England
8 June 793 CE e. The Vikings landed on the island of Lindisfarne in Northumbria, destroying and devastating the monastery of St. Cuthbert. This is the first Viking attack clearly recorded in written sources, although it is clear that Scandinavians have visited British shores before. Since at first the Vikings used the tactic of pinstrikes, the chroniclers did not attach much importance to their raids. Nevertheless, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle mentions a raid by pirates of unknown origin on Portland in Dorset in 787. The Danish Vikings were a serious success in conquering the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms and occupying the western and northern parts of England. In 865, the sons of the Danish king Ragnar Lothbrok brought a large army to the shores of England, christened by the chroniclers "the great army of the pagans." In 870-871. the sons of Ragnar subjected the kings of East Anglia and Northumbria to cruel execution, and their possessions were divided among themselves. Following this, the Danes set about conquering Mercia.
King Alfred the Great of Wessex was forced to conclude a truce with the Danes, and then a full-fledged peace treaty, thereby legitimizing their possessions in Britain. Jorvik became the English capital of the Vikings. Despite the influx of fresh forces from Scandinavia in 892 and 899, Alfred and his son Edward the Elder successfully resisted the Danish conquerors, clearing the territory of East Anglia and Mercia by 924. Scandinavian dominance in remote Northumbria continued until 954.
A new wave of Viking raids on British shores began in 980. It culminated in the conquest of England in 1013 by the Danish Vikings of Sven Forkbeard. In 1016-35. Canute the Great was at the head of the united Anglo-Danish monarchy. After his death, the Wessex dynasty, in the person of Edward the Confessor, regained the English throne. In 1066, the British repulsed another Scandinavian invasion, this time led by the Norwegian king Harald Severe.
Scandinavian influence on the political culture, social structure and language of Ireland and other Celtic lands was much more significant than in England, but the chronology of their invasions, due to the scarcity of sources, cannot be reconstructed with the same accuracy. The first raid on Ireland is mentioned in 795. With the advent of the Vikings, the foundation of Dublin is connected, which the Scandinavians owned for two centuries. Their Scandinavian kings were in Limerick and Waterford, while the Dublin kings extended their power even to Northumbria at the beginning of the tenth century. 
Viking relations with the Frankish Empire were complex. During the time of Charlemagne and Louis the Pious, the empire was relatively immune from the onslaught from the north. Galicia, Portugal and some Mediterranean lands suffered from episodic Norman raids in the 9th and 10th centuries. Viking leaders such as Rorik of Jutland entered the service of the Frankish rulers in order to protect the borders of the empire from their own tribesmen, at the same time controlling rich markets in the Rhine delta, such as Walcheren and Dorestad. King Harald Klak of Jutland took an oath of allegiance to Louis the Pious back in 823.
The penetration of the Vikings into the Finnish lands began in the 2nd half of the 8th century, as evidenced by the oldest layers of Staraya Ladoga. At about the same time with them, these lands were inhabited and mastered by the Slavs. In contrast to the raids on the coasts of Western Europe, the Viking settlements in Eastern Europe were more stable. The Scandinavians themselves noted the abundance of fortified settlements in the east of Europe, christening Ancient Russia the "country of cities" - Gardami. Evidence of forcible Viking penetration in the east of Europe is not as plentiful as in the west. An example is the invasion of the Swedes into the lands of the Curonians, which is described in the life of Ansgar. The main object of interest of the Vikings was the river routes, through which it was possible to get to the Arab Caliphate through the portage system. Their settlements are known on the Volkhov, Volga and Dnieper. The places of concentration of Scandinavian burial grounds, as a rule, are several kilometers away from the city centers where the local population, mainly Slavic, settled, and in many cases even from the river arteries themselves.
In the 9th century, the Vikings ensured trade with the Khazars along the Volga with the help of a proto-state structure, called by some historians the Russian Khaganate. Judging by the finds of coin hoards, in the 10th century the Dnieper became the main trade artery, the main trading partner instead of Khazaria was Byzantium. According to the Norman theory, from the symbiosis of the newcomer Varangians with the Slavic population, the state of Kievan Rus was born, headed by the Rurikovichs, the descendants of Prince Rurik. 
In the lands of the Prussians, the Vikings held in their hands the trading centers of Kaup and Truso, from where the “amber route” began in the Mediterranean. In Finland, traces of their long presence have been found on the shores of Lake Vanajavesi. In Staraya Ladoga, under Yaroslav the Wise, Jarl was Regnvald Ulvson. The Vikings traveled to the mouth of the Northern Dvina for furs and explored the Zavolotsky path. Ibn Fadlan met them in the Volga Bulgaria in 922. Through the Volga-Don portage at Sarkel, the Rus descended into the Caspian Sea. For two centuries they fought and traded with Byzantium, concluding several treaties with it.
Termination of sea voyages. The Vikings curtailed their conquest campaigns in the first half of the 11th century. This is due to the decline in the population of the Scandinavian lands, the spread of Christianity in northern Europe, which did not approve of robberies and the slave trade. In parallel, the tribal system was replaced by feudal relations, and the traditional semi-nomadic way of life of the Vikings gave way to a settled one. Another factor was the reorientation of trade routes: the Volga and Dnieper river routes were steadily losing importance to the Mediterranean trade, which was revived by the Venetian and other trading republics. Individual adventurers from Scandinavia in the 11th century were still employed by the Byzantine emperors and ancient Russian princes. Historians refer to the last Vikings on the Norwegian throne as Olaf Haraldson and Harald the Severe, who laid down his head while trying to conquer England. Ingvar the Traveler, who died during the expedition on the shores of the Caspian Sea, was one of the last distant overseas trips in the spirit of the ancestors. Having adopted Christianity, yesterday's Vikings organized in 1107-1110. own crusade to the Holy Land.
Weapons and armor
Horned helmet- in the mass consciousness is considered almost an obligatory attribute of the Viking, which was worn by all without exception. However, not a single horned helmet has been found in the entire history of the excavations. They found thousands of different ones - pointed and blunt, decorated and not, even dug up a couple of helmets with wings, like Hermes, but not a single horned one. Different peoples had such helmets, but it is assumed that primarily for ritual and decorative purposes. The fact is that a sword can slip along a pointed helmet, and catching on a horn, it either tears the helmet off the head, or turns it 90 degrees, or cuts it along with the head. In fact, the most common among the Vikings was a helmet similar to the "St. Wenceslas", that is, conical, with a nose and aventail. At that time - a sickly innovation. 
Shield- it was he who was the main protection of the Viking, round, with a umbon, about a meter in diameter, in the simplest case, stupidly knocked together from boards, sometimes covered with leather and bound with metal to reinforce, but still - a consumable. It is he who holds most of the blows, there are a number of cunning and not very tactics to take him aside, and the one left in the notch without a shield is almost guaranteed not to be a tenant if he does not have time to jump behind his comrades. During hiking, the shield was hung on the back, and at sea they were attached to the sides of the drakkar. Shields were also used as a signal flag: a white shield raised on a mast meant peaceful intentions, a red one meant “someone will be killed now.”
Armor- depending on wealth: from a leather jacket or a bearskin sleeveless jacket for ordinary warriors to chain mail with scales additionally worn over it or a lamellar vest for a jarl or an experienced fighter.
Sword is the most popular weapon. The classic Viking sword - straight, double-edged, with a rounded end and a spherical pommel - is designed only for slashing. In the 10th and 11th centuries, swordsmanship as a discipline did not yet exist, and sword fighting included such elements as "swing harder", "fucking with all the dope" and "take a hit on the shield." They did not practice stabbing blows, they did not parry the sword with a sword - the iron of rough forging from such disrespect was easily jagged and could easily break. Actually, the main purpose of the sword is cutting a weakly protected enemy or beheading extra limbs from armored ones. 
Ax / ax- the second most popular and the first most important weapon. When they hear the word "Viking", most often a hefty kingpin in a horned helmet, chain mail and with a double-sided ax appears. In fact, the latter was used by the ancient Greeks and all sorts of Asians, and the Vikings preferred one-sided axes, the reason for which is quite simple: they fought in close formation, making up a wall of shields, and in such conditions, when swinging, you can easily hurt your own neighbor. In general, an ax is not only a weapon, but also a universal tool of that time - you can fix a longship, chop firewood, break the gate, break the skull, and cook porridge. And when robbing civilians, the ax is more convenient due to its versatility. To cut doors with a sword - a toad will strangle, but an ax is not a pity for such a thing, because high-quality steel was used only for the manufacture of the blade, and the butt and other parts were made of ordinary iron. In battle, it is much more practical to break shields and cut through armor with an ax, plus the ax continues to chop tolerably, even if it has lost its sharpening, while the sword turns into useless scrap. Well, you shouldn’t write off the economic aspect: an ax is easier to manufacture ⇒ cheaper, and therefore more accessible for a rogue, and it’s easier to straighten a chipped blade.
Brodex- an ax with a 45 cm blade, sitting on a meter-long ax handle with a two-handed grip. Priceless for crumbling into a fine vinaigrette. It is no coincidence that fighters with Brodex were placed on the edge of the wedge of the attacking Scandinavian stealth infantry.
Hammer- less common, but the most respected type of weapon. Could be both combat and throwing. The hammer of the Scandinavian God Thor Mjolnir is known, which was homing, caused lightning upon impact, and after hitting the target returned back to the hand. Accordingly, the Vikings, who respected their god, wore pendants in the form of a hammer. From a practical point of view, it is good because it misses such flexible armor as chain mail.
Spears- used by the Vikings on a par with all neighbors, throwing and combat differed. Fighting usually had a long leaf-shaped tip, which could not only prick, but also chop, and the shaft was bound with metal.
Viking ships
Drakkar- Terrifying Viking ships. A dragon's head was always placed on the bow of the ship, at the sight of which the civilian population soiled their pants and fled in horror. The ship worked on a manual drive, by rowing with oars on the water. With a fair wind, a square sail added speed. Thanks to the smart-ass design, these ships were versatile, all-terrain and inconspicuous.
For a Viking, a drakkar meant more than a family castle for a knight, and it was a great shame to fuck up a drakkar - the whole squad could easily scatter with such a leader. Contrary to popular belief, only free Vikings could be rowers on a drakkar, and if for some reason a slave was put behind the oars, then after that he received freedom. Drakkar rowers had different status depending on their location on the ship. The most honorable places were at the bow of the ship. This was due to the fact that the speed and efficiency of moving the ship depended on the rowers, at the same time they were also warriors, and when moving into hand-to-hand combat, the units sitting on the bow were the first to engage in battle.
For several centuries, before and after the year 1000, Western Europe was constantly attacked by "Vikings" - warriors who sailed on ships from Scandinavia. Therefore, the period from about 800 to 1100 years. AD in the history of Northern Europe is called the "Viking Age". Those who were attacked by the Vikings perceived their campaigns as purely predatory, but they pursued other goals as well.
Viking detachments were usually led by representatives of the ruling elite of Scandinavian society - kings and hövdings. Through robbery, they acquired wealth, which they then divided among themselves and with their people. Victories in foreign countries brought them fame and position. Already in the early stages, the leaders also began to pursue political goals and take control of territories in the conquered countries. Little is said in the chronicles that trade increased significantly during the Viking Age, but archaeological finds attest to this. In Western Europe there was a flourishing of cities, the first urban formations appeared in Scandinavia. The first city in Sweden was Birka, located on an island in Lake Mälaren, about 30 kilometers west of Stockholm. This city existed from the end of the 8th to the end of the 10th century; its successor in the Mälaren area was the city of Sigtuna, which today is an idyllic small town about 40 kilometers northwest of Stockholm.
The Viking Age is also characterized by the fact that many inhabitants of Scandinavia forever left their native places and settled in foreign countries, mainly as farmers. Many Scandinavians, primarily those from Denmark, settled in the eastern part of England, no doubt with the support of the Scandinavian kings and hevdings who ruled there. Large-scale Norse colonization took place in the Scottish Isles; Norwegians also sailed across the Atlantic Ocean to previously unknown, uninhabited places: the Faroe Islands, Iceland and Greenland (Even attempts were made to settle in North America). During the 12th and 13th centuries, vivid stories about the Viking Age were recorded in Iceland, not entirely reliable, but still indispensable as historical sources, giving an idea of the pagan faith and way of thinking of the people of that time.
Contacts made during the Viking Age with the outside world radically changed Scandinavian society. Missionaries from Western Europe arrived in Scandinavia as early as the first century of the Viking Age. The most famous of these is Ansgar, the "Scandinavian Apostle", who was sent by the Frankish king Louis the Pious to Birka around 830 and returned there again around 850. In the late Viking Age, an intensive process of Christianization began. The Danish, Norwegian and Swedish kings realized what power Christian civilization and organization could give to their states, and carried out a change of religions. The process of Christianization was most difficult in Sweden, where at the end of the 11th century there was a fierce struggle between Christians and pagans.
Viking Age in the East.
The Scandinavians not only traveled west, but also made long journeys to the east during the same centuries. For natural reasons, it was primarily the inhabitants of the places that now belong to Sweden that rushed in this direction. Campaigns to the east and the influence of eastern countries left a special imprint on the Viking Age in Sweden. Travel to the east was also undertaken whenever possible by ship - through the Baltic Sea, along the rivers of Eastern Europe to the Black and Caspian Seas, and, along them, to the great powers south of these seas: Christian Byzantium in the territory of modern Greece and Turkey and the Islamic Caliphate in eastern lands. Here, as well as to the west, the ships sailed and oared, but these ships were smaller than those used for campaigns in the westerly direction. Their usual length was about 10 meters, and the team consisted of approximately 10 people. Larger ships were not needed to navigate the Baltic Sea, and besides, they could not move along the rivers.
Artist V. Vasnetsov "The calling of the Varangians". 862 - invitation of the Varangians Rurik and his brothers Sineus and Truvor.
This fact that the marches to the east are less known than the marches to the west is partly due to the fact that there are not many written sources about them. The letter came into use in Eastern Europe only in the later period of the Viking Age. However, from Byzantium and the Caliphate, which were the real great powers of the Viking Age from an economic and cultural point of view, there are travel descriptions contemporary to this era, as well as historical and geographical works telling about the peoples of Eastern Europe and describing trade travels and military campaigns from Eastern Europe to countries south of the Black and Caspian Seas. Sometimes among the characters in these images, we can notice the Scandinavians. As historical sources, these images are often more reliable and more complete than the Western European chronicles written by monks and bearing a strong imprint of their Christian zeal and hatred of pagans. A large number of Swedish runestones are also known from the 11th century, almost all of them are from the vicinity of Lake Mälaren; they are erected in memory of relatives who often traveled to the east. As for Eastern Europe, there is a wonderful Tale of Bygone Years dating back to the beginning of the 12th century. and telling about the ancient history of the Russian state - not always reliable, but always lively and with an abundance of details, which greatly distinguishes it from Western European chronicles and gives it a charm comparable to the charm of the Icelandic sagas.
Ros - Rus - Ruotsi (Rhos - Rus - Ruotsi).
In 839, an ambassador from Emperor Theophilus from Constantinople (modern Istanbul) arrived to the Frankish king Louis the Pious, who was at that moment in Ingelheim on the Rhine. With the envoy also came several people from the people of the “Ros”, who traveled to Constantinople by such dangerous routes that they now wanted to return home through the kingdom of Louis. When the king asked in more detail about these people, it turned out that they were Svei. Louis knew the pagan Svei well, as he himself had previously sent Ansgar as a missionary to their trading city of Birka. The king began to suspect that the people who called themselves "ros" were in fact spies, and decided to detain them until he found out their intentions. Such a story is contained in one Frankish chronicle. Unfortunately, it is not known what happened to these people afterwards.
This story is important for the study of the Viking Age in Scandinavia. It and some other manuscripts from Byzantium and the Caliphate more or less clearly show that in the east in the 8th-9th centuries the Scandinavians were called "ros" / "rus" (rhos / rus). At the same time, this name was used to designate the Old Russian state, or, as it is often called, Kievan Rus (see map). The state grew during these centuries, and from it modern Russia, Belarus and Ukraine trace their origins.
The ancient history of this state is told in the Tale of Bygone Years, which was recorded in its capital, Kiev, shortly after the end of the Viking Age. In the record of 862, one can read that turmoil reigned in the country, and it was decided to look for a ruler on the other side of the Baltic Sea. Ambassadors were sent to the Varangians (that is, the Scandinavians), namely to those who were called "Rus"; Rurik and his two brothers were invited to rule the country. They came "with all Russia", and Rurik settled in Novgorod. "And the Russian land got its name from these Varangians." After the death of Rurik, the rule passed to his relative Oleg, who conquered Kiev and made this city the capital of his state, and after the death of Oleg, Rurik's son Igor became the prince.
The legend about the calling of the Varangians, contained in the Tale of Bygone Years, is a story about the origin of the ancient Russian princely family, and as a historical source is very controversial. The name "Rus" has been tried to be explained in many ways, but now the most common opinion is that this name should be compared with the names from the Finnish and Estonian languages - Ruotsi / Rootsi, which today mean "Sweden", and previously indicated peoples from Sweden or Scandinavia. This name, in turn, comes from the Old Norse word meaning "rowing", "rowing expedition", "members of the rowing expedition". Obviously, the people who lived on the western coast of the Baltic Sea were known for their sea voyages on oars. There are no reliable sources about Rurik, and it is not known how he and his "Rus" came to Eastern Europe - however, this hardly happened as simply and peacefully as the legend says. When the clan established itself as one of the ruling in Eastern Europe, soon the state itself and its inhabitants began to be called "Rus". The fact that the family was of Scandinavian origin is indicated by the names of the ancient princes: Rurik is the Scandinavian Rörek, a common name in Sweden even in the late Middle Ages, Oleg - Helge, Igor - Ingvar, Olga (Igor's wife) - Helga.
To speak more definitely about the role of the Scandinavians in the early history of Eastern Europe, it is not enough just to study a few written sources, one must also take into account archaeological finds. They show a significant number of objects of Scandinavian origin dating from the 9th-10th centuries in the ancient part of Novgorod (Rurik's settlement outside modern Novgorod), in Kiev and in many other places. We are talking about weapons, horse harness, as well as household items, and magical and religious amulets, for example, Thor's hammers found at the sites of settlements, in burials and treasures.
It is obvious that in the region under consideration there were many Scandinavians who were engaged not only in war and politics, but also in trade, crafts and agriculture - after all, the Scandinavians themselves came from agricultural societies, where urban culture, just like in Eastern Europe, began to develop only during these centuries. In many places, the northerners left clear imprints of Scandinavian elements in culture - in clothing and the art of jewelry making, in weapons and religion. But it is also clear that the Scandinavians lived in societies whose structure was based on Eastern European culture. The central part of the early cities was usually a densely populated fortress - citadel or kremlin. Such fortified cores of urban formations are not found in Scandinavia, but were characteristic of Eastern Europe for a long time. The way of construction in the places where the Scandinavians settled was mainly Eastern European, and most household items, such as household ceramics, also bore a local imprint. Foreign influence on culture came not only from Scandinavia, but also from countries to the east, south and southwest.
When Christianity was officially adopted in the Old Russian state in 988, Scandinavian features soon practically disappeared from its culture. Slavic and Christian Byzantine cultures became the main components in the culture of the state, and Slavic became the language of the state and church.
Caliphate - Serkland.
How and why did the Scandinavians participate in the development of events that eventually led to the formation of the Russian state? It was probably not only war and adventure, but also a lot of trade. The leading civilization of the world during this period was the Caliphate - an Islamic state that extended east to Afghanistan and Uzbekistan in Central Asia; there, far to the east, were the largest silver mines of that time. A huge amount of Islamic silver in the form of coins with Arabic inscriptions spread throughout Eastern Europe as far as the Baltic Sea and Scandinavia. The largest number of finds of silver objects was made in Gotland. From the territory of the Russian state and mainland Sweden, primarily from the area around Lake Mälaren, a number of luxury items are also known, which indicate connections with the East that were of a more social nature - for example, details of clothing or banquet items.When Islamic written sources mention "Rus" - by which, generally speaking, one can mean both the Scandinavians and other peoples from the Old Russian state, interest is shown primarily in their trading activity, although there are also stories about military campaigns, for example, against the city Berd in Azerbaijan in 943 or 944. In the world geography of Ibn Khordadbeh, it is said that Russian merchants sold the skins of beavers and silver foxes, as well as swords. They came on ships to the lands of the Khazars, and, having paid a tithe to their prince, they set off further along the Caspian Sea. Often they carried their goods on camels all the way to Baghdad, the capital of the Caliphate. "They pretend to be Christians and pay the tax established for Christians." Ibn Khordadbeh was the minister of security in one of the provinces along the caravan route to Baghdad, and he was well aware that these people were not Christians. The reason they called themselves Christians was purely economic - Christians paid a lower tax than pagans who worshiped many gods.
Besides fur, perhaps the most important commodity coming from the north were slaves. In the Caliphate, slaves were used as labor force in most public sectors, and the Scandinavians, like other peoples, could get slaves during their military and predatory campaigns. Ibn Khordadbeh relates that slaves from the country of "Saklaba" (roughly meaning "Eastern Europe") served as interpreters for the Rus in Baghdad.
The flow of silver from the Caliphate dried up at the end of the 10th century. Perhaps the reason was the fact that silver mining in the mines in the east was reduced, perhaps the war and unrest that reigned in the steppes between Eastern Europe and the Caliphate influenced. But another thing is also possible - that in the Caliphate they began to conduct experiments to reduce the silver content in the coin, and in connection with this, interest in coins in Eastern and Northern Europe was lost. Eonomics in these territories was not monetary, the value of the coin was considered according to its purity and weight. Silver coins and ingots were cut into pieces and weighed on a scale to get the price that a person was willing to pay for the goods. Silver of varying purity made this type of payment transaction difficult or nearly impossible. Therefore, the views of Northern and Eastern Europe turned towards Germany and England, where in the late period of the Viking Age a large number of full-weight silver coins were minted, which were distributed in Scandinavia, as well as in some regions of the Russian state.
However, as early as the 11th century, it happened that the Scandinavians reached the Caliphate, or Serkland, as they called this state. The most famous campaign of the Swedish Vikings in this century was led by Ingvar, whom the Icelanders called Ingvar the Traveler. An Icelandic saga is written about him, however, very unreliable, but about 25 East Swedish runestones tell about the people who accompanied Ingvar. All these stones indicate that the campaign ended in disaster. On one of the stones near Gripsholm in Södermanland you can read (according to I. Melnikova):
“Tola ordered this stone to be installed after her son Harald, brother of Ingvar.
They bravely left
far beyond the gold
and in the east
fed the eagles.
Died in the south
in Serkland.
So on many other rune stones, these proud lines about the campaign are written in verse. "To feed the eagles" is a poetic simile meaning "to kill enemies in battle". The meter used here is the old epic meter and is characterized by two stressed syllables in each verse line, and also by the fact that the verse lines are connected in pairs by alliteration, that is, repeated initial consonants and changing vowels.
Khazars and Volga Bulgars.
During the Viking Age, there were two important states in Eastern Europe dominated by the Turkic peoples: the state of the Khazars in the steppes north of the Caspian and Black Seas, and the state of the Volga Bulgars on the Middle Volga. The Khazar Khaganate ceased to exist already at the end of the 10th century, but the descendants of the Volga Bulgars live today in Tatarstan, a republic within the Russian Federation. Both of these states played an important role in the transfer of eastern influences to the Old Russian state and the countries of the Baltic region. A detailed analysis of Islamic coins showed that approximately 1/10 of them is an imitation and was minted by the Khazars or, more often, by the Volga Bulgars.The Khazar Khaganate early adopted Judaism as the state religion, and the Volga Bulgar state officially adopted Islam in 922. In this regard, the country was visited by Ibn Fadlan, who wrote a story about his visit and meeting with merchants from Russia. The most famous is his description of the burial of the heading of the Rus in the ship - a burial custom characteristic of Scandinavia and also found in the Old Russian state. The funeral ceremony included the sacrifice of a slave girl, who was raped by the warriors from the squad before they killed her and burned her along with their hevding. This is a story full of brutal details that can hardly be guessed from the archaeological excavations of the graves of the Viking Age.
Varangians at the Greeks in Miklagard.
The Byzantine Empire, which in Eastern and Northern Europe was called Greece or the Greeks, according to the Scandinavian tradition was perceived as the main goal of campaigns to the east. In the Russian tradition, links between Scandinavia and the Byzantine Empire also figure prominently. The Tale of Bygone Years contains a detailed description of the path: “There was a path from the Varangians to the Greeks, and from the Greeks along the Dnieper, and in the upper reaches of the Dnieper it dragged to Lovot, and along Lovot you can enter Ilmen, a great lake; Volkhov and flows into the Great Lake Nevo (Ladoga), and the mouth of that lake flows into the Varangian Sea (Baltic Sea).The emphasis on the role of Byzantium is a simplification of reality. The Scandinavians came primarily to the Old Russian state and settled there. And trade with the Caliphate through the states of the Volga Bulgars and the Khazars should have been of the most important economic importance for Eastern Europe and Scandinavia during the 9th-10th centuries.
However, during the Viking Age, and especially after the Christianization of the Old Russian state, the importance of ties with the Byzantine Empire increased. This is evidenced primarily by written sources. For unknown reasons, the number of finds of coins and other objects from Byzantium is relatively small in both Eastern and Northern Europe.
Around the end of the 10th century, the Emperor of Constantinople established a special Scandinavian detachment at his court - the Varangian Guard. Many believe that the beginning of this guard was laid by those Varangians who were sent to the emperor by the Kiev prince Vladimir in connection with his adoption of Christianity in 988 and his marriage to the emperor's daughter.
The word vringar originally meant a people bound by an oath, but in the late Viking Age it became a common name for the Scandinavians in the east. Waring in the Slavic language became known as Varangian, in Greek - Varangos (varangos), in Arabic - Varank (warank).
Constantinople, or Miklagard, the great city, as the Scandinavians called it, was incredibly attractive to them. The Icelandic sagas tell of many Norwegians and Icelanders who served in the Varangian guard. One of them, Harald the Severe, became King of Norway on his return home (1045-1066). Swedish runestones of the 11th century often speak of a stay in Greece than in the Old Russian state.
On the old path leading to the church at Ede in Uppland, there is a large stone with runic inscriptions on both sides. In them, Ragnvald talks about how these runes were carved in memory of his mother Fastvi, but above all he is interested in telling about himself:
"These runes commanded
carve Ragnvald.
He was in Greece
was the leader of a detachment of warriors.
Soldiers from the Varangian Guard guarded the palace in Constantinople and took part in military campaigns in Asia Minor, the Balkan Peninsula and Italy. The country of the Lombards, mentioned on several runestones, implies Italy, the southern regions of which were part of the Byzantine Empire. In the port suburb of Athens, Piraeus, there used to be a huge luxurious marble lion, which was transported to Venice in the 17th century. On this lion, one of the Varangians, during a holiday in Piraeus, carved a runic inscription in a serpentine shape, which was typical of Swedish runestones of the 11th century. Unfortunately, when it was discovered, the inscription was so badly damaged that only a few words can be read.
Scandinavians in Gardarik in the late period of the Viking Age.
At the end of the 10th century, as already mentioned, the flow of Islamic silver dried up, and instead, a flood of German and English coins poured east into the Russian state. In 988 the prince of Kiev and his people took the quantities to Gotland, where they were also copied, and to mainland Sweden and Denmark. Several belts have even been discovered in Iceland. Perhaps they belonged to people who served with the Russian princes.
Relations between the rulers of Scandinavia and the Old Russian state during the 11th-12th centuries were very lively. Two of the Grand Dukes of Kiev took wives in Sweden: Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054, previously reigned in Novgorod from 1010 to 1019) married Ingegerd, the daughter of Olaf Schötkonung, and Mstislav (1125-1132, previously reigned in Novgorod from 1095 to 1125) - on Christina, daughter of King Inga the Old.
Novgorod - Holmgard and trade with the Saami and Gotlanders.
Eastern, Russian influence also reached the Saami in northern Scandinavia in the 11th-12th centuries. In many places in Swedish Lapland and Norrbotten there are places of sacrifice on the banks of lakes and rivers and near rocks of bizarre shape; there are deer antlers, animal bones, arrowheads, and also tin. Many of these metal objects come from the Old Russian state, most likely from Novgorod - for example, the fitting of Russian belts of the same kind that were found in southern Sweden.
Novgorod, which the Scandinavians called Holmgard, acquired great importance over the centuries as a trading metropolis. The Gotlanders, who continued to play an important role in Baltic trade in the 11th-12th centuries, created a trading post in Novgorod. At the end of the 12th century, the Germans appeared in the Baltic, and gradually the main role in the Baltic trade passed to the German Hansa.
End of the Viking Age.
On a simple casting mold for cheap jewelry, made from a bar and found at Timans in Rum in Gotland, two Gotlanders at the end of the 11th century carved their names, Urmiga and Ulvat, and, in addition, the names of four distant countries. They let us know that the world for the Scandinavians in the Viking Age had wide borders: Greece, Jerusalem, Iceland, Serkland.
It is impossible to name the exact date when this world shrank and the Viking Age ended. Gradually, during the 11th and 12th centuries, the ways and connections changed their character, and in the 12th century, travel deep into the Old Russian state and to Constantinople and Jerusalem ceased. When the number of written sources in Sweden increased in the 13th century, the campaigns to the east became only memories.
In the Elder Edition of the Westgötalag, written in the first half of the thirteenth century, in the Chapter on Inheritance, there is, among other things, the following statement regarding one who is acquired abroad: He does not inherit anyone while he is sitting in Greece. Did the Westgets really still serve in the Varangian guard, or did this paragraph remain from bygone times?
In Gutasag, an account of the history of Gotland recorded in the 13th or early 14th century, it is said that the first churches on the island were consecrated by bishops on their way to or from the Holy Land. At that time there was a way to the east through Russia and Greece to Jerusalem. When the saga was being written, the pilgrims made their way around Central or even Western Europe.
Translation: Anna Fomenkova.
Do you know that...
The Scandinavians who served in the Varangian Guard were probably Christians - or they converted to Christianity during their stay in Constantinople. Some of them made pilgrimages to the Holy Land and Jerusalem, which was called Yorsalir in the Scandinavian language. The runestone from Brubyu to Täby in Uppland is placed in memory of Eystein, who went to Jerusalem and died in Greece.Another runic inscription from Uppland, from Stacket in Kungsengen, tells of a determined and fearless woman: Ingerun, daughter of Hord, ordered runes to be carved in memory of herself. She goes east and to Jerusalem.
In 1999, the largest hoard of silver objects dating back to the Viking Age was found on Gotland. Its total weight is about 65 kilograms, of which 17 kilograms are Islamic silver coins (approximately 14,300).
The material used drawings from the article.
games for girls
The profound changes in the spiritual life of the Scandinavians that took place during the Viking Age and the consequences caused by this period are of great interest. These changes have not been studied enough, which is proved by the paucity of sources from the period from the 8th-11th centuries. because at that time, writing in Scandinavia did not yet exist, excluding runic inscriptions. Despite the incompleteness of studies of the culture of the peoples of the Viking Age, it is possible to draw some conclusions and assumptions based on the accumulated material. Modern research literature is rich in a variety of studied material (from archeology, numismatics, runology, etc.). The difficulty in studying this period lies in the fact that the inconsistency of the sources is very great, this is especially true for the reasons for such a sudden expansion of the Vikings. Despite the abundance of external reasons for the Viking campaigns, the question remains: what caused such a sharp and large-scale conquest of vast territories by the Vikings, if back in the 8th century they peacefully sailed to the nearby islands and traded with the Franks.
Viking campaigns are based on the expansion of the Vikings to other countries. But at the same time, this expansion had various forms of its manifestation: they differed both in the scale of the offensive and in the motives that prompted them. Therefore, it is very difficult to draw a line between aggressive campaigns and peaceful travels. Since often the second smoothly passed into the first. Despite all the difficulties in studying the expansion of the Vikings, the main forms of its manifestation can be distinguished: piracy in the northern seas, attacks by scattered squads on other countries for the purpose of robbery, attacks by united detachments in order to seize booty and territory, campaigns of large armies led by kings in order to constantly pump out resources from the conquered territories, expeditions that were not of a conquest nature, but also sea travel and trade.
As for the participants of the campaigns, their composition was also diverse. At the head of military expeditions were representatives of the nobility, both rich and poor. The composition of the colonists was usually dominated by bonds and warriors, while the settlement was usually led by hawdings. Both noble and ignoble people and peaceful people were engaged in trade.
The Viking Age in Western and Eastern Europe refers to the time from the 9th - 11th centuries. During this period, the Scandinavians made conquests around the world. The wide expansion of the Vikings was accompanied by scattered raids, and later they were replaced by organized attacks. This period was also characterized by the development of trade, and the expansion of the colonized territories of the Vikings. The etymology of the word "Viking" has not yet been clarified, some scientists believe that "Viking" comes from the word "vik", which means bay or port. But there are other explanations: in Europe they were called the Normans "Northern people", and in Russia they were called the Varangians.
As for the reasons for expansion, several reasons can be distinguished, as well as their diversity. First, by the 9th century, the Scandinavians experienced an acute shortage of fertile land for agriculture and cattle breeding. Also, the beginning of the collapse of tribal relations led to overpopulation, and the combination of these two factors led to the fact that the Vikings began to look for other lands. The second reason is the development of trade. The Scandinavians increasingly began to meet goods from Europe, which overtook them in development by several hundred years. This collaboration led the Vikings to build better ships, allowing them to sail longer distances. The third reason is the growth of the nobility, who saw in foreign countries a source of enrichment and political gain. The fourth reason can be considered the fact that most countries at that time were in conditions of internal struggle, which made them much weaker than the Vikings.
Considering the activity of the Vikings, three main zones can be distinguished, which differ in the nature of hostilities. The first zone included the northern coasts of the British Isles and the Netherlands, where the Vikings penetrated during the summer season in small detachments for light robber raids from the fjords of Norway or from the islands of the North Atlantic, colonized by the Normans by the end of the 8th century. The second zone completely covered the British Isles, as well as the territory of France to the Garonne and Loire and the northwestern part of Germany to the middle Rhine and Elbe. Here, the Viking troops needed intermediate bases on the sea coast at the mouths of rivers or on the coastal islands of the North Sea. The third zone included central and southern France, the coasts of Spain, Italy and Sicily. It was available only to well-organized armies (sea or land), capable of conducting long-term campaigns away from their homeland and intermediate bases.
The Viking Age began with a Viking raid in 793 on the monastery of St. Cuthbert on about. Lindisfarne, this territory is located not far from England. The Viking attack was unexpected, they plundered the monastery and quietly sailed away. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle tells us about this: “This year there were terrible signs in Northtumbria, which frightened all the inhabitants immensely. Strong whirlwinds circled, lightning flashed, and flying dragons were seen in the sky, spewing flames. Soon after these signs, a severe famine began, and in the same year, on June 8, hordes of pagans plundered and destroyed the Temple of God in Lindesfarne and killed many people.Most scholars consider this date to be the beginning of the "Viking Age".
England - a large and rich country has become a source of enrichment and wealth for the Normans. The Vikings robbed the population and extorted tribute, they also acted as hired soldiers. The Normans founded settlements in England and were engaged in agriculture, later they established themselves on the throne of both small kingdoms and large ones. Initially, the Danish and Norwegian leaders entered the service of the English kings and received salaries from them and levied taxes, which later turned into huge extortions from the population. The Danish leaders Knut the Great, who took the English throne in 1017 and, later, the king of Denmark, founded the state of Knut the Great, which, like many medieval formations, fell apart quickly - after the death of his brother Hardaknut in 1042. King Harald Hardrad (1046 - 1066) is considered the last Viking on the throne. He served in Constantinople and fought in Sicily. In 1066 he created a large fleet and went to the coast of England to conquer it. The Normans living on the island went over to the side of the king, but the English king Harold defeated the Vikings and seemed to repel the threat of the Norman conquest, but three weeks later William the Great defeated the British army at the Battle of Hastgins. The last attempt by the Danish kings to conquer England was made by the Danish king Svein Estridsson in 1069, but if you get a ransom from England, they left the coast of the island and on this the expansion of the Vikings to England was completed, only some territories remained behind them: Northern Scotland, the Hebrides and Orkney Islands
If we delve deeper into almost two hundred years of Norman activity in England, we can single out many more references to their presence. In 794 they robbed the Donemutan Monastery, located near the Don River. After that they went to the territories of Scotland and Ireland, after their plunder they again rushed to England and devastated Sheppey, an island at the mouth of the Thames. At the beginning of the Viking raids, South and East Anglia, mostly large cities, suffered greatly, with the Danes being the bulk. Initially, these raids were short-lived and were made to the islands and various areas of the coast from Scandinavia, but later the Vikings began to winter on the shores of England. The first such camp was on the Isle of Thanet in 851 off the east coast of Kent. When the Vikings settled on the coast and attacks began falling into the interior of England. In 865 they entered into an agreement with the inhabitants of Kent, according to which they had to pay a ransom to the Normans. After this agreement, the Vikings began to increasingly demand tribute from the British. In 866, the city of York in Northumbria was conquered, where they installed their king. In 867, the army went to Mercia, having concluded a peace treaty with this kingdom. In 870 Wessex was captured by them. At the same time, as the Anglo-Saxon chronicle tells, their raids fell on the reign of King Alfred the Great, who was able to repel several Norman raids. The war went on with varying successes and ended with the conclusion of a peace treaty. In 874 the Norman army split up. The army of Havding Halfdan captured the kingdom of Northumbria, and Halfdan began to distribute land here to the Vikings for its cultivation. The second army went to Wessex, the kingdom which was the last independent and King Alfred was forced to submit. After that they went in 877 to Mercia and divided it. During this year King Alfred the Great fled from Wessex and in 878 having gathered an army, he won a victory at Edingt. The concluded agreement stipulated that the Vikings had to leave Wessex, and their king Gudrum had to be baptized, which happened. He was baptized with his subordinates, and Alfred became the godfather. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle says that in 880 they went to East Anglia and settled there, began to distribute land to their fellow tribesmen. After conquering three of the four kingdoms, the Vikings went to the continent. And between Gudrum and King Alfred, an agreement was concluded. It outlined the border between the two kingdoms, as well as their relationship. However, the Vikings, who were on the shores of Western Europe, continued to attack England. So in 892, an army from Boulogne led by Hawdig Hasting arrived in England and wanted to settle here, but Alfred's well-organized defense was able to repel their raids and the Vikings were forced to sail to the banks of the Seine. After that, as such, there were no more raids on England, there were only internecine disagreements. Constant dynastic connections were made, dynasties changed, there were constant borrowings of cultural elements that led to changes in the life of the British and Normans.
The Viking attack on the Western European continent dates back to 810 and was directed at Friesland, as evidenced by the Frankish annals. This territory was plundered and taxed. After that, there was an attempt by the Scandinavians to besiege Flanders, but the high-quality defense of Karl Velikov was able to push the Vikings back. Then they decided to land in Aquitaine, where they were able to capture huge resources. After these defeats, the Franks were forced to resort to another form of coastal defense. They began to distribute land to the Hövding len, so that they would protect them from sea invasions: this defense system was subsequently used by Russia in relation to the Cossacks. After the death of Charlemagne in 814. internecine wars began over the heritage of the Franks, which played into the hands of the Vikings, and they began an active offensive deep into the continent: from 834 to 837 they plundered Dorestad, which is located along the Rhine. By the middle of the IX century. their raids begin to increase. In 841, they plundered Rouen, and then Kventovich: this city was the center of trade with England. The power and influence of the Scandinavians in Europe increased, so some grandchildren of Charlemagne resorted to their help to fight each other. The first mention that the Vikings spent the winter on the European continent dates back to 843. The Annals of Bertin say that the Vikings brought cattle and houses to Normontier and were going to live here. After this moment, the expansion of the Vikings acquired an international character. The West Frankish kingdom of Charles the Bald suffered the most, but the rest of the territories did not go unnoticed by the Vikings. By the middle of the IX century, the Normans plundered the areas of the Seine, Paris. Charles the Bald was forced to pay off the Vikings. The monk Ermentarius of Nomontier wrote that the number of Viking ships is growing, and their hordes are constantly present. According to him, the Vikings will stop at nothing, they have already captured Bordeaux, Perigueux, Limoges, Angouleme and Toulouse, Angers and Orleans. By the end of the 9th century, European rulers knew effective ways to fight the invaders, these were fortified bridges over rivers, as well as a large number of fortresses. Charlemagne began to do this, and his grandchildren continued. Such a defense system affected the defense of Paris in 885-886. After many attempts to take. Paris the Vikings had to retreat.
Some Viking campaigns reached the Mediterranean. According to some sources, Seville was plundered. The largest campaign was led by Bjorn, Jernside and Hasting. Their ships visited Spain, North Africa, the Rhone Valley and Italy. Many chronicles of that time, as well as later sources, testify to these campaigns. Arabic author of the 13th century. Ibn al-Athir, who used the writings of al-Tabari, says that Alfonso II enlisted the help of al-manjus, as the Arabs called the Vikings, to repel the raids of the Moors in 795. The first raid that is definitely known is the raid in 844. to Seville. According to Ibi al-Kwitiya, the Vikings, after the sack of Seville, went further to North Africa, and there is even an opinion that they reached Alexandria. According to Ibi al-Kwitiya, Spain resisted more strongly than France, he said that the fleeing Vikings defended themselves from all kinds of attacks. Thanks to the technical knowledge of the Arab in the equipment of the fleet, well-armed foot soldiers, the Arab fleet became the most effective against the tarred Viking ships. The famous expedition of Bjorn and Hastein in 859, after the ruin of Algeciras, left Spain and went to devastate the African coast. Before returning to France, they established themselves at La Camargue in the Rhone Delta and continued their raids along the river. After long battles, they were defeated, after which they went along the coast, robbed Pisa. But returning through the Strait of Gibraltar in 861, the passage was blocked by the Saracen fleet, having received 90,000 denarii as a ransom, they returned back. The interval between the first date of the campaign and the next takes almost a century, which means that the resistance of the Moors was effective.
The next raid undertaken by the Vikings was in 966, but it was small and insignificant. The Vikings were defeated in this campaign. But still they managed to capture the cities of northern Spain.
The Vikings continued to plunder Europe, but at the same time new fortresses were being built, and the defense was strengthened. By the end of the 9th century, the Vikings began to lose over and over again: in 890, the Vikings made an attempt to conquer Brittany, but everything ended in failure for the Normans, in 891 they were defeated by King Arnulf in the battle of the river. Dile. After a series of unsuccessful raids in 892, a significant part of the Vikings went to England, taking most of their property, apparently they wanted to settle there, but the organized defense of King Alfred repulsed the Vikings, and they were forced to return back to the continent in Northumbria. But the expansion of the Vikings continued further. So, for example, in Normandy in 911, King Charles the Simple gave enf to havding Rollo, who arrived from Northern France and settled on the Cotentin peninsula, the city of Rouen and the coast of the Seine River - the new duchy was independent of both the Frankish kings and the Normans . For some time, Rollo and his army remained pagans, but through the generations they lost not only pagan traditions, but also the language itself. Rollo expanded his power and territory in Western Europe. Subsequently, many Scandinavian tribes began to move here. The first local rulers were the counts of Rouen. This territory developed over two centuries: the most important conquests belong to 924 and 933. Normandy is translated as the land of the Normans. Normandy retained its independence until 1204, when it was conquered by King Philip Augustus.
Considering the campaigns of the Vikings in the general context of relations between the barbarian world and more developed peoples - the heirs of ancient civilization, they can be considered as the last stage of the German invasions or as the second wave of barbarian expansion into Europe. Like the Great Migration of Peoples in the IV - VI centuries. led to the creation of new states in the West of Europe, and the second Scandinavian expansion led to the creation of the Viking kingdoms in the conquered territories and the first states in Scandinavia. Since the Germans, the Scandinavians adopted European elements of culture: they adopted Christianity and embarked on the path of creating feudalism, although at the same time they retained their original ideological, cultural and socio-political characteristics.
One of the consequences of the expansion of the Vikings to England was to bring elements of European culture there. The Scandinavian influence strongly affected the English language. In particular, English has about 600 borrowings from the Scandinavian languages and usually these words are associated with household items: a knife, a skin, a roof, etc. Just as strongly the interaction of these languages was due to the fact that Old English and Old Norse words were similar to each other. There are also many borrowings in geographical names. About 800 names have the ending "by", from the Norwegian "by", and there are also many endings with the word "torp". Geographical names indicate that most of the settlements in the east were Danish. Around 900, elements of the Norwegian language appear, which means that they arrived here around this time. Many settlers quickly converted to the Christian faith, this is especially evident in East Anglia, where King Gudrum first converted to Christianity in 878. By the beginning of the 10th century. written sources cease to call the Vikings pagans (only in separate sources), it follows that most of the Vikings converted to Christianity.
Studying the sequence of Viking campaigns to the West, it can be argued that their attacks on the Western countries were intermittent, starting in the 8th century, they lasted two centuries, but ended in the middle of the 10th century. At the same time, having settled in the territories of England and France, they pass to a peaceful existence, cultural, economic and political elements of society begin to develop. In the X-XI centuries, a new wave of aggression broke out, but this time it was already organized Viking detachments. By the 11th century they had captured Sicily, England, southern Italy and founded the "Kingdom of the Two Sicilies". They began to play an important role in the history of European powers.
In the first centuries of our era, all the peoples of the Goth-Germanic tribe, in their military enterprises, had one common goal - the destruction of the Roman Empire. This great war with the vast dominion of Rome, which lasted uninterruptedly for many centuries, drew the attention of all the then known world, aroused general activity, was a military school for brave people. In her field, probably, were all from the Scandinavian north, who were looking for war, military glory and dobiya in the rich Roman provinces. In those days, the Gothic tribe occupied the entire space from Scandinavia to the Black Sea. The more convenient were the campaigns of the northern peoples to their countrymen in the south. The close connection between the northern and southern tribes is proved by the memories preserved from those times in the sagas and heroic songs, no less than the news scattered in the writings of Italian and Byzantine writers about the wanderings of peoples to the Scandinavian north and from there.
We can accept with complete certainty that the campaigns of the northern inhabitants in the first half of the millennium of our reckoning first went to the ancestral lands of their southern tribesmen, to the glorious places of their great wars with the Roman emperors. But things soon changed: the western Roman Empire fell; the Visigoths moved to Spain; the kingdom of the Ostrogoths was no more in Italy; all the peoples of the Gothic and Germanic tribe, who had previously lived on the shores of the Baltic Sea, withdrew to the conquered interior regions of the empire; more numerous crowds of other tribes - Slavic and Vendian - invaded the abandoned Baltic countries and took possession of them, chasing and subjugating the Gotho-Germanic tribes that still remained there.
Only after that the actual raids of the northern Vikings begin. The northern peoples, perhaps even earlier, from the first centuries of our reckoning, undertook such campaigns and brought war to the shores distant from them. Tacitus already mentions the Sveons as a people with strong weapons and warships, which he describes as if he himself had seen the fleets of this people.
The great poem "Fingal" by the Caledonian bard Ossian sings of the arrival in Ireland of Swaran, king of Lochlin, as the Scandinavians in the Irish chronicles call his war with Cuchulainn. This defeated king (Cuchulin) sought help from the brave Scots leader and king Fingal, grandfather of the brave Oscar son of Ossian: Fingal appeared, defeated Swaran, "king of the sea", even took him prisoner, but treated him magnanimously and allowed him to return to fatherland; Fingal did not want to kill the brother of Lgandekka, the daughter of Starno, King of Lochlin, and the sister of Swaran, whom he had dearly loved before. Elsewhere in Ossian's songs, there are also references to enemy invasions by the Lochlins and Scandinavians into Erin and Morwen (Ireland and Scotland) long before the time of this poet. “In former years the sons of the great sea came to Erin. Thousands of ships sailed on the waves to the beautiful valleys of Ullin. The children of Inisfails have risen to meet the crimson shield tribe." Kannail often fought with them: “The navy has come. Cannail fell. The navigator sees his burial mound from the northern waves.
In 210, the Roman emperor Severus undertook a campaign against the Caledonians, the ancient inhabitants of Scotland. He was accompanied by the son of Caracalla. The north died on this campaign: “Karakul (Caracalla), the son of the world king, retreated. Then the bards sang: “Forward we will seek peace in a naval war. Our hands will be stained with the blood of Lochlin "", The latest archaeologists, for many reasons, considered it probable that in ancient times the Scandinavians settled in the Scottish and Orcadian Isles and that the Picts, the glorious ancient people of Scotland, were also of Scandinavian origin. This was already hinted at by the most ancient historians. In the language, which is now spoken in lowland Scotland, shows a very close relationship with the Scandinavian dialects.In addition, the vivid depiction of ancient northern customs and rituals in the songs of Ossian, where "wooded Lochlin" and many battles of Lochlyn and Caledonian heroes are so often sung, confirms that between Peaceful and hostile relations have existed between Scandinavia and the British Isles since the earliest times, and other reasons also make this probable.
The Franks and Saxons, according to ancient historians, peoples of northern origin, lived along the shores of the German Sea, where their history finds them, also on both sides of the Elbe and between this river and the Rhine; in the 3rd and 4th centuries they are bold and skillful navigators and fearless adventurers: on their ships they drove up to the very shores, pitched camps at the mouth of any large river, from there made raids into the depths of the country, like mountain eagles, attacked those places where they did not expect strong resistance, they disappeared just as quickly if they were pursued, then they turned in the other direction and were more ferocious than any other enemy. Proof of their courage and skill in swimming is the remarkable sea voyage undertaken by some Frankish prisoners from the Black Sea: they found their way along the Greek archipelago, drove through the Mediterranean Sea, robbed Syracuse on the way, crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and across the vast Atlantic Ocean reached their homeland on its shores. Eumenius, a Roman panegyrist who lived at the end of the 3rd or the beginning of the 4th century, says that the Franks came from the most extreme limits of Barbaria, where the Romans never brought weapons. Fréculphus, who lived in the first half of the ninth century, bishop of Lisieux in Normandy, writes in his chronicle that the Franks were considered to have come from the island of Scantia, where, as they say, there was a country now called France. Based on this, Lagerbrink considers herad Frekne in Bohuslän to be the homeland of the Franks. An ancient poet, Ermold Nigellus, who also lived in the first half of the ninth century or during the time of Louis the Pious, says that an old legend circulates among the Franks that they are from a tribe of Danes or Normans.
Carausius, who in 284 arbitrarily proclaimed himself emperor in Britain, had to stop in Boulogne, to protect the banks between the Loire and the Rhine, from the frequent attacks of the Saxon and Frankish Vikings. For the same purpose in the IV and V centuries. the Romans were forced to take special defensive measures and put a special governor on the Saxon coast, as the northwestern coast of Gaul was then called, due to the frequent attacks and settlements of the Saxons on it. It is very likely that among these Frankish and Saxon Vikings there were many Scandinavian: until the time of Charlemagne, the northern countries constituted an almost completely closed world, about which only a few fragmentary news and legends reached the attention of the Romans; that's why they mixed the Scandinavian Vikings, still unknown in the south, and understood under the same name with the Frankish and Saxon, especially since they belonged to the same main tribe, spoke the same language, had the same customs, lifestyle and occupations, in addition, came from countries also far away in the unknown north.
But then, when the tribes separated more, each became more famous; when the Akses directed their main attack on Britain, the Franks rushed south and took possession of Gaul; then they start to mention Dani among the northern Vikings who disturbed the Gallic shores. In 512, they entered the Maas river in warships under the command of King Kohilaik, and arrived in the land of the attuaries, present-day Geldern. The whole country was robbed, many captives were taken away. But on the way back they were overtaken by Theodebert, grandson of Holdwick and son of Theodoric, king of the Franks, whose land they invaded. He defeated the Vikings who were returning to their ships, killed their king, took possession of their fleet and took their booty.
In 429, the Romans completely left Britain: they called the legions stationed there, in which they had the need to defend Gaul and Italy from the onslaught of the Gothic and Germanic peoples. Then the Scots and Picts, thrown back into northern Scotland and Ireland, armed again and brutally pressed the abandoned Britons: these latter, having lost all courage and weaned from the war under the rule of Rome, called for help the brave people who lived on the Danish and Saxon shores of the German Sea. Two chieftains, Hengist and Horsa, set out for Britain with 4 ships and 300 men. Their hometown was Schleswig, and the land where they lived was called England.
In Britain they found fertile and cultivated land and cowardly inhabitants. This was told to them by the remaining villagers. Encouraged by this, the new hordes of Angles and Jutes moved on 18 ships to the land of the Britons. Other crowds followed. With axes and great swords they repulsed the Picts and Scots, who fought only with javelins and spears. Then they turned their weapons against the Britons themselves. These latter awakened from the state of bliss and weakness into which their modest occupations and the enjoyment of a long peace plunged them; driven to the extreme by friends and enemies, they learned that they had acted rashly in calling on foreigners for help; but, seeing one salvation in their own courage, they took heart, gained self-confidence and took up arms. Thus, a bloody war began between the Britons and their allies: some fought desperately for their shelter and homeland and studied war in war; while others regarded the cultivated country as their fair booty, and, according to the notions of the time, thought that the world belonged to him who was braver. This war of life and death lasted for two hundred years and was fought with terrible cruelty on both sides.
Numerous crowds of brave people from the land of the Saxons, England, Jutland and, no doubt, from Scandinavia, came to this new field for. military exploits, for glory and booty. The Britons were defeated because of a lack of mutual agreement between them. The main forces of the rest fled to the mountains of Wales (which is called Bretland in the northern sagas), where their descendants still live, calling themselves Kymreig and those who speak a special language - Cymric; others retired to Cornwall and Cumberland; others sought salvation overseas and settled on the opposite coast of Gaul, which received from them the name of Brittany.
The new conquerors received the common name of the Anglo-Saxons, because the most numerous hordes consisted of Angles and Saxons. With the exception of Wales, Cornwall and Cumberland, they conquered all the rest of the land, as much as was in the possession of the Britons. Each leader of a detachment of conquerors became the sovereign of a certain piece of land; therefore, in the conquered country, little by little seven kingdoms were formed: Kent, Northumberland (more extensive than all others), East Anglia and Mercia, Wessex, Essex and Sussex (western, eastern and southern Saxony).
These kingdoms then waged frequent wars among themselves for the right of supreme power until Egbert, king of Wessex, in the first half of the ninth century, became their common sovereign; but East Anglia, Northumberland, and Mercia, being dependent kingdoms, were ruled thereafter by their own kings. Then the whole country received the common name of England, because the first chiefs, Hengist and Horsa, were from the Angles, who spread throughout Northumberland, East Anglia, and Mercia, whence their own homeland, England (on the Jutland Peninsula), was so impoverished in inhabitants that a long time after that was a desert.
The incessant journeys to Britain during the long war of the Anglo-Saxons with the Britons, and the happiness with which such a vast country as England was conquered, further familiarized the Scandinavians with the waterway to these countries and turned their desire to the south. There they were even more incited by the formidable weapons of Charlemagne, the strong sovereign of the Franks: he fought with the Saxons and subjugated them, extended the rule of the Franks to the Elbe River, moreover, oppressed the ancient religion of the Ases and preached the Christian faith with the sword: all this inspired fear and a sense of revenge in the northern peoples and drew their attention to the growing power of the Franks.
In the very north, at the same time, great changes took place with the deposition of minor kings, first in Sweden, and then in Denmark and Norway. These changes, as it were, awakened and shook all the forces of the people - the usual consequence of any coup d'état - and drove many small kings and their princes to the sea; then the sea raids of the Vikings of the past completely disappear in the sagas and chronicles, as imperceptible in comparison with the great campaigns that begin at that time in the north and, like a formidable storm, terrify all of Europe for more than two centuries.
Two seas surrounding Scandinavia, a boundless coast, skerries with wide straits and countless bays, islands of various sizes and cliffs; moreover, a great water system, many large lakes, rivers and streams that crossed the country in all directions - such a place in the old days separated the inhabitants of Scandinavia much more than in our time, so that they could conduct mutual relations better by water than by dry way. Moreover, the Scandinavians had to get an important share of their food from the abundant granary of the sea. All these reasons forced them to divide their lives, with little difference from amphibians, between water and land. The result was that they were friends with the sea from childhood and grew up as sailors. The great population in relation to the small amount of cultivated land forced them to look for foreign shores in order to obtain with the sword ways of life that were not enough at home. The sea became their summer home, the campaign - at times working, the military was obtained and robbery - their harvest, and therefore one of the holidays, the great spring sacrifice, was dedicated to victory. At this time, the Scandinavians rarely turned their weapons on each other in long and disastrous wars, although there were probably bloody quarrels between them. They all had equally poor land; moreover, the polar country seemed too limited a field for the ardent militancy of the Scandinavians and the wild fortress that overwhelmed them, which was almost cramped for the whole of Europe. That is why everywhere, throughout the vast world, they sought prey and glory, and in bloody games they tortured their strength with almost the entire human race.
The long war of the Goth-Germanic peoples with Roman dominion was over: the Anglo-Saxons prevailed in a bloody dispute with the Britons for land and power; the migration of peoples also stopped; the sounds of weapons were silenced on the former scene of the war. Then, the Scandinavians begin to look for a new field, new types of military booty and glory, and a place for an extra number of people who could not be fed. They turn their weapons against all countries and peoples, visit all coasts and travel the seas in their ships, after the Franks and Saxons have left the stage and settled in conquered lands, become known everywhere under the common name of Danes and Normans. (Dani, Normanni). Under such a name in the annals of that time, people are meant from the Scandinavian north, from Sweden, Denmark and Norway.
Off the coast of England, they appeared in the middle of the VIII century (about 753) and then robbed the island of Thanet, or Tinet. About 30 years later, in England, strange phenomena were noticed in the atmosphere: they saw huge bands, dragons, terrible lightning and other miraculous phenomena, which, according to the beliefs of that time, were interpreted as signs that predicted great disasters and the death of many people. In the same year, under Birtrick, King of Wessex, a horde of northern Vikings arrived in England. The King's Vogt went to meet them. He was killed, "died, - say the English chronicles, - among the first victims of the thousand, thousands who later fell from the sword of the Normans."
At the same time, 3 ships landed on the shores of Mercia. In that kingdom reigned then King Offa. The Vikings landed and began to plunder. They gathered an army against them, forced them to throw their booty and flee to the ships. Some were taken prisoner and brought before the king. They seemed undaunted and explained that they were sent only for reconnaissance and that most of the Norman army was preparing to march to invade the land of the Angles and Britons. The king returned freedom to the captives with these words: "Tell the Normans that as long as Offa reigns, all strangers will receive the same reception as you." This trait of fearlessness, together with the nobility of character, gained mercy for Mercia from the Norman devastation during Offa's lifetime. But all the other coasts of Britain were visited and devastated in the following years.
The Vikings divided and, in the words of the chronicles, "raged like savage wolves." They led away cattle, went on a rampage in robberies and murders, never spared priests, monks, or nuns. Then the church and monastery of St. Cuthbert on the island of Lindisfarne in Northumberland; the treasures there have been plundered. Some of the monks were killed, others were thrown into the sea. But St. Cuthbert called heavenly punishment on the Vikings: the following year, their ships were broken by a terrible storm; most of the troops perished in the waves; all who managed to swim ashore without mercy were exterminated along with their leader, who paid for his robberies with a painful death. This happened in 794.
The next year, new Vikings appeared, devastating Ireland with the surrounding islands. For the Irish, they were an unfamiliar people, which is why they were called Gal- foreigners, and were divided into whites (Fion Gal) black (Dubb Gal) and islanders (Innis-Gal); the Irish also called them Lochlanach- sailors, northern pirates; but, following the custom of the time, to name a people after the position of their country, they are generally called in the Irish annals the Orientals. (Ostmanni). The sea army of these "Eastern people" already in 818 became a firm foot in Ireland and occupied the regions of Leinster and Meath.
The Danish king Gottfried arrived in Friesland in 810 with a fleet of 200 ships, plundered all the coastal islands, burned Groningen, defeated the Frisians in three land battles and imposed a tribute of 100 pounds of silver on them. This happened during the lifetime of Charlemagne. He went from Aachen to the sea, traveled and examined the entire coast to Rouen, ordered to lay fortifications everywhere, ordered the construction of ships in all harbors, because in one strong and well-equipped fleet he saw the security and defense of the country from the frequent attacks of northern enemies. One day, in some seaside town in southern France, the emperor was sitting at dinner when foreign ships appeared in the harbor. Some considered them Jewish, others - African, some - English; everyone believed that these were merchant ships. But Karl, by the method of construction and speed of movement, guessed their purpose and said: "These ships are not with goods, but with military men." Everyone immediately grabbed their weapons and hurried to the harbor to meet these guests. However, the Vikings, noticing that Karl himself was here, quickly turned into the sea and disappeared like lightning. Then Karl shook his head thoughtfully: once Fingal, under the influence of a gloomy foreboding, deeply mourned the war with the Scandinavian prince Arragon (Svaran), and thus expressed his lamentations: “A deplorable war lies before us with the stern king of Sora. I see your storms, Morvena! They will overthrow my castles when my sons fall in battle, and there will be no one left to dwell in Selma. Like Fingal, the mighty French emperor regretted the fate of his successors, seeing the growing courage of these pirates and foreseeing many disasters for his country from that. “I foresee,” he said bitterly, “how much harm they will do to my successors and their subjects.”
A short time after the death of Charles, a Viking fleet of 13 ships visited the shores of Flanders and then drove into the Seine. Reflected there, they went to Aquitaine (in western France), robbed the town of Medoc between the Garonne and the sea, and then returned with rich booty to the north.
But in 827 they appeared again and this time reached the coast of Spain. They landed in Galicia, showed themselves at Guion, and plundered all over the country. The Leonese king Ramiro went to meet them, defeated them and, according to the Spanish historians, burned 70 ships from them. Three years later, the Normans appeared again on the western coast of France. They landed on the island of Noirmoutier off the coast of the Vendée, robbed the monastery of St. Philibert, built by Charlemagne, destroyed the monastery of the Virgin on the island of Re and also visited the near coast of solid land.
In the same year, other Vikings arrived in Ireland, three times in one month they occupied the city of Armag, which had never been conquered by anyone before, stayed in it for a long time, drove out the archbishop (by the name of Farnan) and took the abbot with them into captivity ... After a little time, in 832, a Viking army arrived on the island of Shepey in Kent, on the southeast coast of England. Having plundered the island, they entered with 35 ships at the mouth of the River Carr, in the county of Dorset, landed, raged terribly, and enriched themselves with considerable booty. Then Egbert, king of Wessex, gathered an army and gave them a great battle at Cargam. It went on all day; the loss was great on both sides; Vikings held the battlefield.
In the following years, from 833 to 837, the coasts of Friesland, Holland, Flanders, and France were visited, while other detachments disturbed England and Ireland. Then three times in three years Dorestad was robbed, the cities were devastated. Antwerp and Witta (Geer Flit at the mouth of the Meuse in Holland), the land was taxed, the Vikings sailed up the Scheldt, occupied the city of Doornik, created a monastery there, razed all the buildings to the ground, killed many inhabitants, the rest were taken prisoner. In Meheln they destroyed the church of St. Rumold, plundered the city and left with rich booty.
A fleet of 9 ships also arrived on the island of Noirmoutier, on the southwestern coast of France. Another fleet, heading past Cornwall, landed in south Wales, where the Vikings landed and, in alliance with the Welsh, invaded the kingdom of the Wessex king Egbert, devastating everything in the way with fire and sword. Egbert fought them on Mount Hengistodune (Henstongill), between Saltash and Launceston, not far from the river Tamara, which flows into Plymouth. The Vikings were defeated; most of them fell, the rest fled to the ships. But, reinforced by another fleet from Scandinavia, they attacked Ireland even more terribly. Sailing up the rivers Boyne and Liffey (the latter flows near Dublin), they plundered Muyridgle, made considerable booty in Unhail, destroyed many monasteries and burned monks, defeated in a bloody battle all the army that the inhabitants of Leinster had gathered, robbed Armag and Limmerick, also Lismore in the county of Waterford, they stole from churches and monasteries the sacred vessels and all the jewels, and so raged that Conquovar, the supreme Irish king, died of grief over such a disaster of the country. The happiness of the Normans in Ireland was helped most of all by the fact that the Irish, divided into many small states, for whom there was little need for a common, supreme king, constantly waged internecine wars; even during the devastating invasions of the Vikings, they did not stop fighting with each other. Islands that surround Scotland in great numbers: in the west - the Hebrides (Soederoear northern sagas), in the north - Orcadian and Orkney - were a true nesting place and gathering place for the Vikings. However, wherever these pirates landed, if only they were near the islands, they best transferred their camp to them; there they were safe in the bays and bays, surrounded on all sides by the sea, they could easily find a convenient opportunity for an unexpected attack; prisoners were brought there for preservation and the plundered goods were demolished from solid land, and in case of advancing danger, the surrounding sea was always open to them for refuge. None of the Western peoples yet had fleets; the Normans owned the whole ocean, or, better, in the words of one ancient poet: "They inhabited the sea and looked for their food on it."
Until now, only small and separate Whig fleets have shown themselves in southern waters, as if to inspect the banks and river mouths; that is why some coastal places were subjected to their attacks. But in 836, the English chronicles say, “Almighty God sent crowds of fierce pagans, Danes, Norwegians, Goths and Swedes, Vandals (Vendians) and Frisians, for 230 years they devastated sinful England from one seashore to another, killed people and cattle spared neither women nor children. Brave Egbert, High King of England, died early in 837; he was succeeded by his son, Æthelwulf, a pious but weak man, a lover of peace and silence. In the first year of his reign, a Viking fleet of 33 ships entered the harbor of Gamtun (now Southampton in Hampshire). Here they met strong resistance from Altermann Wulfgird, who forced them to retreat without doing anything. Then they withdrew to Portsmouth, where they gained the upper hand in a great battle with Altermann Æthelhelm, who had attracted troops from the county of Dorset. They also defeated Altermann Gerebrit, in the region of Mersewaram (Rumney Marsh), the southern part of Kent; plundered Lincoln, Lindsay's capital, inflicted great defeats on the English in East Anglia as well as in Kent, and devastated wherever they went.
Until now, after sudden attacks and robberies, they returned home to the north for the winter with booty; now they began to fortify on Thanet, to winter on Shepey and other islands. With the onset of spring, they immediately approached the shores and landed here and there. “It did not bring any benefit to defeat them in one place; after some time their troops and fleets appeared even more numerous in other places. If the English kings went on a campaign to defend the eastern side of the kingdom, then even before they met the enemy, hasty messengers caught up with them and said: “Where are you going, king? With an innumerable fleet, the pagans landed on the southern shores, devastating cities and villages, destroying everything with fire and sword on the way. much, much more bloody". "The courage and ruthlessness of the Vikings inspired such fear in the British that they robbed them of their strength to resist." "The Vikings do not spare anyone until they give the word to spare. One of them often puts ten or more to flight. Poverty inspires them with courage, a fickle way of life does not give them the opportunity to fight with them, and despair makes them invincible ". Thus, the English chroniclers describe the great danger and disaster of the country at that time from the terrible northern hordes.
The Anglo-Saxons, after a short time after their settlement in England, converted to the Christian faith: already before the end of the 7th century, the pagan religion was completely eradicated there, the spread of monastic life, the abundance of a fruitful country weakened their military courage and pampered them. In addition, the power of the supreme king was negligible, and many authorities led to impotence. On the contrary, the Normans were still pagans and saw in Christians a people alien and hostile to the religion of the Ases.
They also knew how to prudently benefit from civil strife. They, as we have seen, united with the Welsh, the natural enemies of the English, and made a common invasion with them into the state of the Wessex king Egbert. Safe in their homeland under the protection of the sea, they dared it and were not afraid of anything. Inactive life had no price for them, happiness strengthened their courage and enlivened the hunt for enterprises even more courageous. On small ships they could land on the shore everywhere, and enemy fleets did not interfere with their landing anywhere. Broken on land, they always had a sure refuge in their well-guarded ships on the high seas. They could not take large reserves with them, and they did not need them: if they directed the path further than how much food was taken, then they stuck to the near shore and went to fish (Strandbugg). Wherever they were, everywhere they were terrible guests; not a single seaside country was spared from them: Ireland suffered no less than England. Two fleets, each with at least 60 ships, entered the Boyne and Liffey, one for Drogheda, the other for Dublin. These alien eastern ships molested those who were formerly in Ireland and fought with the Irish with their common forces. The Vikings also landed in Scotland, gave the Picts a great battle, won a victory and plundered the Scottish coast.
While this was happening in Scotland, England and Ireland, other Viking hordes rushed to Friesland, Holland and Belgium, alarmed France and Spain, penetrated the Mediterranean Sea and visited the coasts of Italy and Africa. Louis the Pious, son of Charlemagne, died in 840 on an island in the Rhine River, after a 26-year sad and troubled reign; consumed with grief for ungrateful children, he fell under the burden of government, for which he was incapable, in his good-natured and weak character. He divided the great Frankish empire among his sons. Raising weapons against their father during his lifetime, they began to fight among themselves when Louis found peace in the grave. In the battle of the brothers at Fontenay, in Burgundy, on June 25, 841, one of the most bloody, which the annals of that time only tell about, the best warriors of France fell.
Two years later, in 843, the brothers concluded a mutual, friendly treaty in Verdun. Louis, who had a stay in Bavaria and was called the German, received the German lands to the east of the Rhine, together with Speyer, Worms and Mainz and part of the Palatinate. Charles, nicknamed the Bald, received most of the present France, or the country to the west of the Rhone, Saone, Meuse and Scheldt. Lothair, the eldest of the sons of Louis, succeeded his father in the dignity of the Roman emperor and, together with Italy, received a country lying between the kingdoms of the brothers and stretching from the Alps to the shores of the German Sea: after the name of one of the heirs of Lothair, then the name Lorraine was given to it. Pepin, the nephew of these kings, received Aquitaine. With such a fragmentation of the strong empire of Charlemagne, the terrible dominion of the Franks disintegrated. The great vassals, made even stronger by internal unrest and internecine warfare of brothers, ruled under the name of dukes and counts, like independent sovereigns, in their fiefs, so that royal power had either little or no value. Moreover, the Treaty of Verdun did not stop the war in the Carolingian family forever, and the power of the Arabians threatened outside of Spain.
When France was in such distress, in the spring of the year in which the battle of Fontenay was given, one Viking fleet entered the river Seine, another into the Loire. The city of Rouen was devastated, the monastery of Saint-Ouen was taken, many monks were killed or taken prisoner, all the places lying between Rouen and the sea and on the banks of the Seine were robbed or taxed; Monastery of Jumiège, founded by St. Philibert in the 7th century on the small peninsula of the Seine, for thirty years from that time it stood empty; the monastery of Fontenelle paid off with six pounds of gold and silver from robbery and fire; The Saint-Denis monks paid £26 for the ransom of 68 captives.
On the Loire, the Vikings devastated the whole country between this river and Cher, burned the city of Amboise and appeared before Tours. Horror warned them so that the inhabitants of Tours hastily repaired the walls and met the approaching Vikings with throwing spears. The Normans besieged the city, occupied all the exits, built bastions, made strong attacks on the city, which followed quickly one after another, and kept the inhabitants in a strong siege. The tour was in extreme danger: he was threatened with taking by storm. Then the inhabitants took from the church the relics of St. Martin and carried them along the city walls. The sight of the holy remains of the patron saint of Tours revived the hope and courage of his defenders. Not skilled in siege work and not accustomed to meeting such brave resistance, the Vikings retreated. In Tours, the miraculous salvation of the city of St. Martin; built in his name a church (Saint Martin de la guerre) on the spot where the relics were brought; where there was a wall on which the shrine stood all night, a huge and magnificent church was also erected, called the basilica of St. Martin; holy relics were carried around with singing; at a solemn meeting of the local clergy, it was decided to annually celebrate in the entire bishopric the day of May 12, on which the Normans lifted the siege. The Vikings, returning to the north, said that in the land of the Franks one should be more afraid of the dead than the living.
But as soon as France recovered from this first fear, new Viking fleets appeared. According to the story of the Norman writers, the old king Lodbrok wanted his sons and northern youth to go on a campaign to seek their fortune in a foreign land. At the time of the migration of the people, the following custom existed: in lean years or in the event of such a multiplication of the people that the land could not feed all the inhabitants, a larger or smaller part of the young people were chosen by lot, or those “who could not yet dispose of themselves and did not acquire their own economy, ”and were sent out of the country to look for food and a homeland elsewhere. They counted on the fact that a brave man would find his fatherland everywhere. Since then, sea trips have become a habit: the villager sent his adult sons to the sea so that they themselves would take care of their needs and make wealth. This happened especially when there was an excessive population and threatening famine, when an unsuccessful harvest or a complete crop failure made the means of life for the crowd much more inadequate than usual. Then, according to an old custom, all the brave youth of the country, voluntarily or under duress, left their homeland and, having formed strong regiments, went out to sea in numerous fleets to obtain support and wealth in weapons in more abundant lands.
Since the ancient Scandinavian sources of northern history began to be paid more attention and criticized, the age of Ragnar Lodbrok and his sons presented the greatest difficulties for the historian and archaeologist, due to the contradictions in the news. The Scandinavian sagas speak of the distant campaigns of Ragnar and his sons to England, the land of the Saxons, the Netherlands, Walland (France) and even Lombardy in Italy, where the Vikings took the city of the Moon and burned it for Rome. In this the ancient chronicles of France and England agree with the sagas.
In the French chronicles, Bjorn Yernsida left a terrible name, and his father is called Lodbrok (Lotbbrocus or Lothroc), Danish king. The English chronicles preserve no less terrible memory of Ingvar and Ubba with their brothers and call them the sons of Lodbrok, a Dane from a royal family. And the ancient English sources agree with the northern ones that Lodbrok died in England and his sons came there to avenge their father: the names of the sons are almost the same; other consonant testimony proves undeniably that we are talking about the same persons and events.
French and English chronicles keep the story in chronological order and indicate the time of the wonderful events that happened in their land. According to the former, Bjorn Yernsida, son of Lodbrok, arrived in France about 840 or 850 with a great host of pagan northern pirates. But the devastating invasion of England by the Danes, Normans, Swedes and Goths, under the command of Ingvar and Ubbe, the sons of Lothbrok, with their brothers and noble people, happened in 867, when the Northumberland kings Osbrith and Ella were defeated; St. Edmund, king of East Anglia, slain in 870; Burgred, king of Mercia, exiled in 874; in the same year the kingdom of Wessex of the great Alfred was invaded by enemies.
According to this information, Ragnar Lodbrok lived in the first half of the 9th century, and his sons Bjorn Iernsida, Sigurd Ormega (Snake) and Ivar, who divided the kingdom after the death of their father, reigned in the second half of the same century. But at that time, according to the Scandinavian chronicles, there were completely different kings in the north: Eirik, the son of Edmund, was then king in Sweden, Gorm the Old - in Denmark, Harald Harfagr (Fair-haired) - in Norway; the first, in Sweden, was the fourth king after Bjorn Jernside, Gorm the Old, also the fourth king, in a direct line from Lodbrok, and Harald Harfagr, sovereign sovereign of Norway about 874, was descended through his mother Ragnhild in the 5th generation from Ragnar Lothbrok.
So, according to the Scandinavian chronicles, about half, and at the end of the 8th century, the same people lived and the same incidents occurred that are found in the news of foreign chronicles in the second half of the 9th century - therefore, later by almost a whole century. In addition to this, the Icelandic chroniclers, Ari Frodi and his followers, who, like the chroniclers of other countries, wanted to bring events to exact chronological numbers, placed Ragnar Lodbrok and his sons in the 9th century, considering in this case with English legends and not noticing the contradiction in which fell through then into the chronologies of the northern kings and with genealogical tables. That is why the northern historical writings contradicted each other, and the events of that time became even more confusing.
To agree on such conflicting news, many Scandinavian historians, such as Torfey and others, accepted two kings with the name of Ragnar Lodbrok, of whom the former king - the supreme northern king - belonged to the 8th century, and the later Lodbrok of foreign chronicles was considered one of the minor kings of Jutland in the 9th century.
Some, like Vilade, recognize Ragnar Lodbrok alone, but give his sons too long a life; others, such as the famous explorer Miller, regard these sons as the grandsons of Lodbrok. In the French chronicles there are two Norman leaders under the same name: one, who lived earlier, in 836, brought his fleet into the Velda, and the later, in 845, reached Paris.
Adam of Bremen, in his "Danish History", mentions the Danish king Reginfred, who lived in the first half of the 9th century, but, being expelled by his co-ruler, Harild, then led the life of a pirate. It seems that this Reginfred, who is also mentioned in the French chronicles, is confused by the Icelandic chroniclers with Ragnar Lodbrok, or they are mistaken for one and the same person;
The names "Bjorn" and "Ivar" were so commonly used in the north that the persons appearing under these names in the French and English annals may have been quite different, and not the sons of Lodbrok.
There are not only traces, but partly accurate evidence given to the Dutch chroniclers and later scribes, both the church history of Adam of Bremen and other French and English chronicles became equally familiar. It is known how the sagas love to combine many significant events into one and impose many feats on one glorious person, not at all caring about chronology. For these reasons, Geyer considered it probable that everything told by the annals of other countries about Ivar, Bjorn and their brothers, the Icelanders added to the stories, the most ancient sagas about Ragnar and his sons. This remains the only means of understanding and explaining in any way this confusion in the events and years concerning Ragnar Lodbrok and his sons.
Although the French chronicles do not say anything about Lodbrok's deeds, but only mention his name in passing, while the English chronicles only convey the legend of his death, it seems that they heard rumors about him as a terrible person, and many circumstances forced them to consider him the sons of his those the Vikings, who appeared so terrible in these countries in the last half of the 9th century and, perhaps, were his grandchildren or relatives. The same partly applies to the campaigns attributed by the Scandinavian sagas to Ivar Widfama, Harald Hildetann and Sigurd Hring, who subjugated the whole of Northumberland, or a fifth of England, and owned it.
According to the English chronicles, the devastating invasions of the Normans into England began only at the end of the 8th century, but then continued for a long time; however, they became especially terrible from 837 until the very conquest of Northumberland by them in the last half of this century (IX). In all likelihood, time and persons are confused in the northern sagas, all the more likely that among the Danish kings there are many “Hrings” and “Haralds”, and the name “Ivar” was borne by many Danish leaders, which is why it happened that later events were classified as glorious the names of Ivar Vidfame, Harald Hildemann and Sigurd Hring. In the calculation of the Swedish kings from Ragnar Lodbrok, there are two with the name Bjorn, belonging to the first half of the 9th century, namely Bjorn Haage and his father Bjorn.
Such a general migration from the north took place in the middle of the ninth century. It was headed by Bjorn Yernsida (Bier ferreae intae, a bear with an iron side), the son of old Lothbrok, so called because he had never been, wounded in battles: they said about him that his mother bewitched him from all weapons. With him rode Hasting, his tutor.
In addition to them, crowds of Visigoth youths and husbands are preparing for the campaign. Messengers were sent to all surrounding places with an invitation to participate in the campaign. The brave young people of all Scandinavia make up a myriad army: they are the poor, brave because they had nothing to lose, equally ready to die or win. Chronicles mention Wifaldings (perhaps from Vestfolden in Norway), who also took part in this campaign. Everywhere they build ships, make helmets, shields and armor, sharpen pikes and spears. On the appointed day, the ships were launched into the sea; brave people flock to them from different directions; a great sacrifice is made to the god Thor, the heads of those present are sprinkled with its blood. They put up banners; young people cheerfully go to court; the wind blows the sails and carries the fleet, heavily laden with weapons and troops, into the sea. A rumor spread through the Loire that the Norman fleet was close at hand. The monks, with the riches of the surrounding monasteries, fled to the heavily fortified city of Nantes. The surrounding villagers also sought refuge there. The Viking guide was Count Lambert, who had an irreconcilable dislike for the French king for refusing him the county of Nantes: they entered the Loire and, with a fair west wind, using the help of oars, as well as sails , directed the path straight to Nantes. The inhabitants considered the ships sailing towards them to be merchant ships and did not take any measures to protect them. No matter how feared the brave Normans were, they did not expect such daring courage from them to dare to sail to Nantes, a city surrounded by strong walls.
But while the inhabitants imagined themselves safe, the Vikings with the fleet landed on the city, climbed the assault ladders on the walls, broke the gates locked with bolts and broke into the city. Then there was no mercy for anyone who came across. Women and children, military people, clergy, laity - all without exception were hacked or taken prisoner. Many priests, all the monks and a large crowd of spectators fled to the cathedral church of St. Peter. The Vikings broke down the church doors, killed Bishop Gvigard at the altar of St. Ferreol, and a crowd of others caused severe bloodshed and then set fire to the church.
On churches and monasteries, on priests and monks, as enemies of their religion, they especially poured out their fury, and therefore they destroyed these sanctuaries, while other buildings were spared. The Vikings also knew that there was a lot of wealth in churches and monasteries. Having destroyed the cathedral church and robbed the city, they returned to the ships with significant booty and a large crowd of prisoners, pitched a camp on a well-chosen, convenient for them island of the Loire River; there they built huts for themselves, dragged booty and prisoners there, their sick and wounded, established themselves on the island and, like a wall, surrounded the entire raid with their ships. Then they attacked the surrounding places, made raids throughout the country, either on foot, or on horseback, or in boats along the rivers, scattering terror throughout the neighborhood, plundered villages and monasteries, conquered castles and fortresses, and collected countless amounts of gold, silver and other jewelry. Having robbed the regions on the Loire and divided the booty (in this case they quarreled, and bloody skirmishes took place between them), they boarded ships and went to sea. The wind drove them to Spain to the coast of Galicia. But many of the ships were broken by a storm and the attack on Coruña failed, because the long bloody war with the Moors accustomed the Spaniards to battles and developed a warlike spirit in them. That is why the Vikings returned to France and, entering the mouth of the Garonne, sailed up the river. They robbed Bordeaux and extended their devastating raids on the one hand, to Saintes, on the other, to Toulouse. They plundered Bazas, Dacas, Bigorre, Bayonne, Lescar, Oleron, and the monastery of Condom.
Totilus, Duke of Gascony, advanced to meet them in order to check their intrusion. The Vikings defeated it and then conquered all of Gascony. Near the city of Tarbes there was a fortified castle, surrounded by a moat and walls, the residence of the Count of Bigorre: it was turned into a pile of ashes. The monasteries of Gascony met the same fate. Bold enemies dared to go deep into the interior of the country. It was all the more convenient for the inhabitants to have occasions for cruel revenge on the Vikings. In Tarbes, in southwestern France, the day of May 21 is still celebrated in memory of the defeat of the Normans, when they, returning with rich booty, were caught unawares in one gorge and cut down to the last. The glory of this success was attributed to St. Missolina, because the victory over such a fierce enemy was not considered the work of an ordinary person.
Three areas on the Garonne were visited by the Vikings, similar to the areas on the Seine. In March 845, a fleet of 120 warships entered this river, penetrating as far as Rouen, and from there to Charleroi, which was taken over by the Normans. Charles the Bald went to them, entrusting himself in advance to St. Dionysius in Saint-Denis Monastery. The Vikings put his army to flight, some of the prisoners were hanged, the rest were taken to one island of the Seine, robbed on both banks of the river and penetrated to Paris.
Then everyone who could only sought salvation in flight, taking with them the best jewels, the relics of St. Genevieve and St. Herman were sent to inner France; from all places there followed a general flight of men, women, children; monks with relics wandered along all roads and spread horror throughout the country. The Vikings occupied Paris, but found the city and the monasteries empty. Charles the Bald with an army stood at Saint-Denis - both to protect this strong monastery, and to himself have cover in it. The Vikings, heading north, invaded Beauvais and plundered the monastery at Sithdieu (St. Omer).
Such horror preceded them that the nobles of that country, at least those who did not have strongly fortified castles, fled in droves. The monk of Corvey, Paschasius Radbert, who lived at the time when Paris was plundered, expresses his complaints thus: “Who would have thought, who would have imagined what is now visible to our eyes, the object of our sighs and tears? The horde, made up of sea robbers, penetrated as far as Paris and burned churches and monasteries on the banks of the Seine! Who would have imagined that simple robbers would venture into such undertakings, and that, alas! such a glorious, and great, and inhabited kingdom, will suffer the fate of shame and humiliation from the depredations of these barbarians? A few years before, we did not expect to see them plunder so many treasures in our regions, devastate them, and lead the inhabitants into slavery; they didn’t even know that they would dare to put their foot into the interior of the kingdom!”
The unripe fruits and the unaccustomed climate produced a devastating, sticky disease among the Vikings (I think it was bloody diarrhea). They sent envoys to Saint-Denis to King Charles and offered to leave for a sum of silver. The king and nobles of France failed to take advantage of the predicament of the Normans. They bought their removal for 7,000 pounds of silver. After that, all those who reached Paris, how many of them had survived from the general disease, left the banks of the Seine, once again plundering the country, and returned to the north with countless booty in silver and gold.
But their other army devastated Brittany and defeated Pomenogius, the impostor king of this region, in three battles: he considered himself lucky, having managed to surprise his terrible guests with rich gifts.
The third army of the Vikings scattered across Aquitaine, having defeated Seguin, Count of Bordeaux and Saintes, who fell in battle, conquered and robbed Saintes, also Lucon, ruined the monasteries of Ile-Dieu, Grand-Dieu and others; captured the island of Noirmoutier, but sailed along the coast of Aquitaine, bringing with it especially terrible devastation, spreading terror in the countries along the Garonne River. They laid siege to Bordeaux. Charles the Bald gathered an army and moved to Aquitaine.
He managed to capture new Norman ships on the Dorontia River and kill the army that was on them. But this was done by him against the Normans; because one day they unexpectedly took possession of the city of Bordeaux, robbed it and captured William, Duke of Bordeaux, ravaged the monastery of la Reole and extended their raids to Mel (Mallus) to Poitou, which was also occupied by them and robbed. After wintering in Aquitaine and sacking the city of Perigueux, they put to sea again in 849.
But after a short time, the same Vikings returned, carrying rich booty to the north; new warriors came with them. The sea was full of Viking ships. They entered the Weser, sailed along the Rhine, Meuse, Scheldt and Somme; on the Loire and Garonne they were at home. In a word, all the rivers, large and small, along the entire coast from the Elbe to the Pyrenees were in their power. In river mouths they set up fortified camps, usually on islands: from there, with their small fleets, they sailed up the rivers, plundered on both banks, collected tribute from monasteries, cities and villages, and often went far into the interior of the country.
Especially Friesland, which then stretched to the Rhine, was their usual gathering place. They took possession of Dorestad, which they already often visited, as a rich city, with an imperial mint. They besieged and stormed Utrecht with its fortress, defeated the Frisians in many battles, imposed tribute on them and plundered Niemwegen, and the whole country between the Rhine and the Baal was subjected to their devastation. Partly the same crowds of Vikings, partly different, visited the shores of Flanders, looking for an entrance to the Meuse, the Scheldt and other rivers; robbed several places between the cities of Harve and Maastricht, then returned to the sea and sailed up the Seine.
Then Karl the Bald was brought into such a cramped position that he called for help from his brother Lothair, the Roman emperor. But before he went on a campaign, Charles decided to give the Vikings land, it is believed, in Neustria, which later became known as Normandy. Hardly had this been accomplished, when, in the year 851, another Norman army stationed in Flanders set out from Ghent and advanced by land to Beauvais, and thence to Rouen on the banks of the Seine. At the same time the Viking fleet entered the river. Both crowds completely robbed the monastery of Fontenelle, or Saint-Vandril, ruined and burned the monastery of Flaviacum (Saint-Germain de Fly), devastated the surroundings for about 8 months, but finally, having suffered a great loss in people in one of the battles with the Franks, they returned with great booty on ships and sailed to Bordeaux, which they owned as property. This was in June 852.
Three months later, on September 25, a strong fleet of 252 ships again entered the Seine, visiting Frisde and Flanders along the way. This time the Vikings penetrated far into the interior of the country. Charles and Lothair joined forces against them. Despite this, the Vikings held their place and remained in the country all winter, with a fleet at hand. In March of the following year, they left the Seine, dragging with them the loot and a great many prisoners, and headed for the Loire; attacked the city of Nantes, took it and from there, as from a fortified camp, made their raids into distant environs, betrayed the cities of Angers and Leperge and moved to Tours. But at the same time, so much water arrived on the Loire and Meret rivers that these rivers, like a sea, surrounded Tours. It saved the city. On the other hand, the monastery lying near him experienced a terrible invasion. There the Vikings killed 120 monks.
Six months later they appeared again in front of the city. The timid inhabitants left Tours and fled. Destroying the church and monastery of St. Martin and sacking the city, the Normans went further: they took by storm and ravaged the castle of Blois and decided to go to Orleans; however, they abandoned this plan, frightened by the news that the bishops were gathering troops and ships against them. They returned to the countries of the lower Loire. Other Vikings who came after them to this shore pitched a camp on the side of the Loire River, ile de Biere, fortified there and built huts where they guarded the captives. A battle broke out between the two detachments in Nantes and on the island: they fought all night, but then ended the war with a treaty. After the arrivals withdrew and entered the Seine. Charles the Bald drew up an army and managed to win such a victory over them that only a few i.ko survived.
But the leader of the defeated army (the French chronicle calls him Sidroc) returned again after two years and again entered the Seine with a strong fleet, on July 18, 855, and penetrated as far as Pistre. In the same year, Bjorn also arrived in this river, probably the same one who was nicknamed Yernsida (iron side), with an equally strong fleet. They united, raged terribly and reached the big Party Forest. (Particum saltwn), the present district of Leperche between Chartres and Mayenne. At the same time, a detachment on the Loire moved to the city of Pictaves, the current Poitiers, and a third detachment on the Garonne laid siege to Toulouse. But this strongly fortified city defended stubbornly, so that the Vikinti, after a short time, lifted the siege on another occasion.
The attempt on Poitiers also failed, because the Aquitanians gathered an army and completely defeated the Vikings in a bloody battle. King Charles himself moved on Sidrok and Bjorn and forced them to retreat. Sidrok left, and Bjorn fortified himself on one island of the Seine River, with the French chroniclers - Ossell, built a castle there and disturbed both banks of the Seine from there.
The following year, a strong flotilla again entered this river: the army on it was under the command of Hasting and Bjorn. The Normans took Paris, robbed it, burned the church of St. Peter and St. Genevieve and many others. To save Saint-Denis, Saint-Stefan, Saint-Germain and various other monasteries, the king, bishops, abbots, counts and all nobles, even churches, had to make a pool of money. The amount of this collection extended to 685 pounds of gold and 3250 pounds of silver.
After that, Hasting offered the Vikings a trip to the Mediterranean. The offer was accepted.
The Vikings, in their custom, bold in every feat, already a few years before (precisely in 844, according to the testimony of some chronicles, but others, such as Jo Mariana in his Historia de rebus Hispaniae, take 847) attempted to penetrate into the countries, lying on the Mediterranean. On 54 long ships they traveled the entire western coast of Spain to Lisbon. After a vain 13-day siege of this city, during which the surroundings were plundered, they returned to the ships with rich booty and many prisoners. Having received a high idea of the rich possessions of the Arabs in southern Spain, the Normans headed further south, sailed to the shores of Andalusia, entered the Guadalquivir River and laid siege to the very populated trod of Seville 10. The Arabs, who owned all of southern and most of the rest of Spain, moved on them.
“A truly strange, wonderful event is this meeting, with weapons in their hands, of two wandering conquering peoples, and moreover in Spain, one from the cold countries of the north, the other from the sultry steppes of Arabia, peoples who, perhaps, have not heard before never about each other. The same passion for bold ventures brought the worshipers of Odin and Mohammed face to face in the Sierra Morena. Muslim tactics new to the Vikings may have confused them, but they did not succumb to fear and defeated the Arabs in three battles. The Sevilles, however, resisted stubbornly: the besieged made sorties so often that the Normans despaired of conquering the city. But they robbed the suburbs and surroundings, after a 13-day siege they took Aljezira, made raids near Carax and Medina, and then returned to the ships with rich cargo and booty. Abderrahman II of Cordoba pursued them and gave them battle. The victory remained undecided. They then broke into the city of Tablata, near Seville, but were expelled from there by the arrows of the Spaniards, with the loss of 400 people. For several days they raided and devastated the Seville region. Finally learning that Abdurrahman armed 15 ships and gathered a new army against them, they removed the advanced guard, boarded ships and sailed to Lisbon. There others joined them, judging them; after that the whole fleet returned home. The Arabs considered them a people from the tribe of Magi and called them Madgt "us.
Hasting also directed the path to the same countries and decided to reach Rome in his campaign. Bold plans always occupied this leader: according to one French chronicler, Hasting had not some unimportant plan, but the conquest of power and the dignity of the Roman emperor for his pet Bjorn Iernsida. “All the states of the world,” he told the army, “open to us, must see our glory. Hundreds of thousands have already fallen by our sword; but every warrior, having achieved one goal, strives for a higher one: if we give the Roman crown to Bjorn Iernside, our glory will spread throughout the world.
In 857, or, according to other sources, in 859, Hastings, with a fleet of hundreds of long ships, sailed to the coast of Spain, landed in Galicia, landed and plundered. Then Ordonius I reigned in Asturias and Leon, and Mohammed I reigned in Cordoba. Don Pedro, governor of Galicia, marched with an army against the Vikings and forced them to return to the ships. They continued on their way, making robberies on the shores of Spain, Portugal, through the Strait of Gibraltar, or the so-called Njorva Sound in the ancient sagas, moved to Africa, took the city of Nakhor by storm and killed many Saracens. Then they appeared in the Balearic and Pitius Islands and robbed in Mallorca, Menorca and Formenterra.
From there they rushed to the shores of Italy. The wind brought them to the Gulf of Genoa, where they entered the Bay of La Spezia. In front of them was the city of Luna, which was in a very flourishing state in the time of the Etruscans, but after the fall of the Roman Empire lost its importance. The high, towered city walls and magnificent surroundings gave the Vikings the idea that this is the glorious city of Rome. At that time Christmas was celebrated in Luna: all the inhabitants gathered in the cathedral church. Suddenly a rumor spread in the city that the harbor was full of ships with some unknown people. Everyone immediately rushed to lock the city gates, occupied the walls, took all measures for protection. Hasting saw this: having calculated how difficult, almost impossible, it was to climb the walls, he came up with a trick; he sent ambassadors to the city and ordered to say there that “they are people from the north, who, by the will of the gods, left their homeland: they fought in France and conquered it; to this city they did not stick with hostile intentions, but were brought by a storm to its raid; keeping peace with the inhabitants, they only want to repair the damage caused to their ships in the pier, and buy what they need in the city. The chief of the fleet is very ill; he was tired of the usual restless marine life; having read a lot about the Christian god, he wants to accept Christianity, be baptized and be buried in the city where his death will overtake him.
The Bishop and Count of Luna were glad to hear this news, which freed them from the fear of an enemy attack. Both sides agreed on peace and trade terms. The count and the bishop were the recipients at Hasting's baptism: he received St. chrismation, the sick man was brought to the city and back to the ship, because the Normans could not enter the moon. The next night a loud wailing was heard in the ships and in the camp. In the morning, ambassadors came to the city with the news that Hasting had died, that he asked for burial in the city monastery and appointed his sword, his rings and other valuables as a gift to the church.
The clergy readily accepted this last pious desire of the dying, new Christian, combined with such rich gifts. Hasting, dressed in armor, was placed in a coffin with all his weapons.
Normans walked on both sides of the coffin; in front they carried gifts assigned to the church - rings and a belt set in gold and silver, swords, axes and other jewelry. When the funeral procession approached the city, the city gates opened and the bishop came out to meet them with all the clergy, in festive robes. In reverent silence, with wax candles, with crucifixes in front, the procession advanced to the church, the coffin was placed in front of the choirs, and the funeral service was performed with all solemnity.
But when the time came to lower the coffin into the grave, the Normans pushed forward and shouted not to do it. Such an outburst amazed the clergy and other Christians. Astonishment turned into horror when the lid flew off the coffin and Hasting jumped out of it, grabbed his sword and chopped the bishop in the very place where he stood with the liturgy in his hands. At the same moment, the Normans also drew their swords hidden under their cloaks. The clergy, the count, and all the nobles were killed before they recovered from their first surprise; all the rest, among them many young men and women, are taken prisoner; no one could escape, because the church doors were immediately locked. Then the Normans scattered throughout the city; from the harbor, through the open city gates, other crowds rushed towards them; the guards on the walls and all those who resisted with weapons in their hands were killed; fear and confusion settled in all houses: they saw the futility of any attempts to protect; the Normans occupied all the places and became the rulers of the city. It was only then that they discovered their mistake and learned that the conquered city was not Rome.
They say that they then visited Pisa and other cities of Italy and even reached Greece. Burdened with rich booty, with many captives, beautiful women and strong youths, they returned to the north; but, not yet leaving the Mediterranean, in one strong storm they lost their masts, rudders, sails, and to lighten the ships they were forced to throw captives and goods overboard. In 859, a branch of this fleet appeared again in Spain, robbed the cities of Algezira in Andalusia, Alhambra in Portuguese Estremadura and Mesquitella in Beira, then crossed over to Africa, where it caused much devastation, and then wintered on the Spanish coast. Another branch entered the river Rhone, the only French river that did not yet carry Norman ships. There the Vikings fortified themselves on the island of Camargue, sailed up the Rhone, raided on both sides, sacked the cities of Nimes and Arles, reached Valenciennes, and also visited Spanish Catalonia.
It happened at the same time that the city of Chartres fell into the power of those Vikings who established themselves on the island of the Seine, Ossell, and still held out in this fortified camp; from there they constantly made raids along both banks of the Seine, dispersed into many regions, sacked the cities of Saint-Quentin and Soissons and kept everyone in fear. It was just as unsafe in the countries along the Loire that other Vikings roamed there and again penetrated to the city of Poitiers, took it and plundered it, so that the victory won by the Aquitanians over this enemy a few years earlier did not bring any benefit to either the city or the country. There has never been such an attack on France. The Vikings penetrated deeper and deeper into the very heart of the state and had in their hands all the French rivers and marinas. In such danger, Charles the Bald called for help from his nephew, Lothair II, King of Lorraine; with him and noble vassals, he undertook to besiege the Vikings on the island of Ossell and destroy this camp. But during the siege, the great henchmen plotted against Charles and turned to his brother, Louis of Bavaria: they asked him to help them out and accept the crown of France, otherwise they would be forced to submit to the Normans.
In vain besieging Ossell for a whole summer, from June 1, 858, Charles had to lift the siege in order to go to his brother, Louis the German, who had already entered France with an army. Then the Vikings took possession of the ships assembled by the king for the siege of the island. They fortified him even better, so that, after reconciling with henchmen and removing Louis to Germany, Charles saw no other means than to negotiate with the Viking army on Ossell. Bjorn, their leader, had an appointment with the king at Verberk Castle. It is not known by what means the king persuaded this terrible enemy to leave France. The Vikings used to return home to rest when their military fervor had worn off and they were weary of wandering life on the sea, or when they thought they had enough fame and fortune. It is probable that the same thing happened to Bjorn, and that Karl the Bald showered him with rich gifts. On the way back, they were shipwrecked, Bjorn lost many ships and with difficulty reached one English harbor, from there he went to Friesland and died there.
But not all of the Norman army retreated with Bjorn: most of the Vikings remained on the island; on the night of April 28, 859, they captured the city of Noyon, robbed it, killed or took away many priests and monks with Bishop Immo and many noble people of that place. Desperate for the impotent defensive measures of the king and the great henchmen, the people gathered in a crowd between the rivers Seine and Loire to put an end to these terrible devastations. But the brave Vikings easily put this inexperienced crowd to flight.
In the same year, a new crowd of Normans arrived from the north: first they visited the countries on the Scheldt, then they settled on one island of the Somme, ruined the monastery of Saint-Valery on this river, occupied and robbed Lmien and took all the jewelry in the monastery of Saint-Bertini near Sainte -Omer. Here they saw an example of the severity with which the Vikings kept order in their ranks and observed justice: on the altar of the monastery church, they piled church silver; after that they noticed that several vessels were missing; they immediately set up a guard where it was necessary; with the sound of military horns, they gathered the entire detachment, began a search, found out the thieves and at the same moment hung them on the southern gate of the church.
Everywhere they were so frightened that from the monasteries lying inside France, the monks with relics and jewels fled to more distant places. Charles the Bald, recognizing his impotence against the incessantly coming Vikings, resorted to the same remedy that the Romans had once used in weakness and need; they bought themselves the help of one enemy against another. Karl entered into negotiations with the Vikings, who arrived on the Somme after the others, and managed to conclude such a condition that for 5000 silver marks they would help him expel their countrymen from the island of Ossell. In order to collect such an important sum in a country robbed and deprived of trade, Charles imposed a certain tax on monasteries, landowners and merchants, commensurate with the price of their movable and immovable property.
While waiting for the money to be collected, the Vikings, who could not stand an idle and quiet lifestyle, made a trip to England. Returning at the end of the year, they entered the Seine in order to hasten the Franks by fear to pay the promised amount. Finally they got it, and the king, moreover, gave them a lot of provisions. Then they went to the island of Ossell and surrounded it. At the same time, a detachment from the Mediterranean arrived, wintering in Spain, and joined the besiegers. Surrounded by superior numbers, cut off from the sea and land, and, moreover, in need of food supplies, the Vikings on the island capitulated. They were allowed to do this on the condition that from the booty looted in France, they gave 3,000 marks of gold and the same amount of silver.
Winter was approaching, and the Vikings divided into small companies along all the piers of the Seine from the sea to Paris. One detachment, on its way to the winter dwellings, reached Meluv, above Paris, the other, the same one that was besieged on the island, followed the same path and settled in the monastery of Fossatis (Saint-Maure-de-fosse). This crowd, with their usual boldness, in the middle of January 862, started a campaign in small ships up the Marne, took possession of the city of Meaux and penetrated as far as the monastery of Saint-Faron. Charles took advantage of this opportunity and decided to cut off their return to the Seine. Ordering a bridge to be built below the city of Mo, he thus blocked the river and occupied the bank with an army. The Vikings had never seen themselves in such a dangerous position when, going down the river, they found that the path was cut off and the banks were occupied by the army. They held council and discussed how to get out of this trap. After much deliberation, they sent to King Charles and wished for negotiations. They promised to release the captives and return all that they had plundered from the moment they entered the Marne; they promised not only to leave the Seine at the appointed time, but together with the king to force other Vikings to retreat; gave him 10 of their countrymen as a pledge of the fulfillment of these obligations. The king accepted the conditions, and on the day of the vernal equinox, the Vikings left the banks of the Seine; the fleet was divided into small detachments; each has chosen his own path; but they all went to sea, carrying away the countless treasures obtained in the land of the Franks.
The ancient French chronicles describe in gloomy terms the state of France after the Norman devastation in the first thirty years. “The walls of the devastated cities, churches and monasteries are overgrown with shrubs. Some of the inhabitants went to the east to settle in distant countries, others were ready to endure all dangers better than to leave their father's heritage, but they lost all their property; some, breaking their ties, attached themselves to these strangers and, in order to gain their trust, acted even more ferociously than the enemies themselves and defiled their hands with the blood of friends and relatives. On the seashores there is complete desolation, because the inhabitants have rushed to the fortified cities, and in the whole country there is scarcely any human being. The same picture is in the north and in the south, even within the state. The land did not bring any income to the owners, the vineyards and orchards were ruined; workers are expelled; on the main roads there were neither merchants nor travelers; grave silence settled in the uncultivated fields; thorns and nettles covered the fertile soil.”
One cleric, Benedict de Saint-Maur, who wrote in the twelfth century a verse chronicle of the dukes of Normandy, laments in his poems the humiliation and misfortune of the Franks, "forced to bow their heads under the yoke of the most terrible people in the world"; it seems to him that "the posterity will consider incredible the shame and humiliation that covered such a powerful people." In general, good clerics and monks, the only historiographers of those centuries, too exaggerated the terrible deeds of the Normans and the disasters from them to France: churches and monasteries were the world of French chroniclers; but the Vikings mainly directed their raids to these sacred buildings because they could get the richest booty in gold, silver and other jewels there. Historians of other countries talk with surprise about the high growth and beautiful physiognomy of the Normans; but the French chroniclers cannot cite a single decent act of the Normans: for them, this people is “a fiend, a product of the devil, ferocious pagans”; one can see, in the words of one later Norman historian, “what they wrote” with a trembling hand, with blood numb with fear, in the still smoking ruins of their monasteries. Often the same chroniclers express bitter complaints about kings, great and small servants: all of them, according to the chronicles, despite their Christian names, did not keep their hands from iniquity, did not shun any sin, but took away their property and possessions from the churches, cruelly oppressed the people, were more godless than the Moabites, the Amalekites and the Normans. These chroniclers, like the ancient historians of England, also complain about the deep corruption of the morals of the whole people and confess that no matter how severe the fate sent to the country in the Norman cruelties, it is nevertheless a worthy retribution for the vicious life of all popular classes.
Modern historians are looking for the reasons for the amazing successes and happiness of the Normans in the insufficient administration of the state, in the weakness of governments, in the ambition and injustice of the nobles. The collapse of the empire after the death of Charlemagne was not a disaster for her, as well as for the peoples and mankind. But the incessant division of land between the sovereigns of his house, their shaky mutual relations and prolonged disagreements had disastrous consequences both for themselves and for humanity. The great henchmen of the clergy and secular class illegally appropriated the rights of majesty in their duchies and counties, sometimes rebelled against the king, sometimes at enmity with each other. The despised royal power was declining every day. All militancy has disappeared from the cruelly oppressed people; everyone's way of thinking became slavish; neither in the cities nor in the villages was there any participation in the common cause, no one even thought about the common good. The impoverished and oppressed estates eagerly molested the Normans in order to avenge their oppressors; even the great vassals for their vindictive and power-hungry plans often sought help from the Vikings and for this purpose even helped them occupy fortified cities and castles.
The Normans knew how to use this state of affairs excellently: with each new campaign, they became more familiar with the state of disorder of the state, each time they became more courageous and terrible, the more often they came again and the better they learned to unite in large masses. That is why the Franks have never had such an evil enemy; the attacks of a people as well acquainted with the land as with the sea were so unusual, new and original that they did not know any measures to protect themselves from them. The French are still surprised that the Normans could so often and so easily navigate the Seine, because there are many bends between Paris and Rouen, and the course itself presents great obstacles, so that even at the present time it is worth considerable work to boat up this river. Taking this into account and seeing from the testimony of ancient chroniclers that the Normans with the entire fleet, of 150 ships or more, often repeated this maneuver, moreover, in enemy land, on the river, the banks of which were densely populated by inhabitants, there were so many ways to resist , it is not easy to explain the enterprises of the Normans and the inaction of the Franks.
It is believed that the rivers of France, as well as the rest of Europe, used to receive much more water from many swamps and dense forests, and navigation along them did not meet with such difficulties as in our time. Everything else, they think, must be attributed to the extraordinary courage and speed of the Norman enterprises, then their familiarity with the dangers of the water and the great skill in managing ships, so that no nation could compete with them at sea. Their ships were equally adapted to both rowing and sailing; the Normans knew how to use the ebb and flow to enter the Seine, the Loire, the Garonne and other rivers: they consider it probable that at the time when the tide stopped, they arranged their warehouses for booty and supplies in order to continue their journey more conveniently and quickly.
The secret of their military tactics lay in the amazing speed of their marches; moreover, they kept their intentions secret and usually appeared where they were least expected: the monks of the monastery of Saint-Germain-des-Pres, lying secluded not far from Paris, never forgot, as a precaution, to set up mounted pickets, which were supposed to notify them of the approach of enemies. On the day of Pascha, when all the brethren were listening to mass, the Normans approached with such speed that the pickets could hardly give a sign and the monks barely had time to hide in wells and other shelters.
Another main property of their military art, if it was a question of a real battle, was the ability to choose a strong position, because the main business of tactics was known to the ancient inhabitants of the north: they especially liked to choose heights; then it was difficult for the attacker to shoot his arrows and darts or climb a mountain occupied by the enemy without upsetting his line of battle, while the army occupying the heights could attack with greater success and throw stones and spears at the enemy with greater force. Rivers, swamps , streams and ditches served them to cover the front and flank. But they especially tried to take such positions that the sun and wind were at them from the rear. Depending on the quality of the battlefield and other circumstances, they built their army in the form of a pyramid or cone, or pulled it in a line, with a center and wings. They find that they knew the use of reserves, both for changing combatants, and for bypassing the enemy during the battle and for hitting him in the rear.
When attacked by a superior number of infantry or cavalry, the entire army was built in the form of a quadrangle or circle and made up a continuous mass of shields: the very first row of the quadrangle or ring rested its spears with blunt ends on the ground, and directed the points to the chest of the riders; the row following him hurled spears at the chest of the enemy horses, and the whole detachment presented the enemy with an impenetrable front on all sides.
But nothing made them so terrible as their contempt for death: the most daring, thoughtless plans were fun for them. They would rather let themselves be cut to pieces than surrender. From the Elbe to the Pyrenees, everything trembled before them.
In honor of the glorious leaders who until now commanded the Vikings, in addition to Bjorn Iernsida, called in the French chronicles "the king of the troops and the leader of all devastation", and Hasting, his tutor, who is described there as the most terrible of the Vikings, Asker or Osker (Oscheri ), Rerik, Sidrok, Gottfried, Ragnar and Weland. But no one was so feared as the formidable Hasting.
Horror spread throughout the country when word of mouth announced his return from Italy. The king summoned the princes, counts and bishops of the state to a meeting. Many advised to fight and promised help to the king. But Karl considered it harmful for the country to continue the horrors of war and feared the complete destruction of the state. After discussing all the circumstances, he, by common agreement, sent Hasting the Abbot of Saint-Denis with other bishops for negotiations.
It was considered a victory and a miracle of the eloquence of the bishops that they were finally able to persuade this fierce man. Hasting, who was probably tired of the wandering life of a Viking, had a meeting with the king, negotiated a large sum of money for himself, converted to the Christian faith, received the county of Chartres and settled in France. And Weland came to the king's court, was also baptized and probably received land.
Taking into their midst leaders and troops, these terrible Vikings, they tried to avert dangers for the elimination of which there was no other means; in the future, they hoped to lead a life calmer and safer from frequent enemy invasions. King Lothair did the same and gave Rerik and Gottfried possessions in Friesland. When these strong men entered the ranks of the subjects of the state and, under the terms of the last negotiations, all the fleets of the Vikings cleared the banks of the Seine, France, for thirty years a constant gathering of the Normans, was for some time spared from their attacks. Together with the abbots and monks of various monasteries, the abbot and monks of the Saint-Germain monastery returned to Paris with the saved relics and its sv. patron (in July 863). The clergy and countless crowd of residents met them at the mouth of the Bièvre, at the confluence of this river with the Seine, served a festive mass and then in a solemn procession went to the monastery church singing verses from the Prophet Jeremiah: “How one city, multiplied by people, sits down; be like a widow, multiplied in tongues, rule over countries, and be under tribute ... and comfort him.”
However, from time to time groups of Vikings appeared, leading to fear and anxiety. Turpiot, Count of Angouleme, a man celebrated by modern historians, went against such a detachment, fortified on the Loire. His army was defeated, he himself was killed, and the Vikings devastated the whole of Angouleme. Other detachments wandered in the countries of the Garonne, where the Duke of Gascony, Arnald, had frequent skirmishes with them and exterminated many, but at last lost the best part of the army in one big battle. The surrounding countries were brutally devastated by the victors.
Another crowd from the north entered the Rhine and devastated on both banks of the river the kingdoms of Lothair and Louis the German; at the same time, in 865, another fleet entered the Loire and penetrated as far as the city of Fleury, where the Vikings burned the monastery of St. Benedict. On the way back, they devastated the city of Orleans and all the surrounding monasteries and churches; in the same way they raged on the banks of the Loire; on the one hand they reached Poitiers, on the other - to Lemans, robbed both cities and then looked for a way to their ships.
Robert, Count of Anjou, a brave warrior, grandfather of Hugh Capet, the founder of the Capetian house, was commissioned by Charles the Bald to defend the whole country between the Loire and the Seine. The title "Strong" is given to him for the success with which he fought the Normans on many occasions; once, wounded, he had to retreat, but another time he destroyed the entire Viking army to the last.
Robert called for the help of Rainulf, Duke of Aquitaine, to expel the Normans who were rampant in the Loire countries. Gathering men from Anjou, Poitou, and Gascony, they advanced on the Vikings with an elite force and surprised them on the Sarthe River as they retreated from Lemans.
The Normans rushed to the stone church that stood near the river. It was a country church, in Brissart, a village a few miles from Angers. Everyone who did not have time to go there was cut down. Robert and Reinulf surrounded the church; the next day they wanted to attack her with a siege weapon. From the intense heat (it was in July), Robert took off his guard, and no one thought that the Vikings, who made up a small detachment, would dare to attack the superior army. But they made a bold sally when least expected, and rushed at the Angevins and Gascons. After a bloody fight, they were beaten off, but Robert the Strong fell, and the Normans dragged his corpse to the church. The battle was still going on. Duke Reinulf was also killed by an arrow shot from a church window. When Count Gerivey was wounded, the French fled, and the Normans returned to the ships. Even to this day there is a small church that was the scene of this fierce battle. Although it was rebuilt many times, the ancient meal still survives, probably the same one where the Normans locked themselves up. On its right wall there are many small round windows, three of which are still open, and the other two are blocked. One of them probably fired the arrow that killed Rainulf. This happened in 866.
At the same time, a fleet of fifty sails sailed along the river. Seine to Pistre. From there, the Vikings sent 200 men to Paris demanding wine. They marveled at their habit of roaming the enemy's land: indeed, this is extraordinary courage and some kind of proud contempt. The sent ones returned with nothing, but without any harm: it is not known whether they were driven away, or there was no wine in Paris at that time, Then they sent their ships to the Paris region, lived for about 3 weeks in the Saint-Denis monastery and wore every day booty for their ships.
When these crowds wandering in the countries of the Seine and the Loire threatened to move to Chappa, where the fair was taking place, Charles the Bald again resorted to the usual saving measure: he persuaded them to retreat for 4,000 pounds of silver. King Lothar was no less hard pressed: the Vikings invaded Flanders, but, finally driven out, entered the Rhine and plundered on both sides of the river. Following the example of the French king and Lothair, he imposed a tribute of four denarii and a certain amount of flour, wine and cattle on each property, which was delivered to the leader of the Vikings, named Rodulf.
Since navigation on all rivers was everywhere open and free, there were no outposts or watchmen on the roads, the war was always in the will of the Vikings, because they could direct their invasions wherever they wanted. Knowing this, they decided to lay a fortress on the Seine and Meuse; they blocked the Marne and the Oise with bridges; a strong bridge was also built across the Seine near Paris, with fortifications at both ends, occupied by strong guards; Pistr and other places were also fortified; guards were posted on the banks. A strict prohibition was issued to deliver horses, armor and any other weapons to the Normans: whoever did this with any intention, whether for money or in exchange for a prisoner, was declared a traitor to the state and was punished; nothing was accepted in his justification and defense.
It is somewhat strange how the northern fleets and troops were enough to cover the entire coastal country, from the Elbe to the Iberian Peninsula, and for a whole century not only keep all this coast in a constant siege, but even raid the Mediterranean Sea, to the shores of Italy; however, at the same time, the British Isles, England, Scotland and Ireland were constantly subjected to vicious attacks by infidel Vikings. At the same time that Spain was visited by them, the cities of Hamburg and Paris were taken, and Friesland suffered from them, two fleets arrived in England: one - to the shores of Somerset, the other - to Kent. Those who landed at Somerset lost, however, the great battle at the mouth of the Petrida River (now Everlmouth and Parret) with the Altermanns Eanwulf and Osric and Bishop Elstan. And the army that landed on the shores of Kent was also defeated and lost nine ships. These hardships for the Vikings were followed by others in Ireland: the Scandinavians who settled there, reinforced by new troops from the north, after many victories, took even Dublin by storm, but finally, in 848, suffered severe defeats.
Turgesius, as the Irish writers call him, perhaps in the northern pronunciation, Thorkel, was the supreme ruler in the land conquered by the Scandinavians, Ireland. There he wanted to establish a special state and secure his conquests for himself. For this purpose, he appointed a king from his Scandinavian brethren in every region, a captain in every district, a caretaker in every village, settled one Scandinavian in each yard, entrusted his people with the supervision of church and monastery estates, and, according to the northern custom, imposed all "nose" tribute, an ounce of gold from each nose.
According to chroniclers, the Irish were under a severe yoke. Of course, the arbitrariness of the victorious people made itself felt in many cases, but great cruelties, perhaps, were imposed on the Scandinavians through a misunderstanding or to show all the hateful features of an alien government. So, for example, regarding a tax per ounce of gold paid on each head, they say that if someone could not or did not want to pay it, they cut off his nose, why this tax was called Airgio Srone,"diarrheal". But it can hardly be doubted that the Irish or their chroniclers invented this on account of the name of the tribute. The Irish found themselves weak to overthrow the yoke with an armed hand, and therefore they resorted to cunning to destroy Turgesius, and then an uprising broke out everywhere against the Scandinavians. Scattered all over the country, they were killed everywhere; their small detachments, which managed to assemble, were defeated, the rest escaped to the Scottish Isles or returned to Scandinavia.
The joy of the Irish was of short duration; in 849 a Scandinavian fleet of 140 ships arrived again; the war resumed, to the misfortune of the Irish, and Malachi, their high king, considered himself fortunate that he could make an alliance and peace with the foreigners. They again took possession of the surrounding country, which, by the name of the so-called whites, received the name of Fingalia (the land of the white people). A war broke out between these whites and other Scandinavians, or Lochlins, who were in Ireland (such civil strife is often mentioned). The latter took Dublin, plundered it, defeated the whites and forced them to return to the north. But in 853 they came again with a strong fleet, under the command of three brothers, Olaf, Siggrygg and Ivar; Sigtrygg became king in Batherford, Ivar in Limmerick, Olaf in Dublin. This Olaf enjoyed great respect among them, and therefore all the Scandinavians who lived in Ireland submitted to him: he became the High King and from that time considered Dublin to be his place of residence.
Irish historians tell of these aliens from Lochlins and from the Scottish Isles who settled in Ireland, that they are experienced in every military business, equipped with various kinds of weapons, brave in war, hospitable and useful to the Irish in their trade, because the Irish people, due to innate laziness, never engaged in shipping or trade; they surrounded the city with walls and ditches, fought with many small kings, between whom Ireland was divided with the surrounding islands, and expanded the boundaries of their possessions.
During these comings into Ireland, other hordes rushed to England. Altermann Zeorl fought with a detachment at Wenbury, in Devonshire (Wicganbeorche), in 851 and defeated him. In the same year, a new fleet arrived in England, no less than 350 ships. The Vikings entered the land, took Canterbury and London (even earlier, in 839, but according to other news, in 842, they took London, Chester and Canterbury), enriched themselves with significant booty there, then defeated Beorthwulf, king of Mercia, then directed the way to the south, they crossed the Thames and entered Surgan. Then the Wessex king Æthelwulf met them with his son Æthelbald and his army. Under Akeley (Okeley in Surgan near London, both troops converged. The battle was bloody: the Vikings suffered a great defeat, but the victory cost the British dearly, because they also suffered great losses in people. Moreover, this victory did not in the least save them from secondary visits The Vikings established their den on Tanepey, wintered on these islands, from where they undertook constant raids to the shores of England, landing in new places. offered them free trade with Scotland if they gave up their Viking trade and kept the peace.
The very origin of the concept of "Viking" still does not have an unambiguous definition, causing a lot of controversy. Presumably, it can originate in the ancient northern languages, because it was there that the word “vik” existed in the meaning of “bay”. Maybe it was also borrowed in English, or rather Old English - “wic” was used in the meaning of “fortified trading settlement”.
Today it is quite objectively recognized that not every Scandinavian was a professional warrior, just like not every Viking was a pirate. The reasons that caused the expansion of the Normans, as the Vikings were also called, are quite complex and cannot be unambiguously assessed to this day.
Viking campaigns, in the opinion of modern historians, represent a Scandinavian expansion into neighboring countries, which is a continuation of the transformations of northern society.
Unlike other peoples and tribes, the Normans never completely moved: in the squad of each leader or king there were representatives of various northern countries - Swedes, Danes, Norwegians.
In scientific historical literature, one can often find the assertion that the Vikings “specialized” according to nationalities: the Norwegians settled the islands of the North Ocean and attacked Scotland and Ireland, the Danes raided Britain and France, the Swedes moved by the “eastern route”, which, passing through the territory of the Slavic states, opened before them the borders of the Byzantine Empire.
However, this statement is not entirely true. Among the eastern Normans were the Danes, among the western Normans were the Swedes, who, by the way, were many among the first Norwegian inhabitants of Iceland, and between the Danes who attacked Britain.
It is impossible to distinguish between the nationalities that made up the Norman squads. The Vikings can only be "designated" by the geographical affiliation of the "Normans" - the people of the North.
Among the main reasons for the start of the Viking conquests are the following:
- 1. Lack of land suitable for economic cultivation. The expansion of farms and the development of new territories were associated with the hard work of uprooting, burning, draining and cleaning. The lands were very poor and scarce.
- 2. Trade settlement. It would not be correct to consider the Vikings exclusively invaders, seeking to destroy and rob the occupied territories. In the VIII - IX centuries, Scandinavian trade relations with continental Europe and the East acquired great importance. The Vikings contributed to the maintenance of trade relations between Europe and the East. They were a kind of missionaries and intermediaries who developed trade between different countries. The search for new ways to the East led the Varangians, immigrants from Sweden, to Russia, then to the Khazars in the Caspian Sea, in the Baghdad Caliphate and, finally, in Iran. The development of new routes and territories contributed to the development of economic and trade relations in these areas.
- 3. The desire to dominate the sea. First of all, representatives of noble families desired power and military glory. By the middle of the 1st millennium, tribal unions had already formed in Scandinavia under the leadership of elected leaders - kings, who fought among themselves for power and new territories. These local princes sought to consolidate their position and transfer power by inheritance. To do this, they had to meet two conditions: the availability of money and respect. Both they could acquire only in military campaigns.
Among modern scientists, there are several interpretations of the concept of "Viking campaigns", for example:
- - attack on other countries by disparate squads, united military formations for the purpose of robbery and occupation of territories for their subsequent settlement (piracy);
- - campaigns of large military squads led by noble commanders - hövdings or Scandinavian king-kings - in order to establish power over the occupied territories with the subsequent collection of tribute;
- - peaceful colonization of land. The most striking example is the settlement of Iceland;
- - maritime trade and the establishment of trading settlements in other countries;
- - mercenary - service in the squads of overseas kings, for example, in the imperial guard of Byzantium.
Very often, one character of the Viking campaign was replaced by a completely different one. For example, piracy and maritime trade.
It should be borne in mind that most of the population of Scandinavia at that time led a peaceful and "philistine" lifestyle. But even among ordinary people, the thirst for new knowledge was so strong, and the desire to have fun was so irresistible that the Vikings who returned from campaigns became welcome guests in any estate for the long winter months.
A distinctive feature of the "Normans going on campaigns" - as the Vikings were called, was their excellent organization. Representatives of the noble classes were at the head of their squads, and any free person could become an ordinary combatant.
Trade was carried out by both noble leaders - hedings and kings, and commoners. In campaigns they were attracted by a thirst for profit, a desire to see the world.
The success of the Viking campaigns was determined by the common language, excellent seamanship and surprise attacks.
Feudal fragmentation in the west and tribal disunity in the east of Europe, which was practically open to invaders, were important for the success of the Viking campaigns.
The end of the Viking Age - 1042 - the year of the death of the last Scandinavian king Hardaknut in England.
Northerners simultaneously appear in Ireland and England, in all parts of Western Europe, in Iceland, Greenland and America, on the shores of the Arctic Ocean, where, as the legend says, they discovered distant Bjarmia near the White Sea, in Eastern Europe, in Byzantium and even in Muslim states adjacent to the Caspian Sea.
Fig.1.
Not a single coastal country was spared by the Vikings. Capturing the seaside, the Vikings contributed to the development of foreign economic relations, trade, the establishment of cultural and national traditions on the occupied lands.
Some of the established rituals have survived to this day and are of interest not only to tourists from all regions of the world, but also to scientific researchers.
Ireland and Scotland suffered great oppression from the Vikings, however, as did England and France. According to chronicles, the Vikings came to Ireland in 747. “The sea splashed streams of aliens onto the shores of Ireland, overflowing villages, monasteries, fortresses and cities,” says the Irish chronicle.
But only a century later they ceased to be conquerors in this area and began to establish economic ties. Their main efforts were directed to the east coast of the island, where Dublin was the focus of their settlements, then to the southern coastline. In the second half of the century, Norwegian kingdoms were already established in Waterford and Limerick.
The position of these kingdoms has always been precarious. Despite the fact that, according to the Irish chroniclers, the Celtic leaders fought more than once in the ranks of the Normans, the population of the islands, which by this time had already converted to Christianity, was, thanks to their faith, more united than the conquerors.
In the north, in the "rear" of the Irish Normans, lived the Scottish Picts, who more than once inflicted heavy defeats on them, and to the west - the Danes of England, or the Anglo-Saxons, with whom they fought in alliance with the Celtic population of the western coast of England.
Within 50 years, Dublin and Waterford change hands twenty times. The conquerors prevailed when the invasions of England or France stopped for a time and the unoccupied Normans went to Ireland.
However, soon the Normans of England and France became "sedentary". The discovery of Iceland gave a new direction to Norwegian emigration. The Norwegian kingdoms of Ireland fell into decline, and their population began to "Celticize". These colonies were converted to Christianity.
Over time, only a thin strip of Scandinavian settlements along the east coast remained here, surviving until the Normans appeared on the island.
The Vikings regularly attacked England during 835-865. Sometimes up to 350 Danish drakkars, the warships of the Normans, landed on the coast at the same time.
Cornwall, Exeter, Winchester, Canterbury and London were devastated. Until 851, the Vikings did not stay for the winter in England, but returned home in late autumn, taking away their booty. For some time they do not dare to penetrate deep into the country and do not go further from the coast than 15 kilometers.
In England, as later in other countries, the Vikings tried to intimidate the local population, brutally suppressing the slightest resistance with fire and sword. They widely used savage ritual executions.
Not many Western rulers could offer worthy resistance to the "violent Normans" - historians name only three kings who were able to organize the defense of their states.
In Gaul, these were the emperors Charlemagne, who formed a flotilla to protect his banks, and Charles the Bald, who wanted to block or block the rivers with fortified bridges, and in England, Alfred the Great (about 849-890).
In all other cases, after several brutal raids by pagan Vikings, Christian rulers did not show any resistance to the robbers and got rid of them in a way tested at all times - they paid off.
The island groups to the north of Great Britain have long been known to the Scottish and Irish Celts, but appear to be sparsely populated. When the Normans arrived there in the 8th century, the entire population of these islands consisted of Irish monks. The same was the case in Iceland.
Thus, the settlement of these archipelagos and Iceland by newcomers did not meet any obstacles. In 861, the Norwegian Naddod discovered Iceland, and in 878 its colonization began, which lasted about 50 years. Most of the colonists were Norwegians who left their homeland in order not to submit to the dominion of powerful kings.
So Iceland became the second Norway. Following the model of the latter, it was a federation of isolated estates and farms located deep in the fjords and valleys of the island. The old customs, traditions and sagas have been preserved here practically in their original form, and mainly by them we can judge the state of Scandinavia before the adoption of Christianity 5 .
The northwestern tip of Iceland and the eastern coast of Greenland are located very close to each other. It was enough for some Norwegian ship sailing to Iceland to be somewhat carried away by a storm or current so that its crew could notice the snowy peaks of Greenland above the horizon.
Already in 870, a certain Gunbjorn saw the islands lying off the Greenland coast. A century later, in 980, Are Marson was driven by a storm to the land he called Greater Ireland, or the Land of the White Men. These white people spoke Celtic. Finally, the Icelander Eirik the Red, walking along the western coast of the island, reached a new land inhabited by dwarfs - skrelings - probably Eskimos, and called it Greenland - the Green Land.
The name did not match the appearance of the country covered with ice, and scientists believe that the name "Green Land" was a kind of publicity stunt to attract new settlers. Be that as it may, the western coast of Greenland became an Icelandic colony and remained so until the 14th century. In the 15th century, the colony is believed to have been decimated by the black death, the plague.
The history of the Norman settlements in America is even more mysterious than the history of the Greenland colonies.
The Icelander Bjorn Heriulfson, sailing from Iceland to Greenland and being thrown south by the north wind, noticed unfamiliar shores on the left side of the board. His discovery greatly excited the Greenlanders and Icelanders, and one of the sons of Eirik the Red, Leif, decided to go to that country.
Leaving Greenland and sailing southeast, he soon reached these shores. They were naked and rocky, wherefore Leif, afterward called the Happy, called this land the Country of the Cliffs, or the Rocky Country; it was most likely a Labrador. Further, in the south, the travelers saw another country, flat and wooded, which they called the Forest Country - Markland, and further south - a new land, in which they decided to spend the winter.
They built themselves a strong home here, but the winter was less severe than they expected. The climate was so mild that grapes grew, so they gave this country the name Vinland - Grape Country. For a long time this Wine Country was thought to correspond to the coast of Massachusetts, where some of the ruins were attributed as Norman buildings. It has now been established that Vinland did not lie south of Nova Scotia.
Around 1002, a Greenlander named Thorfinn Karlsefni conceived the idea of establishing a colony in Vinland. He went there with 60 men and several women, found the shore opened by Leif the Fortunate, and soon met new Screlings similar to the Greenland ones. For some time, the aliens lived in peace with them, but then a war broke out, and the Greenlanders were forced to leave Vinland, having spent almost two years there.
So the main successes of the Vikings were still not in the discovery of new lands, but in the lightning conquest of Europe.
