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Gallic language. What does "Gaulish language" mean? Gaelic language

[χ] is an allophone of /k/ before /t/.

Sound laws

Writing

• Alphabet of Lugano used in Cisalpine Gaul:

AEIKLMNOPRSTΘUVXZ The Lugano alphabet does not distinguish between voiced and voiceless stops, that is, P represents /b/ or /p/, T for /g/ or /t/, for K /g/ or /K/. Z is probably k /ts/. U/U/ and V/W/ differ only in one early inscription. Θ is probably k /t/ and X is on /g/ (Lejeune 1971, Solinas 1985).

• Eastern Greek alphabet used in southern Gaul Transalpina:

αβγδεζηθικλμνξοπρστυχω χ is used for [χ], θ for /ts/, ου for /u/, /u/, /b/, η and ω for both long and short /e/, /e/ and /o/, /o/ , and ι for short /i/ and ει for /i/. Please note that Sigma in Eastern Greek script looks like C (so-called semilunar sigma). All Greek letters were used except phi and psi.

• Latin alphabet (monumental and cursive), was used most actively in Roman Gaul, except for its southern part, although there is lat there too. according to spelling texts:

ABCDÐEFGHIKLMNOPQRSTUVXZ abcdðefghiklmnopqrstuvxz

G and K are were sometimes used interchangeably (especially after R). Ð /ð , ds And s may represent t /t s /. X, x this is [χ] or /ks/. Q is used in rare cases (e.g. Sequanni, Equos) and may be an archaism (preserved *k w) or, as in Latin, an alternative spelling of the syllable -cu-(for original /kuu/, /kou/, or /kom-u/). Ð and ð are used here to represent the so-called tau gallicum(Gallic dental affricate), the exact character was never added to Unicode. Unlike the style for Ð, the central line extends right through the middle of the style tau gallicum and also does not look through the symbol. Also indicative is the use of a letter such as iota longa, for long i. This sound is transliterated either as a cap. lat. “I”, or lowercase “i” with an acute sign. The question to what extent the long vowels ē and ō were conveyed with the help of the Greek letters Η "ita" and Ω "omega" is still unclear; there is reason to think that they, at least in some cases, did not transmit special quantity, But quality designated vowels: “ita” is long/short closed /ẹ/ or /i/, and “omega” is long/short closed /ọ/ or /u/.

The name ARAROOVNA on the tomb shows the use of the so-called. tau gallicum(here the letter is doubled). Museums Cour d'Or, Metz.

Morphology

Name

In Gaulish there were up to 6 or 7 declensions. The most reliable information is about the declension of the two most frequent nominal stems: with thematic -a and -o. An empty cell means there is a lack of information.

Data on other declinations is more fragmentary, but in general the picture looks like this:

In some cases there is a historical evolution, for example, of dates. units the numbers of the a-stems are -āi in the oldest inscriptions, becoming first *-ăi and finally -ī (as in Irish a-stem nouns with weakened (weak) consonants: im. lámh “hand, arm” ( compare Gaul. lāmā) and dat.< *lāmi; cравн. галльск. lāmāi >*lāmăi > lāmī). Further, instrumentalis plural. the numbers began to mix with the dates. pl. numbers (Dan. atrebo and matrebo vs. instr. gobedbi and suiorebe), and in modern. Insular Celtic languages ​​are known to be historical. the instrumental form has completely replaced the original. dative

Regarding o-stems, Gaulish also received an innovation - a pronominal ending in nom forms. pl. -oi and gen. sing. -ī instead of the expected -ōs and -os preserved in Celtiberian (-oś, -o). In a-basics, an inherited gene. sing. -as is attested, but was later replaced by -ias like the Insular Celtic dialects. The expected pluralis genitive in -a-om was not found, but a form in -anom (vs. Celtiberian archaic -aum) is attested in the text from Larzac.

Verbs

The verb so far, despite noticeable progress in the study of the language, is known worse than the name: the forms of present are noted (thematic and athematic - see below), preterite (sigmatic, reduplicated, and formed with the help of the suffix -u-); the media passive is characterized by the element -r-. Relative forms of the finite verb also became known. The verb system shows a number of innovations compared to the reconstructed pan-Celtic state. The Indo-European s-aorist developed into the so-called Gallic t-preterite, which was formed by merging the old ending of the 3rd person singular. imperfect numbers - t- with the perfect ending of the 3rd person singular. numbers - u or - e and subsequent affixation with all forms of t-preterite. Likewise, the s-preterite was formed by expansion - ss(initially also 3rd person singular) and affixations - it to the 3rd person unit. numbers (for distinction as such). The 3rd person plural is also marked by adding a postpositive -s in the past tense.

Calendar from Coligny

Month of Samonios

Conjugation

Lead plate with the largest Gallic inscription from l’Hospitalet-du-Larzac. preserved in the museum of the city of Millau (Aveyron).

The verb conjugation in Gaulish is still not very well known, despite the discovery of large texts from 1974-1997. Apparently, in Gallic, like, for example, ancient Greek, Indo-European verbs in -mi(athematic) and on -o(thematic). Gallic had 5 moods: active, subjunctive, desirable, imperative, and also an indefinite form (in the form of a verbal noun) and at least 3 tenses: present, future and preterite - the formation features of which are indicated above. Christopher Gwynne has listed a number of extant verb forms of Gaulish in list form

Numerals

Numerals with graffiti La Grofesanque

1. cintus, cintusos(Welsh cynth"before" cyntaf"first", Breton kent"front", Old Irish céta,Irish céad"first")
2. allos(W ail, Br eil,OIr aile“another, second”, Ir eile)
3. tritios(W trydydd, Br trede,OIr trade,Ir treas)
4. petuarios(W pedwerydd, Br pevare,OIr cethramad)
5. pinpetos(W pummed, Br pempet,OIr discussed)
6. suexos(maybe mistaken for suextos; W chweched, Br c'hwec'hved,OIr seissed)
7. sextametos(W saithfed, Br seizhved,OIr sechtmad)
8. oxtumetos(W wythfed, Br eizhved,OIr ochtmad)
9. nametos(W nawfed, Br naved,OIr nomad)
10. decametos, decometos(W degfed, Br degvet,OIr dechmad, Celtiberian dekametam)

Syntax

Influence on the French language

The Gauls are traditionally considered the ancestors of the French and Belgian Walloons (Belgi), and before the advent of scientific comparative historical linguistics, it was sometimes even argued (“Grammar of Port-Royal”) that the French language is a descendant of Gaulish, and the similarity with Latin is explained by borrowings from it. However, the influence of the Gaulish language (in other words, the Celtic substrate) on French has not yet been proven to the same extent as the obvious clarity of changes caused by a powerful layer of influences of Germanic languages ​​at different levels, and in the main root word of French it is Latin roots that predominate. About 180 words can be used for Gallic elements ( including dialect), e.g. bec "beak", chêne "oak", remnants of the base-20 number system, e.g. quatre-vingts "80" ("4 x 20"). Apparently, this is due to the fact that the extinction of Gaulish and the transition of the Gauls to folk Latin occurred very quickly and had already ended by the time the Old French language was formed. It should also be borne in mind that Latin and Gaulish - which is accepted by the entire scientific community - were quite close to each other as the Italic and ancient Celtic languages, a number of words differed only in endings or grammatical form - all this also accelerated the transition to Latin and causes the etymology of some to be unclear modern French words, since they can be either Latin or Celtic. It is known, for example, that because the Gauls understood the meaning of Latin words, Julius Caesar had to correspond in Greek rather than in Latin.

Surviving texts and glosses from ancient authors

Greek, Latin and early medieval authors preserved a large number of glosses and even small fragments of phrases in the Gaulish language. Of particular note is Marcellus Empiricus of Bordeaux. In his book on medicines there are 10 such texts.

Magic formulas

Gallic magical formulas of Marcellus from Burdigala

1. excicum acrisos(for cleaning, washing eyes).
2. resonco hregan gresso(to remove specks from the eye).
3. in mon dercomarcos axatison(with swelling of the eyes).
4. rica rica soro(for barley).
5. κυρια κυρια κασσαρια σουρωρβι (for barley).
6. vigaria gasaria(for barley).
7. argidam margidam sturgidam(for toothache).
8. crisi crasi ca neras i(for tongue pain in the throat).
9. heilen prosaggeri vome si polla nabuliet onodieni iden elilon(for throat blockage)
10. xi exucricone xu criglionalsus scrisu miovelor exugri conexu grilau(for throat blockage).

Other phrases

Vita Sancti Symphoriani was created around the 5th century in this source, according to the opinion of several scholars (see below), an entire sentence in Late Gaulish is preserved. Martyr Symphorianus de Augustoduno (165–180).

" hoc est memorare dei tui"

" " (Codex de Turin D. V. 3)

Ab anonymi auctore scripta, Vita Sancti Symphoriani: "uenerabilis mater sua de muro sedula et nota illum uoce Gallica monuit dicens: "nate, nate Synforiane, mentobeto to diuo""This transcription belongs to Rudolf Thurneysen. The text is damaged and, as can be seen above, differs in manuscripts and in this form is found in only two manuscripts from sets variants of "The Martyrdom of St. Symphorian". This reconstruction is due to the celtologist Tourneysen and supported by M. Joseph Monard"

It is noteworthy that part of the phrase - mentobeto to diuo probably reflects Vulgar Latin or its influence on Gaulish. That. mentobeto in Adams that this form was the imperative form of the compound verb mente habere. From Old French: "mentevoir" and Prov. "mentaure".

Vita sancti Symphoriani among those printed in the “édition des Acta sanctorum (Aug. IV, p. 497) gives, however, a different text in a “more Latin form” - which is found already in the 16th century:

Venerabilis autem mater sua de muro nota illum voce commonuit dicens: " nate, nate Symphoriane, in mente habe Deum vivum. Resume constantiam, fili. Timere non possumus mortem, quae sine dubio perducit ad vitam"

Glosses

In ancient Greek and especially in Lat. Authors, as already mentioned, have preserved hundreds of Gallic and Galatian (much less) glosses. From 5th century BC until the 6th century AD. From Plautus to Fortunatus lat. the texts are full of Gallic words. For example, the glosses of Hesychius, the materials of Hesychius of Alexandria, among other things, provide valuable information about the dialect of the Galatians in Asia Minor.

ἀβράνας· Κελτοὶ τοὺς κερκοπιθήκους abránas: among the Celts, long-tailed monkeys

αδες· πόδες. ἔνιοι δὲ ἀηδές ades: legs; some, disagree (in form, considered Gallic or Galatian)

Ἀδριανοί· Κελτοί, οἱ παρὰ τὴν Ἀδρίαν περίοικοι Adrianoí : Celtes qui habitent aux alentours de l’Adriatique

†βαρακάκαι · †ἅγιοι διαφέραι† , παρὰ Κελτοῖς brákkai: leather hats of the Celts

βαρδοί· ἀοιδοὶ παρὰ Γαλάταις bardoí: singers of the Galatians

†ἔντριτον· τὸ διονίου ἔμβρωμα, ὃ Γαλάται ἔμβρεκτόν φασιν† éntriton: food... which the Galatians call émbrekton

ἤλεκτρος· μέταλλον χρυσίζον. ? σθαι τῶν αἰγείρων. τὰ δάκρυα τῶν Ἡλιάδων ḗlektros [‘amber’]: golden-colored metal; they say that in the country of the Celts near Eridanus this is what poplars are called; tears of Heliad (Iliad).

καίτρεαι· ὅπλα Ἰβηρικά· οἱ δὲ κυρτίας kaítreai: Iberian weapons; some have kurtías

κάρνον · τὴν σάλπιγγα Γαλάται kárnon or kárnyx: Galatian trumpet

Κελτοί· ἔθνος ἕτερον Γαλατῶν Keltoí: another tribe of Galatians

κυρτίας· Κελτοὶ τὰς ἀσπίδας kurtías: Celtic word, shields

λειούσματα ἢ λεγούσματα· εἶδος καταφράκτου. Γαλάται leioúsmata or legoúsmata: type of cataphract armor among the Galatians

λεύγη· μέτρον τι Γαλατικόν leúgē: Galatian unit of measurement

μαδάρεις· τὰς πλατυτέρας λόγχας τῶν κεράτων. Κελτοί madáreis: spears (in shape) flatter than horns (tips in the form of a horn tip), among the Celts

Inscriptions in Gaulish

Until relatively recently, the largest Gallic monument was the calendar from Coligny. However, since 1970, a number of well-preserved and relatively large texts have been discovered, including a possible spell on a lead plate from Larzac, which represents the largest surviving Gallic text. This lead plate was found in 1983 in L'Hospitalet-du-Larzac ( 43.966667 , 3.2 43°58′ N. w. 3°12′ E. d. /  43.966667° s. w. 3.2° E. d.(G) (O)) in Aveyron. The text in Latin italic is written on both sides of two small sheets of lead. This text may be defixio- a sign with a magical curse. . The text is believed by some to represent a magical incantation regarding a certain Severa Tertionicna and a group of women (possibly rival sorceresses or druidesses), but the exact interpretation of the text, due to obvious gaps in our knowledge of Gallic morphology and vocabulary, remains partly unclear.

Examples of texts

Gallic text from Larzac

(After R. Marichal, modified by M. Lejeune, L. Fleuriot, and P.-Y. Lambert.)

Face 1a inside de bnanom brictoincors onda…[

]donicon[ / ]incarata

]a senit conectos[ / ]onda bocca nene.[

]rionti onda boca ne[ / .on barnaunom ponc nit-

issintor sies eianepian / digs ne lisantim ne licia-

tim ne rodatim biont- / utu semnanom sagitiont-

ias seuerim lissatim licia- / tim anandognam acolut[

utanit andognam[ / da bocca[ / diom…[ ne[

aia […] cicena[ / nitianncobueðliðat[

iasuolsonponne / antumnos nepon

nesliciata neosuode / neiauodercos nepon

su biiontutu semn- / anom adsaxs nadoc [

suet petidsiont sies / peti sagitiontias seu-

im tertio lissatim[ / ..]s anandogna […

…]ictontias.["

Translation: (following the French translation by P.-Y. Lambert.) Many words, however, are unreadable, so the translation is partial, which is facilitated by a limited understanding of Gaulish.

part 1a Send these women's charms against their names (which) below, (there are) witches' charms to charm witches. O Adsagsona, (name of the goddess) turn your attention twice to Severa Tertionicna, their sorceress of letters and nauz (threads with magical knots), so that they will release him, along with the curse against their names, which makes the spell of the group below […]

part 1, b […]these women mentioned above, who charmed him in such a way that he became helpless […]

part 2a […] every person holding the position of judge, on whom they would cast a spell that cancels the spell cast on this person; so that this could not be the witchcraft of the spell of the witch of letters, the witch of nauzes (knots on a string), the witch of donors, who is among these women who are looking for the North, in writing a witch, a witch of nauz, foreign […]

part 2b is not an escape from evil spells […]

Notes

1. Gregory of Tours spoke about the Gallic language in his writings, which is why in the middle of the 6th century there were a certain number of speakers.
2. There is reason to believe that the final disappearance of the Gaulish language occurred around 600 AD. e. .
3. This may be debatable - as it may be an archaism or a spelling device - there are discussions among celtologists
4. Stifter, David. (Recension of) Helmut Birkhan, Kelten. Celts. Bilder ihrer Kultur. Images of their Culture, Wien 1999, in: Die Sprache, 43/2, 2002-2003, pp. 237-243
5. Tau is Gallic, believed in peleography to be derived from the Greek letter "phyta" or "theta"
6. since it is the same in ancient Greek itself. language
7. Lambert 2003 pp.51-67
8. meaning lit. Gaelic and Irish, since the cases are lost in Welsh.
9. bn anom brictom
10. Recueil des inscriptions gauloises (XLVe supplément à "GALLIA"), ed. Paul-Marie Duval et al. 4 vols. Paris: CNRS, 1985-2002. ISBN 2-271-05844-9
11. A. A. Korolev. Gallic language. (Languages ​​of the world: Germanic languages. Celtic languages. - M., 2000. - P. 424-427)
12. English ― Proto-Celtic English.
13. oldcelt2008_6_gaulishA.pdf Dr. David Stifter.
14. There is an opinion that mI here is a personal pronoun of the first singular. numbers inflected with a verb, for example. in the shape of uediu-mI
15. Pierre-Yves Lambert La langue gauloise. - Paris: Editions Errance, 2003. - pp. 162-174. - ISBN 2-87772-224-4
16. The Gaulish Verbal System © 2000 by Christopher Gwinn
17. list at encyclopedie.arbre-celtique.com/mots-francais-d-origin-gauloise
18. M. H. Offord, French words: past, present, and future, pp. 36-37
19. Xavier Delamarre, Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise, Une approche linguistique du vieux-celtique continental, Errance, Collection des Hespérides, 2003 (ISBN 2-87772-237-6) fr.
20. J. Degavre, Lexique gaulois (recueil de mots attestés, transmis ou restitués et de leurs interprétations. Mémoires de la Société belge d" études celtiques, n° 9), Brussel, 1998.
21. Marcellus Empiricus.De medicamentis liber.Lipsiae.Helmreich, Georg, 1849-1921
22. 1. Maicellus, De medicamentis liber, ed. G. Helmreich, Leipzig, 1889, VIII, 64, 170, 171, 190, 192, 193; XII, 24; XIV, 24; XV, 105, 106. see the edition given by Max Niedermann in Corpus medicorum latinorum, V, Leipzig, 1916.
23. Wilhelm Meyer in his fundamental work Fragmenta Burana. Berlin, Weidmann 1901
24. p. 24:„jeden- falls aus dieser Handschrift abgeschrieben, steht in der ^Münclmer Handschrift 22243 (XII) fol. \)h\ Venerabilis mater sua de muro sedula et notani illum uoce gallica inonuit dicens. Nate nate syn- foriane inemento b&oto diuo. hoc est memoi-are dei tui. Resunie constantiam timere deum non ])ossunius.”
25. Rudolf Thurneysen, Zeitschrift für Celtische Philologie, 4 (1923)
26. gegen die alte Handschrift in München 1441s (IX) liat nach Ikills Mitteilung fol. 45: Nate nii Synii)liorianae nieniorare doi tui. während die Handschrift der Laurenziana Aedil. KU (XI) (luich Pajnas Bericht) und die Münchner 2r)4() (XII) haben: Xate nate Symphoriane, nienicnto dei veri. Es stehen also nebeneinander die Varianten: in mente habe, niemento und meinorare. Seltsamer- weise enthält jede dieser o Lesarten eine Spur der ursi)rünglichen. In der Münchner Handschrift aus Penedictbeuern, no. 4r)Sö (IX. Jahrh. f.))I-X) steht das, was ich hier gebe, und dassell)e. jeden- falls aus dieser Handschrift abgeschrieben, steht in der ^Münclmer Handschrift 22243 (XII) fol. \)h\ Venerabilis mater sua de muro sedula et notani illum uoce gallica inonuit dicens. Nate nate syn- foriane inemento b&oto diuo. hoc est memoi-are dei tui. Resunie constantiam timere deum non ])ossunius.
27. Wilhelm Meyer in Fragmenta Burana. Berlin, Weidmann 1901: “Ce sont quelques paroles extraites du martyre de saint Symphorien d"Autun (env. 180 ap. JC), qui furent selon lui écrites au plus tard au Vème siècle. Quand le saint fut conduit au lieu de son jugement , sa mère le hela " voice gallica"en ces termes:" Nate nate Synforiane meniento b&oto diuo hoc est memorare dei tui" (Cod. monac. lat. 4585) " Nati nati Synforiani, mentem obeto dotiuo" (Codex de Turin D. V. 3) Aucun doute sur la celticité de ces paroles, mais elles sont peut-être un peu déformées dans les deux versions manuscrites, qui datent du IXème siècle. » Il y a là deux sources manuscrites. (Suivent les interprétations de ces paroles, étayées dans les deux cas par des comparaisons à l "irlandais ancien).
28. dans la revue "Message n° 54: MENTO BETO TO DEUO, "Pense constamment au divin". Cette formule gauloise citée est dans l"hagiograprie (en latin) de St Symphorien d"Autun (Vita Symphoriani Augustodunensis, 11ASS22) comme paroles de sa mère "Nate, nate, mênto beto do deuo" (Fils, fils, pense constamment au divin).
29. Adams J.-N. (2003, Bilingualism and the Latin Language)
30. Bréviaire de Vienne, de 1522: Venerabilis mater sua de muro sedula illum voce commonuit dicens: "nate, nate Symphoriane, in mente habe Deum tuum. Resume constantiam, fili"
31. “Συναγωγή Πασών Λέξεων κατά Στοιχείον.” Hesychius' glosses from his dictionary (both Greek and foreign) are posted online in the Greek version of Wikipedia, see.
32. short note
33. Inscriptions and French translations on the lead tablets from Larzac
34. seal du larzac
35. Lejeune, Michel; Fleuriot, L.; Lambert, P. Y. & Marichal, R. (1985) "Le plomb magique du Larzac et les sorcières gauloises", CNRS , ISBN 2-222-03667-4
36. data according to: Delamarre, X. (2003). Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise(2nd ed.). Paris: Editions Errance. ISBN 2-87772-237-6 fr.
37. plat de lezoux
38. oldcelt2008_7_gaulishB.pdf Dr. David Stifter. p. 152
39. D. Stifter. p. 149.

Literature

• // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: In 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional ones). - St. Petersburg. , 1890-1907.

Links

• L.A. Curchin, "Gaulish language" (English)
• Gaulish language on TIED
• Coligny calendar
• Languages ​​and writing of Roman Gaul (French)
• http://www.arbre-celtique.com (French)
• Corpus of Gallic and Celtiberian inscriptions online (French)

Gaulish language

belongs to the Celtic group of the Indo-European family of languages. By the 5th-6th centuries. in Gaul it was supplanted by the Latin language; in other areas of Europe it died out earlier.

Gaulish language

language of the Celtic tribes, shortly before our era. e. inhabited the territory from the Iberian Peninsula to Asia Minor. It was a complex of different but fairly close tribal dialects. G. I. stands out as a special branch of the Celtic languages; closer to the British branch than to the Goidelic one. Epigraphic monuments of G. I have reached us. (4th century BC ≈ first centuries AD). Most of the short inscriptions contain only dedicatory formulas. The most extensive is a calendar on a bronze tablet from Coligny. Many Gallic words and proper names are preserved in Latin inscriptions and in the works of ancient authors. Compared to the rest of the Celtic G. i. very archaic. The phonetic appearance of words has not undergone significant changes. Consonant mutations do not appear to have evolved. As far as one can judge, the nominal declension was quite developed; the verb is much less well known. The order of words in a sentence is free. In most areas of distribution of G. i. was supplanted by Latin by the 5th-6th centuries. Many Gaulish words survive in modern French and northern Italian dialects.

Lit.: Lewis G., Pedersen H., A Brief Comparative Grammar of the Celtic Languages, trans. from English, M., 1954; Dottin G., La langue gauloise, P., 1920: Whatmough J, The dialects of ancient Gaul, ser. 1≈5, Ann Arbor, 1950≈51.

A. A. Korolev.

Wikipedia

Gaulish language

Gaulish language- a dead Celtic language, widespread in Gaul until the 6th century, when it was finally supplanted by folk Latin.

According to one of the two main classifications of Celtic languages, Gaulish and a number of other dead languages ​​- Celtiberian and Lepontine - are combined into the so-called "continental Celtic languages". Another classification, dividing the Celtic languages ​​into Q-Celtic and P-Celtic, places Gaulish in the second branch.

Places Gaulish in the second branch.

Encyclopedic YouTube

1 / 1

✪ Nikos Mankos - Lecture on the Gaulish language (04/26/2016)

Subtitles

Monuments

Known from several hundred inscriptions: lapidary (on stones), on ceramic vessels, coins, lead and zinc plates. Gallic texts were found in the territory of modern France, Switzerland, Italy, Germany, and Belgium. The oldest Gallic inscriptions date back to the 6th century BC. e. and executed in Cisalpine Gaul in the Old Italic alphabet. The latest information about the Gaulish language is the mention of several speakers by Gregory of Tours (VI century AD).

Writing

• Alphabet of Lugano used in Cisalpine Gaul:

AEIKLMNOPRSTΘUVXZ The Lugano alphabet does not distinguish between voiced and voiceless stops, that is, P represents /b/ or /p/, T for /d/ or /t/, for K /g/ or /k/. Z probably stands for /ts/. U /у/ and V /w/ differ only in one early inscription. Θ apparently denotes /t/, X - /g/ (Lejeune 1971, Solinas 1985).

• Eastern Greek alphabet used in southern Transalpine Gaul:

αβγδεζηθικλμνξοπρστυχω

χ is used for [χ], θ for /TS/, ου for /u/, /ū/, /w/, η and ω for long and short /e/, /ē/ and /o/, /ō/, whereas ι − for short /i/, ει for /ī/. Note that sigma in Eastern Greek is written as C (so-called semilunar sigma). All Greek letters were used except phi and psi.

• Latin alphabet (monumental and cursive) was used most actively in Roman Gaul, except for its southern part, although there are texts with Latin spelling there too:

ABCDÐEFGHIKLMNOPQRSTUVXZ abcdðefghiklmnopqrstuvxz

G and K were sometimes used interchangeably (especially after R). Ð /ð , ds And s may represent t /t s /. X, x this is [χ] or /ks/. Q is used in rare cases (e.g. Sequanni, Equos) and may be an archaism (preserved *k w) or, as in Latin, an alternative spelling of the syllable -cu-(for original /kuu/, /kou/ or /kom-u/). Ð and ð are used here to represent the so-called tau gallicum(Gallic dental affricate), the exact symbol of which was never added to Unicode. Unlike the style for Ð, the central line extends right through the middle of the style tau gallicum and also does not look beyond the boundaries of the symbol. Also indicative is the use of a letter such as iota longa, for long i. This sound is transliterated either with a capital Latin "I" or a lowercase "i" with an acute sign. The question to what extent the long vowels ē and ō were conveyed with the help of the Greek letters Η “this” and Ω “omega” is still unclear; there is reason to think that they, at least in some cases, did not transmit special quantity, But quality designated vowels (the same as in the ancient Greek language itself): “eta” is a long/short closed /ẹ/ or /i/, and “omega” is a long/short closed /ọ/ or /u/.

Linguistic characteristics

Phonology

• vowels:
  • short: a, e, i, o u
  • long ā, ē, ī, (ō), ū
• semivowels: w, y
• stops:
  • voiceless: p, t, k
  • voiced: b, d, g
• sonants
  • nasals: m, n
  • smooth r, l
• fricative: s
• affricate: t s

[χ] is an allophone of /k/ before /t/.

Sound laws

Morphology

Name

In Gaulish there were up to 6 or 7 declensions. The most reliable information is about the declension of the two most frequent nominal stems: with thematic -a and -o. An empty cell means there is a lack of information.

Data on other declinations is more partial, but in general the picture looks like this:

In some cases there is a historical evolution, for example, of dates. units the number of a-bases -āi in the oldest inscriptions is modified: *-ăi and, finally, -ī (as in Irish a-base nouns with weakened (weak) consonants: im. lámh “brush, arm” (cf. Gaulish . lāmā) and dat. láimh (< *lāmi; сравн. галльск. lāmāi >*lāmăi > lāmī). Further, instrumentalis plural. the numbers began to mix with the dates. pl. numbers (Danish atrebo and matrebo vs. instr. gobedbi and suiorebe); in modern insular Celtic languages ​​(meaning Gaelic and Irish, since the cases are lost in Welsh), the historical form of instrumentalis has completely replaced the historical dative.

In o-bases, Gallic also breaks the rules - the pronominal ending in the forms named after. plural -oi and gen. units -ī instead of the expected -ōs and -os preserved in Celtiberian (-oś, -o). In a-basics, inherited gender. units -as is attested, but was later replaced by -ias, similar to the Insular Celtic dialects. Expected birth. pl. in -a-om was not found, but in the text from Larzac a form in -anom is attested (against the Celtiberian archaic -aum).

Verb

The verb so far, despite noticeable progress in the study of the language, is known worse than the name: the forms of present are noted (thematic and athematic - see below), preterite (sigmatic, reduplicated, and formed with the help of the suffix -u-); the media passive is characterized by the element -r-. Relative forms of the finite verb also became known. The verb system shows a number of innovations compared to the reconstructed pan-Celtic state. The Indo-European s-aorist developed into the so-called Gallic t-preterite, which was formed by merging the old ending of the 3rd person singular. imperfect numbers - t- with the perfect ending of the 3rd person singular. numbers - u or - e and subsequent affixation with all forms of t-preterite. Similarly, the s-preterite was formed by expansion - ss(initially also 3rd person singular) and affixations - it to the 3rd person unit. numbers (for distinction as such). The 3rd person plural is also marked by adding a postpositive -s in the past tense.

The verb conjugation in Gaulish is still not very well known, despite the discovery of large texts in 1974-1997. Apparently, in Gallic, like, for example, ancient Greek, Indo-European verbs in -mi(athematic) and on -o(thematic). Gallic had 5 moods: active, subjunctive, desirable, imperative, and also an indefinite form (in the form of a verbal noun) and at least 3 tenses: present, future and preterite - the formation features of which are indicated above. Christopher Gwynne has listed a number of extant verb forms of Gaulish in list form.

Numerals

Numerals from La Grofesanque graffiti:

1. cintus, cintusos(Welsh cynt “before”, cyntaf"first", bret. kent "in front", Old Irish céta, Irish céad "first")
2. allos(Welsh. ail, Brett. eil, other Irish aile“another, second”, Irish. eile)
3. tritios(Welsh. trydydd, Brett. trede, other Irish trade, Irish treas)
4. petuarios(Welsh. pedwerydd, Brett. pevare, other Irish cethramad)
5. pinpetos(Welsh. pummed, Brett. pempet, other Irish discussed)
6. suexos(possibly misspelled suextos; Wall. chweched, Brett. c'hwec'hved, other Irish seissed)
7. sextametos(Welsh. saithfed, Brett. seizhved, other Irish sechtmad)
8. oxtumetos(Welsh. wythfed, Brett. eizhved, other Irish ochtmad)
9. nametos(Welsh. nawfed, Brett. naved, other Irish nomad)
10. decametos, decometos(Welsh. degfed, Brett. degvet, other Irish dechmad, Celtiber. dekametam)

Syntax

Influence on the French language

The Gauls are traditionally considered the ancestors of the French and Belgian Walloons (Belgi), and before the advent of scientific comparative-historical linguistics, it was sometimes even argued (“Grammar of Port-Royal”) that the French language is a descendant of Gaulish, and the similarity with Latin is explained by borrowings from it. However, the influence of the Gaulish language (in other words, the Celtic substrate) on French has not yet been proven to the same extent as the obvious clarity of changes caused by a powerful layer of influences of Germanic languages ​​at different levels, and in the main root word of French it is Latin roots that predominate. About 180 words can be attributed to Gallic elements ( including dialect), for example, bec "beak", chêne "oak", remnants of the base-20 number system, for example, quatre-vingts "80" ("4 x 20"). Apparently, this is due to the fact that the extinction of Gaulish and the transition of the Gauls to folk Latin occurred very quickly and had already ended by the time the Old French language was formed. It should also be borne in mind that Latin and Gaulish - which is accepted by the entire scientific community - were quite close to each other as the Italic and ancient Celtic languages, a number of words differed only in endings or grammatical form - all this also accelerated the transition to Latin and causes the etymology of some to be unclear modern French words, since they can be either Latin or Celtic. It is known, for example, that because the Gauls understood the meaning of Latin words, Julius Caesar had to correspond in Greek rather than Latin.

Surviving texts and glosses from ancient authors

Greek, Latin and early medieval authors preserved a large number of glosses and even small fragments of phrases in the Gaulish language. Of particular note is Marcellus Empiricus of Bordeaux. In his book on medicines there are 10 such texts.

Magic formulas

Gallic magical formulas of Marcellus from Burdigala

1. excicum acrisos(for cleaning, washing eyes).
2. resonco hregan gresso(to remove specks from the eye).
3. in mon dercomarcos axatison(with swelling of the eyes).
4. rica rica soro(for barley).
5. κυρια κυρια κασσαρια σουρωρβι (for barley).
6. vigaria gasaria(for barley).
7. argidam margidam sturgidam(for toothache).
8. crisi crasi ca neras i(for tongue pain in the throat).
9. heilen prosaggeri vome si polla nabuliet onodieni iden elilon(for throat blockage)
10. xi exucricone xu criglionalsus scrisu miovelor exugri conexu grilau(for throat blockage).

Other phrases

Vita Sancti Symphoriani, the life of the martyr Symphorian of Oton (165-180), was created around the 5th century. According to some scholars (see below), this source preserves an entire sentence in Late Gaulish.

Manuscripts (according to Wilhelm Meyer):

Nati nati Synforiani, mentem obeto dotiuo

Codex de Turin D. V. 3

uenerabilis mater sua de muro sedula et nota illum uoce Gallica monuit dicens: "nate, nate Synforiane, mentobeto to diuo".

The text is damaged and, as can be seen above, differs in manuscripts and is found in this form in only two manuscripts from sets variants of "The Martyrdom of St. Symphorian". This reconstruction belongs to the celtologist Tourneysen; she is supported by Joseph Monard

It is noteworthy that part of the phrase mentobeto to diuo, probably reflects Vulgar Latin or its influence on Gaulish. According to Adams, mentobeto was the imperative form of a compound verb mente habere; This is where St.-Fr. came from. mentevoir and Provence. mentaure.

Examples of texts

Gallic text from Larzac

(After R. Marichal, modified by M. Lejeune, L. Fleuriot and P.-Y. Lambert.)

Plate 1a (inside)

de bnanom brictoincors onda…[

]donicon[ / ]incarata

Table 2a

]a senit conectos[ / ]onda bocca nene.[

]rionti onda boca ne[ / .on barnaunom ponc nit-

issintor sies eianepian / digs ne lisantim ne licia-

tim ne rodatim biont- / utu semnanom sagitiont-

ias seuerim lissatim licia- / tim anandognam acolut[

utanit andognam[ / da bocca[ / diom…[ ne[

Table 2b

aia […] cicena[ / nitianncobueðliðat[

iasuolsonponne / antumnos nepon

nesliciata neosuode / neiauodercos nepon

su biiontutu semn- / anom adsaxs nadoc [

suet petidsiont sies / peti sagitiontias seu-

im tertio lissatim[ / ..]s anandogna […

…]ictontias.["

The translation below follows the French translation by P.-I. Lambert. Many words, however, are unreadable, so the translation is partial, aided by a limited understanding of Gaulish.

part 1a Send these women's charms against their names (which) below, (there are) witches' charms to charm witches. O Adsagsona (name of the goddess), turn your attention twice to Severa Tertionicna, their sorceress of letters and nauz (threads with magical knots), so that they will release him, along with the curse against their names, which makes the spell of the group below […]

part 1, b […]these women mentioned above, who charmed him in such a way that he became helpless […]

part 2a […] every person holding the position of judge, on whom they would cast a spell that cancels the spell cast on this person; so that this could not be the witchcraft of the spell of the witch of letters, the witch of nauzes (knots on a string), the witch of donors, who is among these women who are looking for the North, in writing a witch, a witch of nauz, foreign […]

part 2b is not an escape from evil spells […]

Glossary for this text.

• Adiega [li]
• Adsagsona [goddess]
• Aia [name]
• anation (soul)
• antumnos, antedubno- (cf. Wall. annwn, underworld)
• Banona [name]
• bena- / bano-: (woman, cf. Irish ben)
• biietutu: (for him to be)
• biontutu / biiontutu / biontutus: (so that they were)
• bocca: (mouth)
• brixta / brixtom: (spell, from Spanish. bruxa- witch)
• cico-: (muscle, meat, flesh)
• duo/dui: (number 2)
• duxtir: (daughter)
• matir: (mother)
• nato/natu: (song, poem)
• ulato-: (official)
• Ulatucia [LI]
• vid-/vissu-/vistu-: (knowledge/knowledge)

In addition, several more monuments, presumably of a literary nature, became known: a fragment of a plate from Lezou and a large tile from the town of Chateaubley, possibly bearing a versioned text, or, according to an alternative point of view, a marriage contract.

However, the first large inscription - the spell on the votive tablet from Chamalieres - is also of primary importance in several aspects. There are 12 lines written on a small lead plate in the Latin alphabet; This text was probably a curse or spell mentioning the god Mapon-. The tablet was probably made in the middle of the 1st century AD. e.

andedíon uediíumí diíiuion risun

artiumapon arueriíatin [or aritu?]

lopites sní e dd ic sos brixtía anderon [perhaps lotites?]

clucionfloron nigrinon adgarion aemili

on paterin claudion legitumon caelion

pelign claudío pelign marcion uictorin asiati

con a dd edillí etic se couitoncnaman [or perhaps poncnaman?]

tonc siíontío meíon ponc se sit bue

tid ollon reguccambion exsops

pissíiumí tsoc cantírtssu ison son [possibly rissuis onson?]

bissíet luge dessummiíis luge

dessumíis luge dessumíis luxe

In music

Lyrics written in reconstructed, artificial Gallic are used in most of the Swiss group's songs.

the language of the ancient Gauls who once inhabited northern Italy (Gallia Cisalpina of the Romans), most of modern France (Gallia Transalpina) and large parts of Spain and Portugal. It is very likely that under this general name various Gaulish dialects were meant, but there is no means of determining their mutual relations and differences from each other, for all that we know about the Gaulish language consists of several hundred proper names quoted by Greek and Latin writers or found in Greek (few) and Latin inscriptions, as well as on coins and in a small number of inscriptions entirely in Gaulish. What is certain is that the Greek language belongs to the family of Celtic languages ​​and probably constituted its third division, different from the existing two: British (Cymric, or Welsh, dialect, extinct Cornish, or Cornish, and Breton, or Aremorian) and Gaelic (Irian-Gaelic, that is, Gaelic in Ireland, Scottish Gaelic, or Gaelic in the narrow sense, and the Manx dialect, which still lives on the Isle of Man), although closer to the first. A complete collection of the remains of the ancient Gaulish language is not yet available. Proper names and individual Gallic words found in Greek and Latin writers were already partly developed by Zeuss in his “Grammatica Celtica” (Berlin, 1871). Compare also the first part of “Celtica” Diefenbach (1839); his, "Origines Europaeae" (1861), as well as a Gallic glossary in the book Roget de Belloguet, "Ethnogénie Gauloise" (1872). Particularly important is the work of Glück: “Die bei S. I. Caesar vorkommenden keltischen Namen” (1857); the book of D “Arbois de Jubainville: “Les noms gaulois chez César et Hirtius” (1891) is devoted to the same issue. A small glossary from the 9th century. printed by the famous English celtologist Stokes in "Beitr. zur Yergl. Sprachforsch", vol. VI. Most of the Greek inscriptions are written in the Latin alphabet, and only a few inscriptions from southern France are written in Greek. This confirms the testimony of Julius Caesar that the Druids used Greek writing. There are about 36 such inscriptions; their treatment was published by Stokes in "Transactions of the Philol. Society" (London 1885), as well as in "Bezzenberger"s Beitr. z. Kunde der indogerm. Sprachen" (vol. XI). The number of Latin inscriptions with Gallic names is extremely large; they are analyzed in a number of learned French publications: "Revue Epigraphique du Midi de la France", "Bulletin Epigraphique de la Gaule", "Dictionnaire d" archéologie celtique", and individual epigraphic works: Alph. Boissieu, E. Dejardins, Ch. Robert, R. Mowat, B. de Kersers, L. Revon, A. Allmer et A. de Terrebasse, E. Blanc, Fl. Valentin, J. Camille, R. Cagnat. The inscriptions on the vases were collected by Anatole de Barthélemy and G. de Mortillet. Given the paucity of monuments to the Gaulish language, Gallic coins are an important aid for its study. The oldest of them turn out to be imitations of the staters of Philip II of Macedon, so they date back to the 4th century. BC The largest collection (more than 7,000; of which 950 gold and 324 silver) was compiled by de Saulcy, who provided great services to G. numismatics. Also important are the works on Gallic coins by A. de Bartélemy. Latin inscriptions with G. names outside France are collected by Brambach in Corpus Inscriptionum Rhenanarum (Elberfeld, 1867) and by Mommsen in Inscriptiones Galliae Cisalpinae Latinae (Berlin, 1872 and 1877). The Rhineland monuments of the Germanic language (inscriptions and names) find a place in the "Jahrbücher des Vereins von Alterthumsfreunden im Rheinlande". Celtic geographical names of the Rhine provinces are considered by Marjan - "Programmen der Realschule zu Aachen" (1880-81), geographical names of the Kelto-Roman era - by A. Bacmeister ("Alemannische Wanderungen", Stuttgart, 1867). From works not French. scholars is remarkable Williams, "Die französischen Ortsnamen keltischer Abkunft" (1891). There is also a lot of material in the so-called “Dictionnaires Topographiques”, published for individual departments of France. Lists of G.'s own names were compiled by General Creuly (in "Revue Celt.", vol. III, where more than 1600 names are collected). Their addition and continuation is “Liste des noms gaulois”, H. Thédenat (in “Revue Celt.”, vols. VIII and XII). Finally, mention should be made of the recently launched extensive publication of Holder, "Altcelischer Sprachschatz", which should cover the entire hitherto known lexical material of the G. language. There is no complete grammatical treatment of the G. language yet; a general outline of its phonetics and morphology is given by Windisch's article in "Grundriss der Romanischen Philologie", Gröber (Strasbourg, 1888). Some phonetic features of the Gaelic language place it closer to the British branch of the Celtic family than to the Gaelic one. Thus, it has “labialization” (transition to labial sounds) of the second row of back-linguals, like Kimri and Korean. In some G. dialects, perhaps there was a more ancient level, namely To with the following labial sound, as evidenced by the well-known geographical name Sequana (Seine) transmitted by the Romans. Initial Indo-European R, apparently disappears in G. language, just as in others. Celtic dialects. In contrast to Ancient Cymric, the G. language retains s between vowels. In the field of vocalism, one can note the transition of Indo-European ei V è , although other diphthongs oi,ai, ou And ai preserved. The remains of declination and conjugation are so few in number that they do not allow us to judge the morphological differences between the Greek language and other Celtic languages.

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"Gallic language" in books

Minerva and the Gallic rooster