Start in science. Are there many foreign borrowings in English? Foreign words in English
The formation of the national English language was mainly completed in the so-called Early Modern English period - approximately until the middle of the 17th century. During this time, the national English language, in general, acquired its modern character. The vocabulary was enriched by a huge number of words borrowed from Latin, which reflected the development of scientific thought during the Renaissance.
At the same time, old borrowings from French (of Latin origin) were in many cases subjected to Latinization in this era. The rapid development of trade, economic and cultural relations with various countries during the New England period and, in particular, the English colonization of overseas lands in the 18th-19th centuries introduced more or less words from a wide variety of languages of the world into the English language. In recent times, the international lexical element in the English language has grown significantly, mainly scientific, technical and socio-political terms.
The English vocabulary contains a significant number of words borrowed from the Russian language, which will require special consideration.
Since regular trade and economic relations between the two states were established quite late, only by the 16th century, and were initially limited, borrowings from the Russian language are not as numerous as, for example, from French, Italian or German. However, in the English descriptions of the Moscow state that have survived to this day, there are a number of Russian words from the sphere of everyday life, government, social relations, systems of measures, monetary units, etc.
The earliest borrowing from the Russian language is the word sable (sable), which is not surprising, since Russian furs of exceptional quality, and especially sable, were highly valued in Europe. In English dictionaries this word was recorded already in the 14th century, and, in addition to the meaning of the noun “sable”, it is also given in the meaning of the adjective “black”.
A larger number of Russian borrowings in English appear in the 16th century, after the establishment of more regular economic and political ties between Russia and England. The Russian words that penetrated into the English language at that time in their meaning are various kinds of names of trade items, names of ruling, class, officials and subordinates, institutions, names of household items and geographical names. During this period and somewhat later, such Russian words as boyar (boyar), Cossack (Cossack), voivoda (voivode), tsar (king), ztarosta (elder), muzhik (man), beluga (beluga), starlet (sterlet) were borrowed ), rouble (ruble), altyn (Altyn), copeck (penny), pood (pood), kvass (kvass), shuba (fur coat), vodka (vodka), samovar (samovar), troika (troika), babushka (grandmother ), pirozhki (pies), verst (verst), telega (cart) and many others.
Some special terms also penetrate into the English language. For example: siberite is a special type of ruby, uralite is asbestos slate. Many of these words have entered the English vocabulary and are used by English writers.
In the 19th century, with the growth of the people's democratic liberation movement in Russia, words appeared in the English language that reflected this socio-political movement. For example, decembrist (Decembrist), nihilist (nihilist), nihilism (nihilism), narodnik (populist), intelligentsia (intelligentsia). By the way, the last word was borrowed from Russian not directly, but through the Polish language. Of course, the roots of such words as nihilist, decembrist, intelligentsia are Latin. However, these words are borrowings from the Russian language, since they arose in Russia, in connection with certain phenomena of Russian reality.
In addition to the above-mentioned words, other Russian words also penetrated into the English language in the 18th-19th centuries. Many of them, such as ispravnik (police officer), miroed (world eater), obrok (tire), barshina (corvee) and others, are currently historical terms in Russian, and in English they are found only in historical descriptions or in historical novels.
One of the most interesting Russian borrowings, which has become widespread in modern English, is the word mammoth (mammoth). This word was borrowed in the 18th century, and should have entered the vocabulary as mamont, but in the process of borrowing it “lost” the letter n. Moreover, according to the rules, the sound [t] is indicated in writing by the combination th. After all the changes, the word mammoth appeared in the vocabulary in the form mammoth (this word was first included in Ludolf’s “Russian Grammar”).
It is also necessary to note a special group of borrowings called Sovietisms - these are borrowings from the Russian language of the post-October period, reflecting the influence of the new social system and the new ideology of our country, for example, soviet (Soviet), bolshevik (Bolshevik), udarnik (drummer), kolkhoz (collective farm) ), sovkhoz (state farm), komsomol (Komsomol), activist (activist). There are many cripples among Sovietisms, for example, five-year plan, palace of culture, hero of labor.
Let us give more examples of the most famous (and used in modern English) borrowings from the Russian language, as well as kalek (the most recent ones are marked with an asterisk): balalaika (balalaika), bortsch (borscht), borzoi (greyhound), byelorussian* (Belarusian), crash (collapse), dacha* (dacha), glastnost* (glasnost), kalashnikov* (Kalashnikov), karakul (astrakhan fur), KGB* (KGB), Kremlin (Kremlin), Molotov (cocktail)* (Molotov cocktail ), perestroyka* (perestroika), pogrom (pogrom), russian roulette (Russian roulette), russian salad (vinaigrette, Russian salad), samizdat* (samizdat), Samoyed (samoyed), shaman (shaman), sputnik* (satellite) , stakhanovit (Stakhanovite), tass* (TASS).
Russian borrowings that have penetrated into the vocabulary of the English language, like any other borrowings, are transformed in their sound appearance and grammatical structure, obeying the internal laws of the development of the English language. This can be clearly seen in the example of such words as copeck (penny), knout (whip, pronounced like), starlet (sterlet) and others, the sound appearance of which is transformed according to the laws of English pronunciation. The plural of most nouns borrowed from the Russian language is formalized in English according to the grammatical norms of the English language - steppes (steppes), sables (sable) and the like. Many borrowed Russian words form derivatives based on word-formation models of the English language - narodism (populism), nihilistic (nihilistic), to knout - to beat with a whip, sable (as an adjective) and so on.
However, it should also be noted that borrowings from the Russian language that entered the English language in various periods and have survived to this day constitute an insignificant share, since most of the borrowed words reflected rather specific features and realities of life of the Russian people, many of which have disappeared.
Native speakers of English and the language itself came into contact with other languages during the period of its historical development. As a result of these contacts (trade, military), numerous lexical units were borrowed. The largest number of borrowed words came from Latin, Scandinavian and French. It should also be noted that a significant number of words are borrowed from Celtic, Dutch, Italian, Spanish, and oriental languages. Borrowings are of great interest for studying the history of the English language and the English people, contacts of the English with other nations and nationalities.
I. Latin loanwords. In the process of historical development, the English people experienced significant influence from Roman civilization. The Latin language in England for a long time was the language of education, science, and religion. Despite the fact that it is a dead language, it continues to be used to this day for terminology in the language of science. Latin borrowings are usually divided into three periods, or three layers:
1) The first, most ancient layer of borrowings includes:
a) the so-called continental borrowings which were carried out through direct contacts Anglo-Saxon tribes with the ancient Romans before migrating to the British Isles. Through trade contacts with the Romans, whose level of civilization was quite high, the Anglo-Saxon tribes learned about new and useful things for them and borrowed Latin words typical of trade of that time: market (L. mercatus), cheap (L. caupo), pound (L. pondo), inch (L. uncia), mile (L. milia); product names: cheese (L. caseus), butter (L. butyrum), butter (L. oleum); fruits and vegetables: cherry, pear, plum, beet, pea, pepper; words plant, lily, cat, dish, cup, kitchen, cook, sack, chalk, copper, mill, port, etc. Also the first component of the word Satur day.
b) indirect borrowing through the Celtic tribes who lived in the British Isles before the Anglo-Saxons migrated from the continent. The ancient Roman emperor Julius Caesar and his legionaries periodically raided the British Isles in 55 and 54 BC, and in 43 AD the Romans occupied Britain, which they abandoned in 407. During this period, the tribes living on the islands - the Britons and Celts - borrowed the words wall (L.vallum), street (L. strata), camp (L. campus). Also, the Latin component castra "camp" is preserved in some place names: Lancaster, Dorchester, Manchester, etc.
2) The second layer of Latin borrowings includes religious words. In the 5th and 6th centuries, the church began to play a major role in the life of society in Britain. Christianity spread to the north of England from Ireland. The Pope in 597 sent one of his representatives (St. Augustine) to England to convert the English to Christianity. England adopted Christianity in the 7th century. Latin became widespread as the official language of the church. As a result, the English language borrowed words denoting realities associated with church and religion: abbot, altar, angel, anthem, bishop, candle, cross, creed, cleric, devil, mass, minister, monk, nun, pope, priest, temple , tunic. However, the word god is originally English, and church is of Greek origin. Schools were formed under churches in England; the first teachers were priests and monks, therefore the words school (L. schola< Gk. skhole), scholar, master, grammar, verse, meter, etc. - латинские заимствования.
3) The 3rd layer of Latin borrowings includes borrowings that took place during the Renaissance in the 14th - 16th centuries. The Renaissance is characterized by increased interest in the ancient culture of ancient Rome and Greece, the flourishing of sciences and culture. The Latin language played a big role in many European countries at that time, including England. It was the language of education, religion, scientific works and many literary works were written in it. Many Latin borrowings came into English through French, so it is not always possible to determine how the borrowing process took place. Thus, the word of Latin origin doubt, borrowed through French< Fr. doute >, and its spelling retains Latin influence: L. dubitare.
Since Latin was the language of intellectual communication, borrowings from this period include scientific, literary terms, abstract words. Nouns: act, action, admission, animal, certificate, collision, conflict, conduct, content, contract, datum, formula, forum, fracture, genius, literature, nucleus, picture, promise, progress, etc. Specific names: chalk, marble, silk, linen, etc. Verbs: add, admit, abbreviate, accept, act, affect, assimilate, assume, attract, complete, constitute, construct, correct, direct, dismiss, distribute, exhibit, express, divide, include, interrupt, prevent, produce, reject, separate , subdivide, subscribe, transport, violate, etc. Adjectives: absolute, acute, artificial, convenient, delicate, desperate, equal, fabulous, finite, frequent, fortunate, infantile, inferior, intelligent, junior, major, maternal, mental, minor, moderate, paternal, polite, private, senior, superior , etc.
Latin borrowings are so numerous that it is of course impossible to present a complete list of them here. At the same time, groups of synonyms appear, where one word is original, and the other is a Latin borrowing:
fatherly - paternal "fatherly"
motherly - maternal "maternal"
childish - infantile "childish"
sunny - solar "sunny"
The first of these pairs of words is original, the second is a Latin borrowing, which has a more formal terminological character. Wed: sunny day and solar orbit, motherly feelings and maternal duties. Latin borrowings mostly consist of two or more syllables with prefixes and suffixes: ab-, ad-, com-, dis-, ex-, in-/im-, il-, ir-, sub-, -ate, -al , -or, -ant, etc.
During the Renaissance, words were also borrowed from Greek: atom, cycle, Bible, myth, philosophy.
II. Scandinavian borrowings(from Old Norse and Danish).
The English and Scandinavian peoples had close contact throughout English history. Especially close contacts between them were in the 9th - 11th centuries, when the Scandinavian Vikings captured the north and east of England and parts of Scotland and Ireland. In 878, a peace treaty known as Danelaw (Danelagu) "Danish Law" was signed. This is where the word law was borrowed. Scandinavian words, unlike Latin ones, were borrowed orally.
Since English and the Scandinavian languages are similar in origin and structure, words were borrowed from the Scandinavian languages that could not be borrowed from genetically unrelated languages. For example, the pronouns they, their, them, which replaced the Old English hie “they”, the pronoun same, prepositions, conjunctions, adverbs: both, till, though, fro (from to and fro).
Nouns: fellow, husband, sister (OE sweostor), law, window, cake, egg, steak, bag, link, bank, root, wing, bark (of a tree), dirt, anger, leg, etc. Words starting with sk-, sc-: scale, score, ski, skin, skirt, sky, skill, but sceptic, skeleton - from Greek, square - from French. Verbs: cast, die, gaze, crawl, hit, ransack, seem, take, want, call, etc. The words get and give are native English, but the pronunciation of the initial [g] appeared under the influence of Scandinavian languages, otherwise these words would be read with the sound [j]. Adjectives: bleak, weak, ill, sly, odd, loose, low, happy, ugly, wrong.
III. Borrowings from French.
Historically, borrowings from the French language came into English from two dialects: Norman and Parisian.
In the 11th century, after the Battle of Hastings in 1066, Britain was conquered by the Normans (Normandy is the northern province of France). The Norman Conquest lasted in England from the mid-11th century until the end of the 14th century. The Normans at this time were at a higher level of development; from them the British borrowed new concepts of a more progressive social system - developed feudalism. During the Norman Conquest, there seemed to be two languages in England - the language of the conquerors - the Norman dialect of French - the language of the ruling classes, official documents, schooling - and the language of the vanquished - English.
Words borrowed during the Norman Conquest include both everyday words and vocabulary reflecting the social order and lifestyle of the conquerors. The following main groups are distinguished:
a) words that were used to describe the conquered country: country, coast, river, valley, lake, mountain, village, border, frontier, etc.;
b) family relationships: parent, cousin, aunt, uncle, niece, nephew;
c) time units: hour, minute, second; season - autumn;
d) words that relate to the organization of feudal society, government of the country, life at court: feudal, state, government, parliament, crown, court, office, duke, duchess, baron, vassal, noble, prince, count, gentle, people, peasant, rule, serve, command, obey, authority, liberty, power, glory, danger, nation, property, sir, madame, chivalry, police, palace, castle, etc.;
e) legal terms: justice, judge, privilege, crime, accuse, jail, prison, client, defendant, process, attorney, etc.;
f) military terminology: war, peace, army, navy, soldier, chief, captain, battle, enemy, victory, defense, resistance, destroy, etc.;
g) words related to a person, his lifestyle, emotional state: ease, joy, delight, pleasure, leisure, comfort, enjoy, disease, honor, reason, grief, despair, desire, passion, courage, envy, etc.;
h) names of professions: barber, carpenter, butcher, broker, merchant, painter, tailor, surgeon, etc.
i) clothing, household items: coat, cloak, frock, garment, gown, robe, boot, fur, ornanent, jewel, button, mirror, carpet, curtain, blanket, table, chair, pen, pencil, fashion, etc.
j) products, cooking: boil, broil, fry, roast, mince, dine, dinner, supper, flour, sugar, beef, pork, mutton, veal, salad, juice, cabbage, onion, cucumber, biscuit, etc.
Many other words, which belong to a wide variety of groups, were borrowed by English from French during this time period. Nouns: age, affair, action, air, baggage, beauty, branch, cage, cattle, chance, company, consent, coward, cry, damage, difference, error, example, exercise, experience, face, favor, honor, labor, marriage, language, question, etc. Adjectives: able, ancient, brief, certain, clear, considerable, cruel, different, difficult, easy, familiar, famous, favorable, fine, foreign, poor, sure, etc. Verbs: achieve, approve, arrive, attend, blame, catch, carry, consider, count, cover, demand, deny, deserve, finish, enter, examine, excuse, increase, fail, form, marry, refuse, suffer, paint, perform, travel, etc.
The French language remained the most important source of lexical borrowings in subsequent historical periods. During and after the Renaissance, in addition to Latin and Greek, French borrowings also played a major role. They came from the Parisian dialect.
Among the borrowings from Parisian French one can highlight political vocabulary, especially after the French bourgeois revolution of the 17th century (1650): society, aristocracy, democracy, republic, regime, bourgeois, tyranny, ideology, etc.; words related to trade and industry: commerce, manufacture, economy, economic. Cultural ties with France are reflected in borrowings such as: artist, ballet, baroque, vase, memoir, essay, cartoon, pricis, brochure, envelope, etc. French cuisine and fashion continued to interest the British, which is confirmed by subsequent borrowings: cuisine, pastry, champagne, cutlet, picnic, canteen, menu, restaurant, café, blouse, vogue, etc. Military terms continued to appear from French: troops, battalion, brigade, platoon, cadet, cannon, bayonet, rocket, barricade, barracks, parole, campaign, etc. Various words borrowed in the 18th - 20th centuries: comrade, pilot, entrance, attitude, detail, zero, apartment, bureau, development, fiancée, garage, chauffeur, interview, detach, embarass, etc.
There are some features of spelling and pronunciation that are characteristic of French borrowings: combinations of the letters ch chauffeur, echelon, chef; (s)qua square, quaint; que question, picturesque; ou route; g prestige, garage; digraph oi point, joint; writing v and j at the beginning of a word: vase, veal, just, journal; in some words the French letters i and з fiancii, communiqui, façade have been preserved.
IV. Borrowings from other languages.
Of the other languages that contributed to the replenishment of the English vocabulary, the following should be noted:
1. Celtic. Celtic borrowings, along with Latin ones, are among the most ancient. They are relatively few in number and are preserved in geographical names: Kent, Avon (river), Exe/Esk (river), Thames, London (Llyn "river" + dūn "hill, fortress") and some words: d.a. dūn, modern down, dunn – grayish-brown, modern. dun, assa – modern ass ‘donkey’, binn ‘manger, feeding trough’ – modern. bin ‘too late’ .
2. Dutch Language. In the 14th - 17th centuries. Thanks to intensive trade with Holland and Flanders, words related to navigation were borrowed: dock, deck, yacht, cruise, freight, etc. and trade: bale, pack, spool, brandy, booze, etc. Words related to painting: sketch, easel, landscape were borrowed during the heyday of the Flemish school of painting.
3. Italian language. Most borrowings relate to the arts, architecture, especially music: cupola, balcony, loggia, opera, sonata, aria, solo, concert, soprano, piano. Also, various words related to the field of finance firm “company”, bank “bank (via French)” reflecting Italian traditions and realities: carnival, gondola, macaroni, pizza, umbrella, influenza, malaria, propaganda, bandit.
4. Spanish. Direct borrowings from Spanish include (since the 16th century): embargo, cargo, armada, flotilla, breeze, junta, renegade, guerilla, negro, mullatto, caste, sherry, cigar, cockroach, etc. Through the Spanish conquistadors, words from Latin American countries were borrowed from the Spanish language: tomato, cocoa, potato, barbecue, canoe, maize, hurricane, cannibal, tobacco, etc.
5. German: zinc, cobalt, quartz, nickel, paraffin, vitamin, kohlraby, sauerkraut, schnitzel, schnaps, plunder, iceberg, waltz, kindergarten, leitmotif, Zeitgeist, rucksack, blitz, blitzkrieg, ablaut, etc.
6. Russian language. Borrowings from the Russian language are divided into 2 groups: a) pre-revolutionary: samovar, tsar, steppe, vodka, kvass, borsch, troika, astrakhan, sable, sterlet, sevruga, babushka; b) post-revolutionary: Soviet, bolshevik, sputnik, perestroika.
We can name borrowings from languages that were colonies of Great Britain, for example, words that came from the Indian subcontinent (17th century): jungle, loot, jute, pajamas, khaki, yoga, verandah, etc.
From eastern languages: Malayo-Polynesian gong, taboo, boomerang, Arabic coffee, sofa, sash, hashish, sheikh, Chinese tea, silk, from Turkish pasha, bazaar, caftan, jackal, from Japanese geisha, kimono, harakiri from Tatar horde, koumiss. Through the American version, their North American Indian languages were borrowed: opossum, skunk, mocassin, tomahawk, wigwam, etc. As you can see, many of these borrowings are limited in use; most of them are used to designate objects related to the culture of various peoples.
Learning English vocabulary is one of the main stages in learning a language. This is what many linguists say, i.e., putting vocabulary on one side of the scale and grammar on the other, they believe that the first will outweigh. Where is the truth?.. Let's figure it out! Perhaps it is not for nothing that “in the beginning was the Word...”, and even if not in the most theological sense. And if you use logic, you can build a deductive chain: for interpersonal communication and designation of objects, a person needed a tool - a word (lexeme) - this is the basic unit of vocabulary. But when the need arose to give an invisible series of sounds (the spoken word) a physical, visible form, then writing was born, and then grammar. This is exactly what needed to be proven.
Analysis of English vocabulary by language sources
Now it is clear why linguist teachers always devote more time to studying vocabulary. We will help you independently study and understand the basics of vocabulary, and then choose the language category that best suits your goals and needs. In the Germanic group of languages, English has settled into a dominant position due to its increased popularity and high degree of distribution throughout the globe. It is a very progressive, ever-changing language. English vocabulary is very colorful and multifaceted, so it is important to approach its study from the right angle.
Two etymological groups of English vocabulary
Initially, it is necessary to indicate the differentiation of vocabulary into two etymological subgroups, i.e., according to its origin, it is divided into:
- Native words - original (native) dictionary
- Loanwords (borrowings) - borrowed (borrowed) dictionary
Native lexicon - native (original) vocabulary consists of terms that come to us from Ancient British - ancient British, as well as Anglo-Saxon - Anglo-Saxon languages, including those that contain suffixes and prefixes, in addition to the original root word.
These languages, in their geographical and temporal evolution, inevitably collided with Old Norse, hence the partial similarity of some words in seemingly different languages. The subgroup of native vocabulary is quite small and accounts for no more than 30% of the total vocabulary of the English vocabulary. However, this same 30% is also the most common and frequently used in common English speech. In addition, native words have the greatest valence (connective force) and range of use, and are more polysemantic (polysemantic), so they often form stable phrases and phrases.
Examples of words belonging to the original vocabulary
| abroad | abroad, away from home | drop | a drop | hammer | hammer |
| ache | pain | ear | ear | hunt | hunt, hunt |
| apple | apple | moon | moon, lunar month | jerk | scumbag, jerk |
| baby | child | job | work, service | fast | fast |
| calf | calf | feel | feel | lamb | lamb |
| chicken | chick | gate | gate, entrance | life | life, longevity |
| dairy | diary, diary | goose | goose | eldritch | creepy |
| narrow | narrow, cramped | stone | stone, hailstone, stone | tree | wood, shoe rack |
| vixen | fox, vixen | woman | woman | year | year, age |
Loanwords - borrowed words- these are words that came from any foreign language (source or primary source) and were adjusted to the model of the original words of the recipient’s language. Very often, without a thorough etymological analysis, it is almost impossible to identify a “foreign” word, especially if it was borrowed a long time ago. The most effective methods of borrowing words from another language are interaction and communication with representatives of other nations. It is important to note that a borrowed word is not always native to the source language. Here it is important not to confuse the source of borrowing (the source of the loan) and the origin of borrowing (the original source of the loan): the word originates in the original source, and the word is borrowed from the source (i.e. the source also borrowed this lexeme at one time). And also, the more similar the structure of two interacting languages, the easier it is for words from one to penetrate into the other.
Methods of borrowing in English vocabulary
The stock of borrowed terminology is formed in three possible ways:
- Borrowing proper - direct borrowing
- Loan translation (calque) - literal translation of a phrase or expression from the source language into English
- Semantic loan - semantic borrowing, i.e. an already existing word in the English language is assigned the meaning of the word from the source language
Over the 16 centuries of its formation, the English language has undergone enormous changes. He was influenced by the warlike barbarian tribes of the Scandinavians, “running nearby”, cunning Roman merchants, French neighbors - conquerors and fashionistas, highly developed German friends and, of course, the first Greek philosophers and scientists. Greek borrowings and Latin (Latinisms) are closely intertwined, since these two languages are considered the ancestors of most European languages. However, Latin is still considered the main “donor” in this case.
The first wave of English Latinisms
The first adstrate (layer) reflects the trade and merchant relations that existed between the ancestors of the Anglo-Saxons (from central Europe) and Roman businessmen. These were mainly terms denoting goods, products, currency and related units of measurement.
| Latin word | meaning | English word | translation |
| coin | metal plates | mint | mint coins |
| discum | disk, dish | dish | dish |
| uncia | ounce (measure of weight) | ounce | ounce |
| pondo | measure of weight | pound | lb. |
| cysta | box, storage | chest | chest, wardrobe |
| vinum | wine | wine | wine |
| caseus | cheese | cheese | cheese |
| butyrum | oil | butter | butter |
| pipere | peppercorns | pepper | pepper |
| millia passu | distance (conventional thousand steps) | mile | mile |
| pirum | pear | pear | pear |
| presicum | peach | peach | peach |
Later, words used in construction, marine terminology, and units of length were added to the first layer.
| Latin word | meaning | English word | translation |
| portus | pier, harbor | port | port, city |
| ponto | ship, bridge | punt | flat-bottomed skiff, sail |
| campus | camp, halt | Camp (campus) | Camp (territory) of college, school |
| colonia | settlement, conquered territory | colony | colony, village |
| strata via | stone paved road | street | Street |
| vallum | fortress wall, rampart | wall | wall |
| castra | fortress, military camp | сhester* | names of a number of cities of the same name in the USA and England |
*chester is also included in the names of other cities - Rochester, Manchester, Cholchester, etc.
Second wave of English Latinisms
The second adstrate of Latinisms was formed during the emergence of Christianity as the main religion among the English (VI-VII centuries AD). The language of church services and lessons in monastic schools was Latin, as a result of which many church and scientific terms migrated to English.
| Latin word | meaning | English word | translation |
| candela | candle | candle | candle, shine through |
| scrinium | casket, tomb | shrine | tomb, crypt |
| episcopus | caretaker, bishop | bishop | 1.bishop 2.bishop (chess) |
| monachus | monk | monk | monk |
| presbyter | priest | 1.priest 2.presbyter | 1. priest 2. presbyter, elder |
| nonna | nun | nun | nun |
| monasterium | monastery | 1.monastery 2.minster | 1.monastery 2.cathedral, church at the monastery |
| magister | teacher | master | owner, master |
| school | school | 1.school 2.scholar | 1. school 2. philologist, student |
| canon | canon | canon | 1. criterion 2. church canon |
| versus | poetry | 1.verse 2.verse | 1.against, in comparison with... 2.verse |
| papirus | papyrus paper | 1.papyrus 2.paper | 1. papyrus (rast) 2. paper |
| grammar nota | grammar | grammar | grammar, basics |
| notarius | legalizer | notary | notary |
| theater | theater | theater | theater |
| rosa | rose | rose | rose, pink (color) |
| leo | a lion | lion | a lion |
The third wave of English Latinisms
The third and final wave of Latinisms stretched from the Renaissance to the times of the STR (scientific and technological revolution) and embraced all spheres of science, culture and everyday life, as well as literature, politics, philosophy and religion. Many words penetrated through literary (book) routes, others through oral communication. The volume of the third layer is very large and partly consists of internationalisms of Latin origin, so we will consider only its most widely used elements (lexemes).
| Latinisms of the third adstratus | |
| frequency | frequency, frequency |
| locution | expression, idiom |
| medium | way, means |
| memory | memory, recollection |
| tower | tower |
| optimum | optimal value |
| quantum | size, quantity |
| oscillation | oscillation, swaying |
| ratio | coefficient, proportion |
| emit | release, throw away |
| folio | sheet, infolio |
| formula | formula |
| superior | highest, senior |
| detection | detection, discovery |
Below are examples of internationalisms:
| internationalisms | |
| appendicitis | appendicitis |
| insulin | insulin |
| aspirin | aspirin |
| pediatrics | pediatrics |
| energy | energy |
| atom | atom |
| calories | calorie |
| radius | beam, radius |
| antenna | antenna |
| stimulus | stimulus |
| idea | idea |
| bonus | bonus |
| radiator | radiator |
| defect | defect |
Greek borrowings from English vocabulary
Initially, Greek lexemes penetrated into English through intermediary languages: Latin (bishop, abbot, angel, tragedy, devil) or French (fancy, idea, chronicle, catalogue). However, during the Renaissance, after mass culturalization, when Greek literature became more popular, many words from the sphere of art and culture migrated to English.
| Greek loanwords | translation |
| abacus | abacus, abacus |
| academy | academy |
| aesthetic | aesthetics |
| agnost | agnostic, skeptic |
| agony | agony, torment |
| amphora | amphora, ancient vase |
| archetype | archetype, prototype |
| axiom | postulate, axiom |
| Baptist | Baptist, Baptist |
| Baryton | baritone |
| catharsis | catharsis, cleansing |
| dialect | dialect |
| Greek loanwords | translation |
| hero | hero |
| hedonism | love of life, hedonism |
| hyperbole | hyperbole, exaggeration |
| entropy | entropy, uncertainty |
| gloss | gloss, gloss |
| gramme | gram |
| enigma | mystery, enigma |
| ephemeral | ephemeral, short-lived |
| epicee | epic |
| euphemism | euphemism (rudeness) |
| dialog | dialogue |
Gallicisms (French loanwords)
In the 11th century and for the next three centuries, northern England was under Norman occupation, which led to a massive "invasion" of Old French words into the English language - these were mainly administrative, legislative and military terms. Many everyday terms were also used. It must be remembered, as we noted earlier, that a significant part of the French vocabulary consisted of Latin borrowings. So the French language served not only as a primary source, but also as an intermediary (source) between Latin, Old Germanic and English.
It is clear that some words undergo so-called assimilation (change in form, meaning, adjustment to the English template), while others retain their original form. French vocabulary still influences English through many fashion trends. Next we present a table of the most common Gallicisms:
| Words that have retained their original form | translation |
| apropos | By the way |
| beau | dandy, dandy, suitor |
| beret | beret |
| bonhomie | good nature |
| bourgeois | bourgeois, capitalist |
| chalet | chalet, country house |
| cordon bleu | master, skilled person |
| couture | sewing (high class) |
| espionage | espionage, surveillance |
| neé | nee (about married ladies) |
| penchant | affection, love |
| chamois | suede, chamois |
| risk | risky, reckless |
Modified words:
| French word source | translation | English word | translation |
| atourner | appoint (to a position) | attourney | lawyer, prosecutor, attorney |
| finer | complete (transaction) with payment | finance | income, finance |
| garder | store, guard | guard | security |
| jaiole | cell | jail | jail |
| jurejurer | to swear | jury | jury |
| lieu tenant | occupying place | lieutenant | lieutenant |
| medallie (lat.metallum) | metal medal | medal metal | metal medal |
| 1. solidus (lat) 2. soudier | 1. gold coin 2. payment for army service | soldier | soldier |
| parler (parlement) | speak | Parliament | parliament |
| traite (lat. tractum) | agreement | treaty | contract, agreement |
| aperitif aperire | aperitif open (start) | Aperitif | aperitif |
| bacon baho (back meat) | pig back meat | bacon | bacon |
| boef | beef | beef | beef |
| cafe | coffee | coffee | coffee |
| menu | detailed list | menu | menu |
| jus | juice | juice | juice |
| omelette alumette | omelette blade (associative) | omelet | omelette |
| pique-nique | eating in nature | picnic | picnic |
| 1.salade 2.salar (Latin) | 1. salad 2. salt (season) | salad | salad |
| restaurant restaurer | restaurant to improve your health | restaurant | restaurant |
| soupe suppa (latin) | add soup, replenish | soup | soup |
| salsicia/salsus (lat) saussiche (normal) | saline | saussage | sausage, sausages |
| espice species (lat) | spices taste | spices | spices |
Spanish loanwords
The Spanish adstrate of borrowings began to take shape in the 16th century thanks to colonization and trade relations, and later due to the military conflict that arose. Some lexemes passed from Spanish to English via French. Spanish also became the source of some early borrowed Arabic terms. As a result, English has a very diverse source of new words. A few examples follow:
| English word | Russian translation | the word original | Russian translation |
| adios | parting | adios | Goodbye |
| adobe | adobe, clay mixture | tobe | brick |
| alphafa | alfalfa | al-fasfasah (Arabic) | alfalfa |
| alligator | alligator, crocodile | el lagarto | lizard |
| armada | armada | armada | armed man |
| banana | banana | banana (african) | banana |
| avocado | avocado | ahuacatl (Nahuatl adverb) | avocado |
| barbeque | B-B-Q, | barbacoa | barbecue, meat on the fire |
| bizarre | strange | bizarro | gallant |
| booby | dunce, blockhead | bobo | stupid, selfish |
| bravo | 1.Bravo! 2. bandit, gangster | bravo | brave |
| burrito | burrito | burrito | little donkey |
| chili | chilli | Chile, chilli | from the island of Chile |
| chocolate | chocolate | xocolati | chocolate |
| corral | corral | corral | cattle pen |
| dorado | dorado (fish) | dorado | dorado |
| embargo | embargo, ban | embargo | blockade, ban |
| fajitas | fajitas (Spanish roast) | faja | belt |
| feast | party | fiesta | festival |
| jerky | jerky | ch'arki | jerky |
| macho | man, male | macho | man |
| machete | big knife | machete | machete |
| matador | matador | matador | murderer |
| mustang | wild Horse | mestengo | wandering, wandering |
| patio | courtyard, patio | patio | terrace, courtyard |
| pecadillo | sin, trifle | pecado | sin |
| quadroon | quadroon, one-quarter black race | cuateron | quarter |
| rodeo | rodeo | rodeo | rodeo, cowboy competition |
| savanna | savannah | zabanna | land of plants, green land |
| tobacco | tobacco | Tabaco (Caribbean) | tobacco |
| vinegar roon | type of scorpion | vinagron | sour wine, chatter |
| wrangler | debater | cabalango | groom |
We looked at the types of the most widespread borrowings, although in reality the English language is much more diverse, and we still have to learn many words that came from Persian, Arabic, Indian, Dutch, Portuguese, Italian, Russian and other languages. But despite all the many non-native words, English does not lose its originality, it develops and becomes even more interesting every day and successfully continues to adopt the words it likes from its “relatives”, “neighbors”, etc.
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The original core of vocabulary
nag, ombudsman, ski, skive, slalom, slam- words reflecting new realities for the English came from modern Scandinavian languages in the 19th-20th centuries.
Scandinavian loanwords are difficult to distinguish from English words proper, since Danish and Old English were closely related languages. The characteristic difference is that in Danish words /k/, /g/, /sk/ were preserved, while in English they turned into sibilants: /k/ and /g/ - in certain conditions, /sk/ - always.
French loanwords
In 1066 the Normans conquered England. Normandy was a French duchy; it acquired its name after the French king Charles the Simple, being unable to cope with the Vikings, gave them this territory under the treaty of 912. By 1066, the Vikings had long since adopted the French language and assimilated into the local population. They came to England as speakers of the French language (Norman dialect), French culture and French feudal system. After the Norman Conquest, power was completely in the hands of the Normans; Duke William the Conqueror also removed the English priests and installed Norman ones in their place. The indigenous population continued to speak English, and from the Norman dialect the Anglo-Norman language was formed, which became the state language and existed until the end of the 14th century. During this time, English learned a huge number of French words. Of the 80,000 most common words in the English language, approximately 22,500 are French loanwords (from all periods of history).
The borrowings especially clearly reflect the Norman influence in the field of government, in military affairs, in the organization of the church and in city life:
- court, servant, guard, prince, vassal, government, serf, village (court, servant, guard, prince, vassal, government, serf, village);
- army, battle, banner, victory (army, battle, banner, victory);
- religion, chapel, prayer, to confess (religion, chapel, prayer, confess);
- city, merchant (city, merchant).
Craftsmen who lived in the village retained English names, while those in the city began to be called by French words: butcher “butcher”, mason “mason”, tailor “tailor”. Animals are named in English words, but their meat is called in French: beef “beef”, mutton “lamb”, pork “pork”, veal “veal”.
Norman borrowings: 11th-13th century A.D.
Parisian borrowings: the Renaissance period.
Third layer of Latin borrowings
Terminology, XVI century.
European borrowings of the 20th century
In the first half of the 20th century, a large number of words from the German language penetrated into the British natural science vocabulary, including individual morphemes, for example eigen-. The penetration of German vocabulary continues during World War II for military terms and virtually ceases after the war.
Purist tendencies
At different times, purists tried to cleanse the English language of foreign words, replacing them with Anglo-Saxon ones. One linguistic nationalist said: “Avoid Latin derivatives; use short, expressive Anglo-Saxon monosyllabic words.” (English) Avoid Latin derivatives; use brief, terse Anglo-Saxon monosyllables ). The irony is that the only Anglo-Saxon word in this saying is Anglo-Saxon.
Notes
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Books
- European borrowings of the 19th century in the Russian language, A. V. Gavrilov, This monograph is devoted to the study of European borrowings in the Russian language of the 19th century. It is especially important that borrowings were isolated and studied on the basis of comparison... Category: History and theory of the Russian language Publisher:
INTRODUCTION
The development of human society is the development of all its constituent cultures, and, accordingly, all languages. Cultures undergo a certain historical development both independently of other cultures and (to a very large extent) in interaction with them. Contacts occur in all spheres - politics, economics, art, everyday life - and lead to significant changes in the way of life, worldview, and, of course, in language. Cultures mutually borrow phenomena and concepts; languages - their designations. In this way, the cultures and languages of different peoples are enriched. The term “enrichment,” however, should not be understood as the unquestioning acceptance of any borrowings into the language system, which often happens and leads to its oversaturation with alien and unjustified elements in the presence of its own, familiar designations for various phenomena.
Borrowing must be considered; If possible, use your own language to avoid extraneous inclusions. However, one should not go to the other extreme - a complete denial of any borrowings and attempts not only to avoid new ones, but also to replace the borrowed elements already entrenched in the language with original ones. The need for such a replacement is not only highly controversial, but also hardly feasible on the scale proposed by some linguists: many of the newest borrowings come into the language as designations of new phenomena that have no analogues in a given culture; words borrowed from many languages become internationalisms and in the current era of globalization greatly facilitate international communication.
As you know, vocabulary is the most dynamic aspect of a language in any period of time. It represents the least degree of abstraction in language, since the word is always subject-oriented; it can be borrowed, formed, formed anew, or from elements existing in the language.
In our work, we consider borrowing as one of the main ways of word formation in the English language. Words of foreign origin are called borrowings.
A significant contribution to the development of knowledge about borrowings was made by such linguists as N.V. Gabdreeva, V.A. Buryakovskaya, N.N. Volostnova, G.K. Gimaletdinova, N.M. Ermakova, M.N. Zakamulina, E.Kh. Khabibullina, T.E. Listrova-Pravda, N.M. Mekeko, L.G. Ratushnaya, D.R. Rakhmatullina, A.R. Timergaleeva and others.
In view of the above, the topic of our thesis was chosen: “Borrowings in the English language and methods of translation.”
The relevance of our work is determined by the fact that borrowed vocabulary takes an increasingly active position in the lexical system of languages, in particular in English and Russian, thereby having a significant impact on the functioning of truly national linguistic units of a particular language.
The object of the study is borrowed vocabulary in English.
The subject of the study is ways of translating borrowed vocabulary from English into Russian.
The purpose of the study is to consider the features of the functioning of borrowings in the English language and determine the specifics of their translation from English into Russian.
To achieve the goal of our research, we set the following tasks:
consider the essence of the concept and scope of functioning of borrowed vocabulary;
analyze various classifications of borrowings;
explore sources of borrowings in English;
consider ways to transfer borrowings;
in practice, analyze the use of one or another translation method.
Research structure. The work consists of an introduction, two sections - theoretical and practical, a conclusion and a list of references.
CHAPTER 1. DEFINITION OF THE CONCEPT OF BORROWINGS AND STUDYING ASPECTS OF THEIR STUDY
.1 Borrowed vocabulary: the essence of the concept and scope of functioning
Borrowing is a process as a result of which a certain foreign language element appears and is fixed in a language; also such a foreign language element itself. This is an integral component of the functioning and historical change of language, one of the main sources of vocabulary replenishment; It is also a full-fledged element of the language, which is part of its lexical wealth, serving as a source of new roots, word-forming elements and precise terms. Borrowing in languages is one of the most important factors in their development. The process of borrowing lies at the very basis of linguistic activity. Sound and formal uniformity within a language is a consequence of borrowing by some individuals from others; In the same way, the borrowing of elements of the lexicon of one language by another language occurs - through the interaction of their speakers. The proportion of borrowed elements in languages is large, although it is not possible to accurately calculate their number, both due to the constant increase in the number of foreign language elements penetrating the language, and due to the action of the assimilation process, which makes it difficult to establish the origin of the word. In each language the following layers can be distinguished: words inherent in all languages of one family; words common to a group, subgroup of related languages; native words of a particular language; borrowed words.
Borrowing lexical elements from one language to another is a very ancient phenomenon and is already known to the languages of the ancient world.
In the process of its development, the English language encountered many languages, from which it borrowed various words. They are not the same both in number and relative weight in the vocabulary of the English language.
The enrichment of the vocabulary of a language at the expense of the vocabulary of other languages is usually a consequence of different political, economic, and trade relations. Let us note that there is no generally accepted definition of the concept of culture, but if we consider culture as “the totality of industrial, social and spiritual achievements of people,” then everything that has to do with the reality surrounding a person, perceived and transformed by him, from everyday objects to abstract philosophical categories, to one degree or another connected with culture. In this case, with any interethnic interaction there is an exchange of cultural information, which, in turn, cannot but affect the language.
Often, when borrowing, a new word comes along with a new reality that did not exist in the culture of speakers of the borrowing language, and therefore is not recorded in the linguistic picture of the world. In some cases, a borrowed word comes as a synonym for a word that already existed in the vocabulary of the borrowing language (for example, the words import and export appeared as synonyms for the Russian import and export).
International vocabulary occupies a special place among borrowings.
Scientific and technological progress is spreading more and more widely, and with it international words - “internationalisms” - are coming into the languages of different countries.
International vocabulary is (from Latin inter - between + nation, nationis - people) words of common origin that exist in many languages with the same meaning, but are usually formalized in accordance with the phonetic and morphological norms of a given language. The main part of the international vocabulary consists of terms from the field of science and technology (geography, history, philosophy, logic, aspirin, flu, microscope, telegraph), socio-political life (party, constitution, socialism, communism, revolution, dictatorship, administration, republic) , economics (import, export, bank, credit, interest), literature and art (drama, comedy, tragedy, poet, opera, ballet, style). International words also include those that are usually borrowed unchanged by many languages from the language of the people who created these words along with the corresponding objects or phenomena. English sport, Russian Leninism, collective farm, satellite.
In the languages of Western countries, these words are most often borrowed, with inevitable changes, from the vocabulary of Greek and Latin, as well as from French and English, which later joined them.
For a word to be considered international, it must generally appear in the following modern languages:
firstly, in most of the so-called Romance languages - French, Spanish, Italian and others;
in addition, at least in some Slavic languages - for example, in Russian and Serbian.
In languages where the tendency to abandon international vocabulary in favor of domestic words has taken root - we will call them “purist” for brevity (for example, in Icelandic or Finnish), there are almost no such words.
The wide prevalence of borrowings is explained primarily by the internationality of the literary process, the presence of wide literary exchange between individual countries, and their mutual diffusion. Literary situations cannot be invented ad infinitum. Once entering the reader's consciousness, leaving a deep trace there, a poetic image, theme, device can involuntarily influence the work of later writers who reproduce it quite closely.
Borrowing in languages is one of the most important factors in their development. The process of borrowing lies at the very basis of linguistic activity.
Sound and formal uniformity within a language is a consequence of borrowing by some individuals from others; In the same way, the borrowing of elements of the lexicon of one language by another language occurs - through the interaction of their speakers.
The proportion of borrowed elements in languages is large, although it is not possible to accurately calculate their number, both due to the constant increase in the number of foreign language elements penetrating the language, and due to the action of the assimilation process, which makes it difficult to establish the origin of the word.
In each language the following layers can be distinguished: words inherent in all languages of one family; words common to a group, subgroup of related languages; native words of a particular language; borrowed words.
The meaning of a borrowed word in the receiving language may expand or contract. The expansion of meaning is associated with the metaphorical transfer of a name to another denotation, based on the similarity of objects. Thus, the word volcano comes from the name of the Roman god of fire and metal, Vulcan; The word flak, borrowed from German, initially had only the meaning of “anti-aircraft gun”; in English it acquired the meaning of “anti-aircraft fire”, “opposition, resistance”, and in American English “verbal fire, altercation, squabble”. Also, when the meaning expands, a word can acquire new connotative meanings, for example, the word ersatz “replacement, surrogate” acquired a disparaging connotation of “poor quality, counterfeit”, which is absent in the German language. The opposite tendency - a narrowing of meaning - leads to a reduction in the range of denotations denoted by a given word, as a result of which the word becomes special and becomes stylistically marked. Thus, the word ansatz, which has many meanings in German (“prefix, nozzle; sediment; formation; beginning, basis; tendency”) in English is used only as a scientific term “approach to solving a problem.” The Latin velum “curtain, veil, coverlet” in English has lost its meaning over time and is now used as the scientific term “soft palate”.
Sometimes in the receiving language the derivative meaning of a word becomes more common than the main one, for example, claim is more often used in the meaning of “to approve” rather than “to claim”, issue - “question”, not “release”, source - “source of information”, not "source".
Below we consider the main reasons for borrowing.
The reasons for this phenomenon are varied, but the same for all languages; Among them, intralinguistic and external, extralinguistic ones stand out. The intralinguistic ones include the following:
) the need to name an object or phenomenon, due to the absence of the designated phenomenon in the cognitive base of the receptor language. This is the main and most ancient reason for borrowing; along with a new phenomenon for the people, its name also enters the language of the people (bistro, gondola, elephant);
) the need for a name for an object or phenomenon, due to the inaccuracy of the existing name. In the presence of native and foreign words with a similar meaning, the English word has a more general meaning, and the borrowed word has both a general meaning and additional shades (Latin effluvium has not only the meaning of the English words exhalation, emanation “exhalation, release,” but also a connotative meaning “ accompanied by an unpleasant odor"; borrowed from the German angst conveys the meaning of "fear without any apparent reason" that is not inherent in the English word fear.
Extralinguistic reasons are:
) socio-psychological: expression of connotations that the corresponding unit does not possess in the receiving language; for example, creating the effect of “prestige” (French boutique “a small store selling expensive, often unusual goods and located in an expensive area” and Latin emporium “large shopping center” are used not only to clarify the neutral English word shop when denoting stores of precisely these types, but also in order to emphasize the prestige of a particular place of trade).
) intensification of international relations, the process of globalization, causing the emergence of a large number of internationalisms - words of one language, borrowed by many languages of the world.
As we can see, the appearance of borrowed lexemes in a language can be due to a number of specific reasons that can explain the presence of a particular borrowing in a particular language.
1.2 Classification of borrowings
There are many classifications of borrowed vocabulary, proposed at different stages of the development of linguistic teachings. Let's look at the main ones.
Classification by source of borrowing
First of all, it is necessary to remember that the source of borrowing is the language from which the word is taken into the English vocabulary. However, the origin of the word may be different. So, for example, the source of borrowing the word paper is the French language (papier), while in its origin it is the Greek word papuros, papyrus. The word cinnabar (cinnabar, bright red color) is borrowed from Latin (cinnabaris), where it came from Greek (kinnabari), which in turn borrowed this word from one of the eastern languages.
The sources of borrowing words into the English language are numerous due to historical reasons. Over the centuries, Britain entered into various contacts with many countries, was subject to invasions and conquests, and later became the “mistress of the seas” and the mother country for a large number of colonies. All this led to intensive language contacts, which resulted in the mixed nature of the English lexical composition. The most significant influences on English vocabulary came from Latin, French and Scandinavian languages.
Latin borrowings entered the English language in several waves. The earliest layer dates back to the time when the Germanic tribes of the Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians, even before moving to Britain, entered into trade and military contacts with the Romans. At this time, the main designations for objects of material culture were borrowed - English, sire (Latin sarra), butter (Latin butyrum), copper (Latin cuprum), etc. Before the capture by the Germans, Britain was under the rule of the Roman Empire for about four hundred years . It was during this period that such borrowed words as street (Latin via strata), wall (Latin vallum), mint (Latin menta, moneta), etc. appeared in English. Some of the borrowings from this period have survived to this day only in place names. An example of a Latin word that we now find in place names is the element -Chester (Latin castra - "camp") in Chester, Colchester, Manchester, Lancaster Gloucester, Worcester; the -wich element in Greenwich, Harwich goes back to the Latin vicus - “village”. The next wave of Latin borrowings is associated with the Christianization of Britain. These include words of the corresponding thematic group - priest (Latin presbuteros), minster (Latin monastermm), candle (Latin candela, candela), creed (Latin credo), etc. In addition, in the same period in The English language includes quite a lot of Latin words denoting everyday objects, as well as those related to gardening and gardening - chest (Latin cista, “box”), silk (Latin sericum, “silk”), coriander (Latin coriandrum) , parsley (Latin petroselinum), rose (Latin rosa), etc. Since the monasteries were also centers of scientific and literary life in Britain, the vocabulary of the English language was replenished during this period with the corresponding vocabulary: school (Latin schola), verse (Latin . versus), circle (lat. circulus), as well as many scientific terms. Latin borrowings of the Middle English and Early Modern English periods are mainly scientific words and abstract nouns (formula, fraction, magnanimity, fatal, jovial, beneficial, vernacular). The borrowing of Latin term elements stands somewhat apart, since the process of their penetration into the English language is often artificial. We find a large number of examples of this, in particular, in medical terminology (oculist, osteotomy, etc.).
French loanwords, contrary to popular belief, appeared in English long before the Norman Conquest. The number of borrowed words that have survived to this day is small, but they indicate the existence of linguistic contacts between the British and the Normans, a Scandinavian people who lived from the 9th century. on the northern coast of France, in the Duchy of Normandy and speaking a northern dialect of French. Among the surviving borrowings from this period are the words proud, tower, chancellor (we give the modern form of the words).
From the Norman Conquest of 1066 until the 16th century. French borrowings are pouring into the English language in a powerful stream. The English vocabulary is replenished with words from different thematic groups, reflecting the peculiarities of life in Britain in those days. Thus, to describe a country, the French words country, valley, river, border, etc. appear. A large group of words is associated with the naming of social relations. Native English words in this thematic group are few; these are king, queen, earl, lord, lady. The borrowed words are emperor, duke, duchess, baron, count, dame, damsel, etc., conveying new concepts that have entered the life of the British. The Normans became the new rulers of the country, and this was reflected in the language by the presence of French borrowings in the thematic group “Governing the Country”: sovereign, crown, administration, parliament, guardian, reign, etc. Adjacent to it is the LSG “Jurisprudence”, which has significantly expanded with words Norman dialect: justice, crime, plaintiff, evidence, dungeon, etc., as well as military vocabulary: war, navy, peace, captain, admiral, victory, conquer, etc.
In the XII-XVI centuries. French borrowings come mainly along with religious concepts, as well as in connection with the spread of French fashion, cuisine, crafts: chastity, innocence, devotion; barber, butcher, merchant, coin; garment, cotton, towel; fry, boil, mutton, cabbage.
In the 17th century the bulk of French borrowings are commercial and production terms: capital, commerce, insurance, bank, machine, investment, etc. In the 18th century. political terms of the French Revolution are added to them: aristocrat, democracy, despot, section, etc. Later, the flow of borrowings from French gradually dries up; The English language already includes single words of various thematic groups (garage, chauffer, development, fiancee, etc.).
Scandinavian borrowings also largely determined the mixed nature of English vocabulary. This was greatly facilitated by the direct coexistence of the British and the Danes on the territory of England during the period of Danish rule (X-XI centuries). Unlike Latin borrowings, which came through written sources, Scandinavian words appeared mainly as a result of oral communication. Only a few words of Scandinavian origin can be found in Old English written monuments. Only towards the end of the 12th century. with the advent of written sources reflecting dialect forms, evidence of earlier oral borrowings from the Scandinavian languages appears. The fact that both English and the Scandinavian languages belonged to the same Germanic group allowed their speakers to at least understand each other, and in this process there was a strong mutual influence of languages. Mostly nouns, verbs and adjectives were borrowed. Dividing them into thematic groups is difficult due to the very large variety; the semantics of most words is general: husband, fellow, drag, bag, snare, leg, calf, skin, skirt; cast, take, guess; ill, wrong, low and many other words. In modern times, borrowings from Scandinavian languages are rare; an example is the Swedish word ombudsman - a person appointed by an institution (such as a government or a university) to receive a report on complaints made by ordinary people against the services of that institution.
Borrowings from other languages are very diverse. You can read about them in detail in the classic work of N. N. Amosova “Etymological foundations of the vocabulary of modern English,” as well as in numerous articles on this topic in linguistic journals. Let's give just a few examples here.
Trade and industrial ties between England and Holland led to the appearance in English of a large number of Dutch terms from the field of shipbuilding and navigation (bowsprit, buoy, cruise, dock, reef, yacht) and weaving (rock - spinning wheel, spool - bobbin, stripe - flap) . Popularity in Europe in the 16th-17th centuries. Dutch art was reflected in the borrowing of art criticism terms (easel, etch, landscape); The Dutch colonization of South Africa brought vocabulary associated with the ethno- and geographical features of this country (bushman, kraal, veldt).
Borrowings from Romance languages (Spanish, Italian, Portuguese) also reflect the history of relations between these countries and Britain.
A large number of Italian words from the field of culture and art have penetrated into the English language since the 16th century. These are musical terms (adagio, allegro, basso, opera, trio, sonata), vocabulary related to literature and fine arts (cameo, fresco, studio, intaglio; canto, stanza). A number of words are introduced into the English language through the description of Italy by British travelers (volcano, lava, casino, gondola, cicerone). Some words denoting political and commercial concepts (fascism, bank, traffic) were borrowed. Recently, Italian borrowings have been recorded mainly in American English, which is easily explained by the ethnic composition of the United States. Examples of such late borrowings are the words pasta, paparazzi, mafia.
Spanish borrowings were especially numerous in the 16th-17th centuries, when, on the one hand, England and Spain challenged each other’s primacy in the foreign policy arena, developed the territories of the newly discovered America, and on the other hand, Spanish literature was in its heyday, introducing the rest European Spanish realities. Among the Spanish borrowings are the words armada, banana, barbecue, canyon, cargo, chocolate, cigar, cocoa, hurricane, potato, ranch.
The English language also borrows some Portuguese words, but their number is small, and most of them, in turn, were borrowed into the Portuguese language from other languages, in particular the languages of India, Indochina, and Africa. Portuguese loanwords include the words cobra, Madeira, tank, veranda, mandarin, banana.
Speaking about Russian borrowings, it should be remembered that they can be divided into three groups - the so-called early Russicisms, Sovietisms and later borrowings that have entered the English language since the late 80s. XX century Early Russicisms for the most part reflect specific features of nature, material culture, and the state structure of Russia (altyn, boyar, borzoi, samovar, vodka, nihilist, tundra, taiga). Russian borrowings-Sovietism are mainly associated with the realities of the Soviet political system: Komsomol, artel, Soviets. Along with them, words related to space exploration also entered the English language: sputnik, cosmonaut. Russian borrowings that appeared in English at the end of the 20th century also reflect socio-political changes in the life of Russia (perestroika, glasnost).
Classifications according to the degree of assimilation of borrowings
Coming into the recipient language, the word is assimilated in different ways into the new system. First of all, let's look at what happens to the form of the borrowed word. In some cases, it can be very easy to recognize a “stranger” by graphics and/or phonetics that are not typical for the English language. The word retains its material shell, while its morphological composition is partially processed. If at the same time the semantics of the prototype is preserved in the word, then it is classified as a foreign word and refers to complete borrowings (domino, protege, tete-a-tete). Words that are partially processed phonetically and grammatically can also be classified as complete borrowings. They are clearly perceived as borrowed, but are subject to the pronunciation and grammatical norms of the English language (reason, culture, exhibition).
With the continued existence of a borrowing in a language, it enters into different compatibility with other words, which often leads to a change in its semantics compared to the prototype. Thus, the Latin word caseus (cheese), being borrowed into English in this meaning, later acquired the figurative, terminological meaning of “bobbin”. The Old French verb alouer, “to rent out,” was transformed into the modern English verb allow, “to allow.” Typical examples of such borrowings are English canister (from Latin canistrum - “wicker basket”), coffin (from Old French coffin - “box”), and travel (from French travailler - “to work”). Borrowings of this type are called relative and make up the majority in the English vocabulary, which is easily explained by the influence of the system of the receiving language on the elements newly included in it.
Particular attention is paid to morphemic borrowings, which are words created from foreign language morphemes within the English language. These include many terms such as anion, cation (from the Greek ana - “up”, cata - “down” and ion - “going”); telephone, phonograph, teletype. The above classification is based mainly on the formal characteristics of borrowed words. The distribution of types of borrowings according to the degree of assimilation of the semantics of words looks somewhat different.
Here, first of all, the so-called barbarisms, or words of local color, stand out. They are used in the recipient language only in connection with the specifics of the area from which they are borrowed. As a rule, these are complete borrowings in form, i.e., preserving the shape of the prototype. Examples of barbarisms are ciao (Italian “hello”), rajah (from Hindi, “ruler”, “prince”), wigwam (from the Indian language, “hut”), etc. The scope of use of such words is quite narrow and the degree of assimilation is very small.
The next group is words that have been partially assimilated, but limited in scope. First of all, these are terms and book words, in particular the so-called poetisms (etymon, homonym, lexical; pensive, oration, gregarious, matron). N. N. Amosova calls them specialized borrowings. Partially assimilated words may retain formal features of the prototype, for example, some grammatical forms (genius - genii, geniuses), pronunciation options (garage-), graphic originality (ballet, queue). The boundaries of this group are blurred, the types overlap.
The least recognizable, and therefore the most consistent with the standards of the English language, group of borrowings are completely assimilated words. Having entered the English language from various sources, over time and under the influence of the recipient language system they have changed phonetically, grammatically and semantically so much that native speakers recognize them as original. Fully assimilated words form the core of the vocabulary along with the original ones. Examples of this type are the Scandinavian verb take, the Latin wall, the French table and many others. N. N. Amosova proposes to call words that are completely assimilated into the English language native-like.
Speaking about the borrowing of foreign language elements, you should pay attention to at what structural levels of the language borrowings occur, i.e. It is precisely transferred from one language to another - phonemes, morphemes, words and other elements.
According to V.M. Aristova, borrowing phonemes and morphemes should not be equated, for example, with borrowing words, since units or elements of different language levels behave differently when borrowed. Therefore, the linguist proposes to distinguish between primary elements that are capable of independently transitioning from one language to another, carrying basic speech information and which are endowed with relative independence, and secondary elements that are not capable of independently transitioning into another language.
Primary elements include lexical, semantic, syntactic and stylistic elements, secondary elements include phonetic, phonological and morphological.
Famous linguist L.P. Krysin believes that elements that pass from one language to another can be units of different levels of the structure of the language - phonology, morphology, syntax, vocabulary, semantics. At the same time, borrowing words is a typical case of borrowing; borrowing phonemes is a rare case that depends on the degree of contact between the two languages; Borrowing of morphemes occurs mainly as part of a word; the selection of morphemes is carried out on the basis of a verbal series, which includes words with a general lexical meaning, which are characterized by the repetition of a structural element (for example, businessman, bartender, athlete), syntactic or structural-syntactic borrowing occurs when the construction of phrases in speech is influenced by foreign language syntactic structures; semantic borrowing is the appearance in a word of the meaning “under pressure” of a foreign language sample.
As for the classification of borrowings according to the scope of their application in human activity, here we can distinguish two main groups of vocabulary that are enriched in exactly this way - general colloquial and professional vocabulary (terminology).
The greatest importance in the modern theory of borrowing is the classification of borrowings based on the nature of the borrowed material. It is traditional to distinguish two main types of borrowing - direct borrowing and tracing. With direct borrowing, both the material form (sound and graphic) and the meanings of the prototype word are taken from a foreign language, and with tracing - only the meanings or semantic structure of a foreign language lexical unit.
Among direct or material borrowings (from D.S. Lotte - original borrowings), the following subtypes can be distinguished:
) lexical borrowings, in which the material form of a word and its content are borrowed, for example: receiver - “a reservoir for accumulating gases or vapors” (English receiver);
) borrowing the material form of a word, i.e. borrowing only the foreign language form of a word in oral (phonetic borrowing) or written (graphic borrowing) form and filling this form with new content, for example: jam - thick jam (English jam);
) morphemic borrowing, which is the borrowing of root and derivational morphemes to form new words, for example: tele-(Gr.) + -type (English).
When tracing (from D.S. Lotte - translated borrowings) it is not borrowed
the material form of a lexical unit, but only its meaning or structure. The following subspecies can be distinguished here:
) word-formation tracing, in which only the structure of a foreign language lexical unit is borrowed, on the basis of which a word is formed from the corresponding elements of the recipient language, for example: skyscraper,
) semantic (notional) tracing, in which a national word acquires a meaning that was absent in the corresponding foreign word,
) phraseological tracing, in which translation is carried out “according to the words” of foreign stable phrases, for example, to make progress - to make progress (to have success).
In addition to the above two main types of borrowing and their subtypes, a third type can be distinguished, which is called mixed borrowing. This includes cases where one part of the word may be a borrowing, and the other - translated or one that already exists in the receptor language.
Among mixed borrowings there are:
semi-calculation, when one part of the word is borrowed materially, and the other is calque, for example, tele + video,
semi-borrowing, when one part of the word is borrowed, and the second exists in the language, for example, installation + nick, counter + nut.
Since our thesis will examine ways of translating borrowings from English into Russian, we consider it appropriate to consider the classification of borrowings that are presented directly in the Russian language. In the future, this can help in a qualitative analysis of methods for translating borrowed lexemes from English into Russian.
Let's consider borrowings in the Russian language from a stylistic point of view.
A stylistic assessment of the use of borrowed words in various texts should take into account all the features of the vocabulary of foreign language sources: the degree of its mastery in the Russian language, stylistic consolidation, the absence of corresponding Russian names or, on the contrary, the possibility of synonymous replacement of a foreign word, the time of its appearance in the language, the frequency of use in speech and etc. According to these criteria, a classification of borrowed words according to the degree of their mastery in the Russian language is proposed for consideration. In this case, the selected lexical layers will have significant differences in the stylistic sense. This grouping of borrowed words in a stylistic sense is set for a practical purpose - to determine recommendations for the use of such borrowings in speech.
The modern Russian language has in its arsenal an unlimited number of borrowings that go back to foreign sources. These borrowings can be divided into several groups according to the degree of their mastery in the Russian language.
Words that have lost any signs of non-Russian origin (bread, mug, umbrella, shop, cat, horse, dog, sail, icon, cutlet, potato, pan, plate).
Such words do not stand out against the background of Russian vocabulary either phonetically, morphologically, or stylistically - “foreign language” does not have any effect on their use in speech.
Words that retain some external signs of foreign language origin: consonances not characteristic of the Russian language (neckline, phoneme, timbre, tempo); non-Russian suffixes (boyfriend, activist, correspondent, lecturer); non-Russian prefixes (transliteration, antioxidant); Some of these words are not inflected (avenue, Hindi, coffee, metro). This group includes words that, denoting phenomena that have become firmly established in our lives, are widely used in speech as the only names for common objects and concepts. Such borrowed words stylistically merged with the original Russian vocabulary.
Borrowed vocabulary contains a significant part of commonly used words from the field of science, politics, culture, art, known not only in Russian, but also in other European languages, the so-called Europeanisms or internationalisms, for example: file, interface, printer, consultation, supermarket, presentation.
Borrowed words that penetrated into the Russian language under the influence of salon-noble jargon (amourous - “love”, rendezvous - “date”, pleisir - “pleasure”, sentiments - “sensitivity”). The words of this group have become largely archaic, as they have found more common synonyms in Russian speech.
Exoticisms are borrowed words that characterize specific national characteristics of the life of different peoples and are used when describing non-Russian reality, for example: Italian borrowings - gondola, tarantella, Spanish - mantilla, castanets, hidalgo, etc. Along with other foreign language lexical elements, exoticisms stand out as words that are not fully lexically mastered in the Russian language.
Foreign language inclusions in Russian vocabulary (sorry, okay, prodigy), which often retain non-Russian spelling (game over (English) - the game is over, “Kamo are coming", “quo vadis” (Latin) - Where are you going?, per aspera ad astra (lat.) - through thorns to the stars. Foreign language inclusions usually have lexical equivalents in the Russian vocabulary, but are stylistically different from them and are fixed in one or another sphere of communication as special names or as an expressive means that gives speech a special characteristic feature. foreign language inclusions is their distribution not only in Russian, but also in other European languages.
Barbarisms are foreign words or expressions that have not been fully assimilated into the Russian language and are perceived as foreign words in violation of generally accepted language norms. For example: comme il faut, pager, hacker. Barbarisms can only conditionally be attributed to borrowed vocabulary, which has a limited scope of use; in fact, they remain outside the Russian vocabulary.
So, having divided the borrowed vocabulary into several groups, we can trace the gradual intensification of the “foreign” flavor in them, which must certainly be taken into account when making a stylistic assessment of its use in speech. Borrowed words, which have already spread widely and become entrenched in the structure of interstyle vocabulary, are not of particular interest from a stylistic point of view. Borrowed words and expressions that have a limited scope of use are subject to stylistic evaluation. However, the features of this type of vocabulary and its functioning must certainly be taken into account by specialists who work in the field of linguistics.
1.3 Sources of borrowings in English
The English language has traditionally been open to borrowings from a wide variety of languages.
Even in the early Middle Ages, the English language adopted a large number of borrowings from Scandinavian languages (including such basic words as skin, ill, and even she). The most massive flow of borrowings is medieval, after the Norman Conquest, from Old French; as a result, almost half of the English vocabulary has Romance roots. In modern times, a large number of learned Latinisms and new borrowings from continental languages entered the language.
Consider Celtic borrowings. Borrowings from Celtic languages in English are few in number, and in most cases belong to dialect vocabulary or to the vocabulary of the lower strata of the population. Of interest is the counting system of British sheep farmers, which is derived from the numerals of the extinct Cumbrian language. The syntactic calque of the Celtic languages is based on the Continuous tense system, which is absent in other Germanic languages.
The first layer of Latin borrowings are words that entered the English language during trade contacts on the continent, for example: wine, pear, pepper.
The second layer of Latin borrowings are words borrowed during Christianization: mass “mass”, school “school”, priest “priest”, devil “devil” and others.
A significant number of Latin words entered the English language between the 11th and 13th centuries, during the Norman period. However, these words, for the most part, have already undergone, to a greater or lesser extent, phonetic, grammatical and semantic changes in the Norman dialect of French, which borrowed these words from Latin.
The largest number of words borrowed by the English language from the Latin language are so-called book borrowings. These are words that entered the language not as a result of direct, live communication between peoples, but through written documents, books, and so on. Book borrowings are qualitatively different from other types of borrowings. First of all, they are less susceptible to all kinds of changes, especially semantic ones. This is logical to explain by the fact that book borrowings, for a long period of time, are limited to the sphere of their use - the literary form of a given language. Further, these borrowings are usually abstract, abstract or terminological in nature.
Most of the Latin book borrowings in English occur during the 16th, as well as the 15th-16th centuries, that is, during the Renaissance in England. There are over a thousand Latin words in the works of Wycliffe, Langland and Chaucer that have not previously been attested in English. During the Renaissance, words from the fields of medicine, literature, theology, technical terms, etc. appeared. A list of these words cannot be given within a short chapter. To do this you need to compile a special dictionary.
Most of these borrowings can be distinguished by morphological characteristics, for example, verbs with the suffix -ate- in the infinitive, formed from the past participle of Latin verbs of the first conjugation, such as separate, translate, meditate, exaggerate, congratulate; verbs with the suffix -ute- in the infinitive, obtained from the stem of the past participle of the group of Latin verbs of the third conjugation, such as prosecute, execute; adjectives formed from Latin present participles with stems -ant- and -ent-, for example, evident, transparent, patient, triumphant, apparent, obedient.
The subsequent centuries - XVII, XVIII - witnessed book borrowings from the Latin language. In most cases, these are so-called “learned words”, often retaining the features of the morphological character of Latin words, such as inertia, sanatorium, genus, radius, curriculum, datum, vacuum.
Finally, in modern English there are also borrowings that have completely retained their Latin appearance, that is, they have not undergone and are not currently undergoing any linguistic assimilation. These words and expressions are used in the language as a kind of quotations from the Latin language. The scope of their use is very limited: they are usually used in scientific prose styles, in business documents, and in elevated oratorical style of speech. These borrowings include expressions such as: alma mater, bona fide, ex officio, conditio sine qua non, and so on.
As noted in the previous chapter, in the process of borrowing words by one language from another, there are cases when the same word is borrowed twice. This is possible only in cases of long-term historical and cultural ties between peoples whose languages come into contact. This is precisely the history of the influence of Latin on English. Many Latin words appeared in English twice: once from French, another time from Latin itself. The second borrowing is usually removed from the first by a significant period of time, which is necessary for the newly borrowed word to be considered as new. The result is etymological French-Latin doublets.
Some word-forming elements - prefixes and suffixes - should also be included among the Latin borrowings of a bookish nature. These derivational morphemes were not borrowed from Latin as independent lexical units; they were borrowed as part of whole words and only later interpreted as word-forming morphemes. However, in linguistic literature they are usually called borrowed affixes.
Thus, the Latin language had a significant influence on the enrichment of the English language with new words. This is largely due to the fact that the Norman conquest of England, which brought with it a huge number of French words, prepared the way for a relatively free influx of Latin words due to etymological affinities. In historical lexicology, it is sometimes difficult to determine whether a particular word came into English from French or Latin.
Scandinavian borrowings also occur in the English vocabulary. They came from Danish as a result of the Scandinavian conquest (from about 870). This group of borrowings is not very numerous, but it includes very frequent words. Here are some examples:
they, them instead of hie, hem (hem is preserved in colloquial expressions like I met "em yesterday);
take, cut, get, instead of which the English words would be given in modern language *nim, *snide, *werth;
Are, fellow, gear, ill, happen, happy, husband, kick, law, leg, low, odd, rove, rug, scale (meaning “scales”), scalp, skill, skin, skip, skull, tight, ugly , wrong, etc.
nay, fro, skirt, dike, sky, screech, for which English parallels nay, from, shirt, ditch, welkin, shriek have been preserved;
suffixes in toponymy: -by, -beck, -thorp(e), -fell, -toft, -thwaite from the Scandinavian words byr “village”, bekkr “stream”, thorp “village”, fjall “mountain”, topt “estate” ", thveit "fenced area" and others; examples of names: Rugby, Welbeck, Scunthorpe, Micklefell, Lovestoft, Applethwaite;
Flock, mug and some others came through the Anglo-Norman language;
nag, ombudsman, ski, skive, slalom, slam - words reflecting new realities for the English, came from modern Scandinavian languages in the 19th-20th centuries.
Scandinavian loanwords are difficult to distinguish from English words proper, since Danish and Old English were closely related languages. The characteristic difference is that in Danish words /k/, /g/, /sk/ were preserved, while in English they turned into sibilants: /k/ and /g/ - in certain conditions, /sk/ - always.
French borrowings are the most numerous in the English language.
In 1066 the Normans conquered England. Normandy was a French duchy; it acquired its name after the French king Charles the Simple, being unable to cope with the Vikings, gave them this territory under the treaty of 912. By 1066, the Vikings had long since adopted the French language and assimilated into the local population. They came to England as speakers of the French language (Norman dialect), French culture and French feudal system. After the Norman Conquest, power was completely in the hands of the Normans; Duke William the Conqueror also removed the English priests and installed Norman ones in their place. The indigenous population continued to speak English, but from the Norman dialect the Anglo-Norman language was formed, which became the state language and existed until the end of the 14th century. During this time, English learned a huge number of French words. Of the 80,000 most common words in the English language, approximately 22,500 are French loanwords (from all periods of history).
The borrowings especially clearly reflect the Norman influence in the field of government, in military affairs, in the organization of the church and in city life:
court, servant, guard, prince, vassal, government, serf, village (court, servant, guard, prince, vassal, government, serf, village);
army, battle, banner, victory (army, battle, banner, victory);
religion, chapel, prayer, to confess (religion, chapel, prayer, confess);
City, merchant (city, merchant).
Craftsmen who lived in the village retained English names, while those in the city began to be called by French words: butcher “butcher”, mason “mason”, tailor “tailor”. Animals are named in English words, but their meat is called in French: beef “beef”, mutton “lamb”, pork “pork”, veal “veal”.
More than half the words in English are of French origin as a result of the Norman Conquest (1066). It is curious that all the names of animals are original English words, and the meat of these animals is French borrowings, for example: cow-beef (cow - beef), pig-pork (pig - pork), deer - venison (deer - venison), sheep - mutton (sheep-mutton).
French borrowings in English are used, as a rule, to achieve greater formality, for example: commence instead of begin, to be content instead of to be glad.
The above words (you can add commonly used ones, such as: composition, continue, frequency, etc.), being French borrowings, are pronounced in English. In this case, in order to uncover the question of the sources of borrowings in the English language, we are interested in those expressions that entered the English language without any changes, for example: appetit! (bon apetit ) - Bon appetit! voyage! (bon voyage) - Bon voyage! blanche (carte blanche) - carte blanche, freedom of action. a-tete (tet-a-tet) - tete-a-tete, alone. a-Vis (vis-a-vis) - sitting opposite, interlocutor, face to face. (resume) - a short biography in the “resume” format. - Respondez il vous plait (responde sil vu ple) - please answer, answer (in business correspondence).
The translator, encountering words and phrases of foreign origin in the English text, should turn to the English-English (explanatory) dictionary, where their explanation is given, or to the corresponding bilingual dictionary, for example: krieg (German) - lightning war vita (Italian) - sweet life vista (Spanish) - good view.
There are a large number of borrowings in the American English language due to the fact that the United States, as you know, is not for nothing called the melting pot of nations.
Many place names in the USA are written and pronounced in Spanish, for example, the cities of San Francisco, San Diego, La Jolla, San Antonio, Sacramento, Rio Grande River, Rio Vista Street, etc. As we already know, these names are transmitted in Russian by sound reproduction, i.e. transcription, for example: Rio Vista street (and not “view of the river”).
A large number of Spanish words and expressions are used in the southwestern United States thanks to the cowboys who mastered these lands in the mid-19th century. Americans learned them from the inhabitants of Mexico: rodeo, ranch (Spanish - rancho), etc.
As a result of French colonization, names appeared such as the river Cache la Poudre (“hide the gunpowder”) in Colorado, the city of Des Moines, the capital of Iowa (however, in this case the pronunciation of the city’s name has not been preserved entirely in French).
Words for Italian cuisine have also entered the English language (with Italian spelling and pronunciation), for example: lasagna (lasagna) ravioli (ravioli), pasta (pasta), spaghetti (spaghetti). The same can be said about the names of dishes of European cuisine, which in English appeared from the Yiddish language, for example, latkes (latkes) - potato pancakes, blintzes (blintzes) - pancakes, gefilte fish (gefilte fish) - stuffed fish.
The list of borrowings in English could be continued.
The English language (both written and spoken) uses a large number of words, phrases and abbreviations from the Latin language.
Some Latinisms have entered the common vocabulary, for example: 5AM - at 5 o'clock in the morning or vice-versa - vice versa. Basically, Latin expressions are characteristic of the written form of the academic, official style. Therefore, they should be known to those who read English non-fiction or use English for academic purposes in writing.
Examples of Latinisms: hoc - for this case fide - sincerely, sincerely - approximately laude - with distinction. (et cetera) - and so on alia - among others
Thus, we can note that borrowed vocabulary occupies a significant place in the lexical system of any language, in particular English. In order to study the features of its functioning within a specific language system, it is advisable to pay considerable attention to the specifics of the arrival of this vocabulary in the language and the study of the conditions that determined the arrival of these borrowings.
It should be noted that borrowings in different languages have different effects on the enrichment of vocabulary. In some languages they did not have such an influence that could significantly affect the vocabulary of the language. In other languages, borrowing in different historical eras had such a significant impact on the vocabulary of the language that even function words, such as pronouns and prepositions borrowed from other languages, replaced the original function words. Because a living language is a constantly evolving phenomenon. Something new comes, the unnecessary, superfluous disappears, and for scientists working in the field of lexicology, many questions remain that require resolution.
CHAPTER 2. ANALYSIS OF METHODS FOR TRANSFERING BORROWINGS
.1 Methods for transferring borrowings
Let us note first of all that in general terms we can outline two translation paths that the translator follows: Direct or literal translation and indirect (indirect) translation.
Indeed, it may be the case that a message in the source language translates perfectly into a message in the target language because it is based either on parallel categories (structural parallelism) or on parallel concepts (metalinguistic parallelism). But it may also happen that the translator recognizes the presence of a “gap” in the target language that needs to be filled with equivalent means, ensuring that the overall impression of the two messages is the same. It may also happen that, due to structural or metalinguistic differences, some stylistic effects cannot be conveyed in the target language without changing to some extent the order of elements or even lexical units. It is clear that in the second case it is necessary to resort to more sophisticated methods, which at first glance may cause surprise, but the progress of which can be monitored in order to strictly monitor the achievement of equivalence.
The first method of translation: borrowing.
The simplest method of translation is borrowing, which allows you to fill a gap, usually of a metalinguistic nature (new technology, unknown concepts). Borrowing would not even be a method of translation that might interest us if the translator did not sometimes need it in order to create a stylistic effect. For example, in order to introduce the so-called local flavor, you can use foreign terms and talk about “versts” and “poods” in Russia, and “dollars” and “parti” in America, about “tequila” and “tortilla” in Mexico, etc. e. It is better to translate a phrase such as The coroner spoke by borrowing Le coroner prit la parole (Took the word coroner) than to look for a more or less equivalent one among the titles of French judicial officials.
There are also old borrowings, which essentially are no longer such for us, because they appear in the lexical composition of our language and have already become familiar: alcool, redingote, paquetbot, acajou, etc. The translator is primarily interested in new borrowings and even borrowings of individual character. It should be noted that borrowings often enter the language through translation; among them are semantic borrowings, or “false friends of the translator,” which should be especially feared.
The problem of local color, solved with the help of borrowings, affects primarily the sphere of style and, consequently, the message itself.
The main ways of borrowing vocabulary are transcription, transliteration and tracing.
Transcription (phonetic method) is a borrowing of a vocabulary unit in which its sound form is preserved (sometimes slightly modified in accordance with the phonetic features of the language into which the word is borrowed). In this way, the words football (football), trailer (trailer), jeans (jeans), etc. are borrowed from the English language. In English, the words regime, ballet, bouquet, etc. are borrowed from the French language.
Transliteration is a method of borrowing in which the spelling of a foreign word is borrowed: the letters of the borrowed word are replaced with letters of the native language. When transliterating, the word is read according to the rules of reading the native language. Using the method of transliteration from English into Russian, the words cruise (English cruise), motel (English motel), club (English club) were borrowed.
Many proper names are also transliterated when borrowed from English: Washington, Texas, London. In the English language there are many words of Greek, Latin and French origin, which have retained their graphic features, although they are read according to the rules of the English language.
Tracing, transcription and transliteration as methods of borrowing should be distinguished from translation methods of the same name. Without differing in their mechanism, they differ in their final results: when translating, the vocabulary does not increase, whereas when borrowing, new vocabulary units appear in the box.
Since the process of assimilation of foreign language elements begins from the moment they are introduced into the language by translators, it is appropriate to say a few words about the technique of translating specifically foreign names. When translating words and expressions with an unclear associative meaning, as well as when translating names of realities, transcription, less often transliteration, tracing and explanatory translation (transferring the meaning of a foreign word or phrase using the means of the native language without preserving the motivation and form) can be used. For example, the translation of the word the Speaker by the phrase chairman of the House of Commons”, the word backbenchers by the phrase “ordinary members of the English parliament”, etc. During an explanatory translation, a footnote may include the transcription of the word being translated, in this case “speaker” and “backbengers.” When tracing, transcribing and transliterating, it is sometimes necessary to resort to comments.
The second method of translation: tracing.
Tracing is a special kind of borrowing: we borrow this or that syntagm from a foreign language and literally translate the elements that make it up. In this way, we obtain either a tracing of the expression, and we use the syntactic structures of the target language, introducing new expressive elements into it, for example, Compliments de la Saison (literally: “seasonal greetings”), or a tracing of the structure, and introducing new constructions into the language, for example, Science-fiction (literally "science fiction").
Just as with borrowings, there are old stable calques that can only be mentioned in passing, since they, like borrowings, can undergo semantic evolution, becoming “false friends”. New tracing papers remain more interesting for the translator, with the help of which he avoids borrowing by filling in the gaps (cf.: French еconomiquement faible - economically weak, tracing from the German language). In such cases, it is apparently better to resort to word formation based on the Greco-Latin foundation or use hypostasis (the transition of one part of speech to another by conversion). In this way it would be possible to avoid such tortured cripples as: Thеrapie occupationelle (Occupational Therapy); "Banque puor le Commerce et le Développement", le quatre Grands, le Premier français and others like them, which can serve, in the opinion of some translators, as the most obvious example of extreme poverty of thought.
Third translation method: literal translation
Literal translation, or translation "word for word", means a transition from the source language to the target language, which leads to the creation of a correct and idiomatic text, and the translator only ensures compliance with the mandatory norms of the language, for example: I left my spectacles on the table downstairs - I left my glasses on the table below; Where are you? - Where are you?; This train arrives at Union Station at ten - This train arrives at Central Station at 10 o'clock.
In principle, a literal translation is the only reversible and complete solution to the issue. There are many examples of this in translations made from languages belonging to the same family (French - Italian), and especially between languages belonging to the same cultural orbit. If it can be stated that there are some cases of literal translation from German into English, it is because there are metalinguistic concepts that may also reflect facts of coexistence, periods of bilingualism and conscious or unconscious imitation that is associated with political or intellectual prestige. This can also be explained by the peculiar convergence of thoughts, and sometimes structures, that can be observed among the languages of Europe (cf., for example, the formation of the definite article, the similarity of the concepts of culture and civilization, etc.).
The translator must apply a special approach to the translation of international vocabulary, which, as noted earlier, occupies a special place among borrowings.
The difficulties of translating international vocabulary lie in the fact that a translator, especially a beginner, often forgets about such a concept as “usage of a word” (usage), and, under the impression of the familiar graphic form of a word, allows literalism in translation and violates the norms of the native language ( target language), especially in the area of word compatibility. Meanwhile, “words associated and identified (due to similarity in terms of expression) in two languages, in terms of content or use, do not fully correspond or even completely do not correspond to each other. That is why words of this type received the name faux amis du traducteur in French linguistics - "false friends of the translator."
In a number of cases, the translator has every right to convey the root meaning of a word literally, but only when his sense of language and experience tell him that the translation he proposes for a given specific situation is precisely an adequate rendering of the original’s thoughts. Let's give a number of examples: code point - code point, color correction - color correction, сorrelator - correlator.
At the same time, this provision (the admissibility of literal translation of terms and terminological combinations in a number of individual rare cases) can also serve as a source of errors in translation. As scientific and technical translation researcher A.L. Pumpyansky notes, the main reasons leading to errors include:
) confidence in the unambiguity of words and grammatical forms;
) mixing the graphic appearance of the word;
) erroneous use of analogy;
) translation of words with more specific meanings than they actually have;
) inability to find the Russian meaning for the translation of English words and lexical and grammatical combinations;
) ignorance of the laws of presentation of English scientific and technical material and the method of its transmission into Russian."
Thus, we see that the first two causes of errors noted by A.L. Pumpyansky, are errors resulting from ignorance of the peculiarities of international vocabulary.
The following possible discrepancies in the meanings of international and corresponding Russian words are noted in the literature.
The Russian word coincides with the English one, but not in all meanings, but only in one or two. This group of international vocabulary includes a relatively large number of words, the translation of which presents significant difficulties.
The polysemantic word satellite, which passed into the Russian language from the English language, is used mainly in only one meaning: satellite state, puppet state. In English, the word satellite has several meanings:
) satellite, satellite;
) artificial satellite;
) a member of the retinue, a participant in the ceremonial cortege, an accompanying person;
) henchman, follower;
) satellite state;
) satellite city;
) satellite (chromosomes).
In other cases, the situation is different: a Russian word has a number of meanings and only one of them corresponds to English. This is usually observed when the word is borrowed from a third language: for example, the Russian word audience has a broader meaning than the English auditorium. In Russian you can say audience of readers; in English the word auditorium is not used in this meaning, and equivalents in English to convey this meaning would be units such as the readingship, the reading audience, the readers or even market (cf. the book has a good market).
Some words that are similar in form often have different basic meanings. Words in this category require special attention from the translator, since they can easily be misleading and cause serious errors. So, activities is translated as activity, not as activity; communal is mainly used in the sense of “public” and very rarely - “communal”; aspirant - an applicant for something, but never a graduate student; direction - direction, not management (cf. board of directors; management); magazine - a magazine, but, of course, not a store; obligation - an obligation, not a bond; sympathetic - sympathetic, while the first obvious, but incorrect option is sympathetic (cf. sympathetic strike - solidarity strike, not sympathy strike); typography - book printing, not printing; fabric is a textile product, not a factory.
The transfer of words that sound similar (or have a similar graphic form) from one language to another during translation is especially often observed in related languages, for example, in Russian and Ukrainian. “It seems to many,” writes O. Kundzich, “that when such a word is transferred from one language to another, it retains all its qualities, that these qualities are contained in the word itself, and do not arise in relation to this word with the entire system of a given language. I I mean such qualities as folk or bookishness of a word, emotionality or terminology, positive or negative meaning, poetry, solemnity, and so on - to the finest shades in endless variations and their relationships."
2.2 Practical analysis of the translation of borrowings
borrowing vocabulary tracing translation
Having analyzed the features of the translation of borrowed lexemes, we will consider the advisability of using one or another translation method using the example of specific lexical units.
Consider the following borrowed lexemes: Microsoft, Windows, Apple, AOL, CD-ROM, MS-DOS, Yahoo, Rambler, Google, Yandex, Corel Draw, 3D Max, Total Commander, Internet Explorer.
In this case, there is a graphic reproduction of the borrowing without any changes to the original spelling. As we can see, this primarily concerns names - names of corporations, search servers, operating systems and software products (often in the form of abbreviations and acronyms). Thus, the above borrowed lexical units in the Russian translation text will completely retain their graphic form.
The following series of borrowed lexemes are translated by transcription: computer - computer, printer - printer, display - display, file - file, overlay - overlay, plotter - plotter, pixel - pixel, setup - setup. It should be noted that certain lexical units, such as, for example, display, file, setup, in a specific contextual environment can be translated using national Russian correspondence as follows: display - screen, file - document, setup - setting. At the same time, the translation of the word file as “document” can also be considered as a translation of another borrowed equivalent or the international word “document”.
Transliteration is often applied to the translation of terminological lexemes, which in turn are international lexemes. Examples include the following words: processor - processor, modem - modem, monitor - monitor.
As noted earlier, tracing also occupies a fairly important place among the main methods of translating borrowed lexical units.
In this case, we are dealing with a word or expression, which is a translation in parts of a foreign word from the material of the native language. The following lexical units can serve as practical examples of translation using the tracing method: external command - external command; digital signature - digital signature; peripheral controller - peripheral controller.
Interesting are the cases of translation of cripples, in which one of the elements is transliterated, and another element of the target language, which itself at one time or even until recently was a borrowing-neologism. For example: proxy server - proxy server; swapping manager - swapping manager, content provider - content provider.
Let us also consider in practice the translation of borrowings in a descriptive way.
Descriptive (explanatory, descriptive) translation is a method of transmitting non-equivalent vocabulary that involves revealing the meaning of a borrowed unit using a detailed description (in phrases, phrases, etc.). For example: Digitizer - an encoder, subsystem or device that generates digital data for an input analog signal; Transponder is a telecommunications device that receives a signal in one form and transmits it in another form.
Speaking about the practical translation of borrowings, one cannot fail to mention the fact of the assimilation process that some borrowed lexical units undergo.
After entering a language, a borrowing undergoes a process of assimilation - adaptation of a word to another language system, expressed in a change in pronunciation, spelling of a word, a change in its grammatical properties in accordance with the rules of the receiving language, and often in a change in semantics. Semantic changes in borrowed elements are the most interesting, since they can be quite significant, but not noticeable without deep etymological research.
We proceed from the fact that the assimilation of terminology is its adaptation in phonetic, grammatical, semantic and graphic terms to the system of the recipient language. The degree of assimilation may vary, but, as a rule, a distinction is made between fully and partially assimilated terms. The degree of assimilation is determined by many factors, among which one of the important ones is morphological, semantic or syntactic derivation, i.e. the formation of derivative words in the target language from corresponding borrowings that are simple in morphological structure: to xerox - to photocopy.
Speaking about the assimilation of computer terms, for example, we should mention those terms that have become or are becoming part of computer slang - colloquial vocabulary that is considered below the generally accepted standard: words that are not used in standard language or have a special lexical-semantic content.
Let us consider below the translation of borrowed lexemes that function in the economic sphere using the example of individual sentences. key method, which our company uses to deliver some information about know-how to our customers, is colorful circulars. - The main way that our company uses to inform the population about the latest news is color advertising brochures that are sent home.
The main attention in this proposal, in our opinion, should be paid to the borrowing-pseudo-internationalism of the circular, which relates to the legal sphere of functioning. This borrowing is translated into Russian descriptively as “advertising brochures that are sent home.” Transliteration as a method of translation is excluded in this case, since in Russian the word “circular” is most associated with regulatory documents. Therefore, in this case, the only possible translation method is descriptive (dicriptive). fact, what we are talking about is a sphere of illegal financial services meant to reimburse VAT at the expense of state budget, to convert capital into cash, to carry out schemes with securities and insurance (more accurately, export money, using reinsurance), etc. - In fact, we are talking about the sphere of illegal financial services aimed at refunding VAT from the state budget, transferring capital into cash, introducing schemes for working with securities and insurance (more precisely, transferring funds abroad through reinsurance), etc.
First of all, in this example, you should pay attention to borrowing reinsurance. It relates to the financial and economic sphere of functioning. We translated this borrowing into the Russian equivalent “reinsurance”. It is worth noting that in the Russian language the structure of the borrowed lexeme is completely preserved: the prefix re-, which in English indicates the repeated performance of some action, was transformed into the Russian prefix re-. Also, the form of the noun was preserved when translating this borrowing.
This sentence also contains the borrowed lexeme illegal, which relates to the legal sphere of operation. This borrowed lexeme was translated by us by transcription as “illegal”. The same borrowing can also be translated by the Russian analogue “illegal”, but in order to preserve the pragmatic load of the English borrowing illegal in the Russian language, we decided to leave the borrowed morpheme in the translation.
You should also pay attention to borrowing accurately, which relates to the social sphere of functioning. This borrowing was translated by the Russian equivalent “more precisely”. As for the borrowing-internationalisms budget and capital, they relate to the financial and economic sphere of functioning and are translated into Russian by transliteration as “budget” and “capital”. Particular attention should be paid to the borrowed lexeme capital, which could also be translated by the borrowed international synonym “assets” (from the English Assets), but in order to be as close as possible to the original text when translating, we decided to leave the original lexeme “capital” .
In our opinion, we should also consider the borrowed vocabulary that is present in the following sentence.
In the event of cancellation of the charter by the Charterer, for any reason, except as mentioned in Clause 3, after signing this Agreement, all advance payments made up to the date of cancellation will be retained by the owner, and the owner reserves the right to refund the said deposits only if he succeeds in letting the yacht to another Charterer for the same period and under the same conditions. - In the event of cancellation of the charter by the charterer after the signing of this contract for any reason other than those specified in clause 3, all advance payments made up to the date of cancellation are retained by the owner and the owner reserves the right to return such payments only if if he can provide the yacht to another charterer for the same period and on the same conditions.
The borrowed lexeme charter refers to the financial and economic sphere of functioning. This borrowing is translated into Russian by transliteration as “charter”. The same root borrowing in relation to the above word is the lexeme Charterer, which functions in the same field, but is translated into Russian by the following correspondence - “charterer”. The borrowed lexeme reason refers to the social sphere of functioning and its correspondence in Russian is not the word “reason”, but “reason”.
This sentence also contains the borrowed lexeme advance payments, which is of a purely business nature and is translated by such correspondence as “advance payments”. To translate this borrowed lexeme, transcription was also used, namely to translate the borrowing advance. Let's move on to the next borrowing date, which relates to the social sphere of functioning. In order to translate it into Russian, we used the transcription method and got the word “date”.
Consider also borrowing reserve. It relates to the social sphere of application. In this case, to translate this borrowing, we selected the corresponding Russian analogue “saves”. This same lexeme could also be translated using the transcription method as “reserves”, but in this context and in the context of combining this borrowing with the word “right”, the latter option is unacceptable for us.
Borrowing period refers to the social sphere of functioning. It is translated into Russian by transliteration as “period”. As for the borrowed lexeme deposits, it is mainly used in business discourse and in this case is translated as “payments”. The same word can also be transliterated as “deposits,” but this equivalent is acceptable in the context of “bank deposits.” In our case, we have completely different situational conditions, so transliteration as a method of translation does not suit us here. But the Russian analogue of “payment” fully reproduces the contextual meaning of borrowing deposits in this sentence.
In this example there is another borrowing - conditions. It relates to the social sphere of functioning. It should be noted that this word was translated by the Russian equivalent "conditions". This lexeme can under no circumstances be translated as “condition”.
Let's consider the translation of another sentence in which borrowed lexemes function. corporate supervision forms an appropriate background for the Management Board to pursue objectives that are to the best interest of the company and its shareholders; it also ensures effective performance monitoring which further encourages the managers to use the company's resources and capabilities in a more efficient manner. - Appropriate corporate management provides the necessary training for the Board to realize the goals in which the company itself and its shareholders are most interested ; such leadership also provides effective control over the company's work, which further encourages managers to use the company's resources and capabilities more efficiently.
Borrowing corporate supervision relates to the financial and economic sphere of functioning. It can be considered as a borrowing, which in Russian completely retains its structure: adjective + noun - “corporate management”.
Terminological borrowing Management Board functions in the financial and economic sphere. Before translating this borrowing, we also used the translation technique of omission and in the Russian translation we simply received “Board”. We translated the borrowed lexeme monitoring, which is mainly used in the scientific and technical sphere of functioning, by synonymous replacement, choosing another borrowing - “control”. The same borrowing can be translated using transliteration, and, in our opinion, a synonymous translation is more suitable for this context.
Borrowing resources, which relates to the social sphere of functioning, we translated as “resources” using the transcription method.
Let's analyze one more sentence. investors also participate in the operation of the company: two Leipzig energy companies are shareholders of the company, the value of their shares increased by 5 per cent in 2003. - Foreign investors also take part in the company's activities: company shares , whose value increased by 5% in 2003, are in the hands of two Leipzig energy companies.
This sentence contains the borrowing foreign investors, which exists in the form of a phrase and relates to the financial and economic sphere of functioning. When translating this borrowing using the method of transcription (tracing), the grammatical structure of this borrowing was preserved: adjective + plural noun - “foreign investors”.
The next borrowed lexeme in this sentence is operation. If we talk about the sphere of its functioning, this is the social sphere. It is in this example that the borrowing operation is translated by the Russian analogue “activity”. If this borrowing were in a different context, then it could be translated from English into Russian by transcribing as “operation”, but in this case such a translation is impossible.
As we can see from the examples discussed above, the use of one or another translation method is primarily determined by the contextual environment of the borrowed lexeme and varies depending on the text in which it is used. Therefore, a translator who deals with borrowed vocabulary should fully comprehensively analyze the context of a certain sentence or text in order to choose the most accurate and correct translation option and at the same time preserve the pragmatic load laid down by the author of the source text.
CONCLUSION
In the process of writing this thesis, we carefully analyzed the borrowed vocabulary from the point of view of its concept and scope of functioning. We also examined various classifications of borrowed vocabulary proposed by specialists at various stages of linguistic studies. A significant place in our work is occupied by the consideration of sources of borrowings in the English language from a chronological point of view.
In the practical part, we analyzed ways of translating borrowings from English into Russian. At the same time, in practice, using the example of specific sentences, we have proven the feasibility of using one or another translation method.
Thus, completing our research, we came to the following conclusions.
Borrowing as a process is multifaceted; it has certain causes, types and results. The reasons for borrowing lie both within a particular language system and outside it. The need to borrow a foreign language element that arises within a language is explained by the inaccuracy of the existing name or its absence due to the novelty of the designated object for the culture that uses this language. External reasons for the appearance of borrowings arise as a result of contacts between people speaking different languages. Borrowed words facilitate communication, and also often carry a socio-psychological load in the form of connotations that are absent in the correspondences of the receiving language.
The modern vocabulary of the English language has changed and been supplemented over many centuries and now has a large number of words in its stock, which also had an ambiguous impact on the formation of its vocabulary.
The Latin language, from which many borrowings came, primarily played an intermediary role.
We can confidently conclude that the English language, by accepting words from other foreign languages, has not violated its specificity. On the contrary, he enriched himself with the best linguistic elements that he could absorb throughout history.
We also came to the conclusion that the main means of translating borrowings are transcription, transliteration, transcription, tracing, and synonymous replacement.
Borrowing as an element of language also has its own specifics: such elements exist at different levels of the language, but not in equal quantities. The greatest number of them is at the level of words, the smallest - at the level of stable phrases. Despite the long and deep process of assimilation that a borrowing undergoes in the receiving language, it is not too difficult to establish the foreignness of an element if one knows the criteria for its determination for a particular language.
All translation methods are applicable to transfer borrowed elements in one language to another language. Their use is determined by the translator’s opinion regarding the appropriateness of a particular method and translation option in a particular situation, since several options are often possible. The criteria for appropriateness are: the purpose of the text, and depending on it - the accuracy of the information conveyed or its expressiveness; the level of expected training of the reader in this area; text style.
Upon completion of writing our thesis, we concluded that borrowed lexemes require a lot of attention during translation in order to avoid unpredictable errors. Therefore, a thorough analysis of the grammatical and contextual factors of each individual sentence should be the primary task of the translator who deals with the translation of borrowed vocabulary.
We see the prospect of further research on this topic in the possibility of using its results in the analysis of borrowed vocabulary and methods of its translation in a certain sphere of functioning - economic, social, political.
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