History of Spain 15th century. About Spain. History of ancient Spain
Spain is known to everyone as a state that occupies almost the entire territory of the Iberian Peninsula. In its modern form, it appeared at the end of the 15th century after the unification of two kingdoms - Castile and Aragon.
Period of Sacred Conquests
In the 8th century, several small scattered kingdoms were located on the Iberian Peninsula: Leon, Navarre, Calonia, Asturias, Castile, Aragon, Marche, etc. These kingdoms were conquered by the Arabs (Moors) during Jihad - a holy war in the name of the Prophet against the infidels. Immediately after the conquest, a period began of Christians reconquering lands from the Moorish emirates and displacing the Arabs from the occupied territories (Reconquista). During the wars, a process of gradual unification of Spain was launched, which lasted for several centuries. This was a period not only of numerous military campaigns, but also of the complex formation of the new Spanish state.
Moorish culture penetrated most strongly into the warm Mediterranean southeast, which became the real cradle of the rich Muslim civilization in the Pyrenees. In this regard, the Reconquista was not successful in this direction for a long time. But the king of Aragon, Alfonso I, with the support of French feudal lords, took the city of Zaragoza in 1118, which he later turned into his residence. To fight the infidels, he concluded a temporary alliance with Castile and, as a result of long wars, he annexed the cities of Cuenca and Teruel, Tarragona and Calatayud to his possessions. The king was joined by 40,000 Christian Mozarab families, whose ancestors had taken refuge in the Alpujarras mountain range for 300 years. This group was settled in Zaragoza. Near Valencia, Alfonso I managed to win a decisive victory over the Moors in 1126.
At the beginning of the 11th century, Christian representatives were required to cooperate more closely in the fight against the enemy, and in 1137, as a result of the unification of the two regions, the Aragon-Catalan Kingdom was formed. Later, in 1230, Leon and Castile became a single kingdom. A schematic map of medieval Spain by that time looked like this:
Throughout the 14th and most of the 15th centuries, Spain remained divided into the Leon-Castilian and Aragon-Catalan kingdoms, each of which in turn split into many feudal lordships. The reign of the Castilian kings Juan II and Henry IV was filled with endless feudal unrest, protests by large feudal lords, who significantly increased their possessions during the reconquista, against royal power. The rebel feudal lords plundered the royal domain, destroyed villages that depended on the cities, and tried to damage the cities themselves, which, as a rule, sided with the royal power.
However, in 1469, a significant event followed that historically cemented Castile and Aragon - the marriage of Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon.
The royal couple took over the administration of both states, which continued to maintain their previous internal structure. The leading role in this union belonged to Castile, on whose territory 3/4 of the population of the united kingdom lived.
Results of the unification of the Pyrenean kingdoms
The unification of the two royal dynasties influenced many processes in medieval Spain. As a result of military operations, new lands were consistently liberated, and the Arabs were pushed to the south. Their last stronghold was the Granada Emirates. In the 15th century, it was a state with a strong power structure, a strong economy and a highly developed culture. But it no longer posed a threat.
A more serious threat to Spain was internal problems: unrest, rivalry and the struggle for power among the feudal nobility. All this led to the devastation of the royal treasury, the devastation of villages and cities, and numerous peasant uprisings. In 1462, the Peasants' War broke out in Catalonia, which lasted more than 10 years.
Isabella and Ferdinand led a decisive struggle for the centralization of power and the unification of Spain into a single state. They managed to break the resistance of the feudal lords, but then came the restriction of the independence of the cities and the consolidation of the power of royal officials over them.
The main results of the unification of Spain include the following events:
- a new apparatus for governing the country was created;
- the punitive powers of Catholicism were strengthened (an inquisitorial tribunal was established, which served as a powerful political lever in the country);
- persecution of Muslims and Jews began;
- new taxes were established to fill the treasury, and the church was allowed to manage the money of believers;
- an army of knights, supported by the royal treasury, provided internal and external security.
The unification of Spain was bearing fruit. By the end of the 15th century, the country had a powerful state system and strong troops, which allowed Ferdinand and Isabella to resume hostilities against the Granada Emirates in 1481. Ten years later, exhausted by resistance to the Spaniards and internal conflicts, the emirates disintegrated.
On January 1, 1492, the last ruler of Granada, the Moorish king Boabdil, presented the keys to the city to the winner. This event marked the end of the page in the centuries-old history of the Reconquista and served as the beginning of the Golden Age of Spain.
SPAIN. STORY
The name "Spain" is of Phoenician origin. The Romans used it in the plural (Hispaniae) to refer to the entire Iberian Peninsula. In Roman times, Spain consisted first of two and then of five provinces. After the collapse of the Roman Empire, they were united under the rule of the Visigoths, and after the invasion of the Moors in 711 AD. There were Christian and Muslim states on the Iberian Peninsula. Spain as a politically integral entity arose after the unification of Castile and Aragon in 1474.
Primitive society. The oldest traces of human habitation were found at the Lower Paleolithic site in Torralba (Soria Province). They are represented by handaxes of the early Acheulean type along with the skulls of the southern elephant, the bones of the Merk rhinoceros, the Etruscan rhinoceros, Stenon's horse and other heat-loving species of animals. Nearby, in the valley of the Manzanares River near Madrid, more advanced Middle Paleolithic (Mousterian) tools were found. Primitive people then probably migrated through Europe and reached the Iberian Peninsula. Here, in the middle of the last glaciation, the Late Paleolithic Solutre culture developed. At the end of the last glaciation, the Magdalenian culture existed in central and southern France and northern Spain. People hunted reindeer and other cold-tolerant animals. They made cutters, piercings and scrapers from flint and sewed clothes from skins. Madeleine hunters left images of game animals on the walls of the caves: bison, mammoths, rhinoceroses, horses, bears. The designs were made with a sharp stone and painted with mineral paints. Particularly famous are the paintings on the walls of the Altamira cave near Santander. The main finds of tools of the Magdalenian culture are confined to the northern regions of the Iberian Peninsula, and only a few finds were made in the south. The heyday of the Magdalenian culture, apparently, must be dated from 15 thousand to 12 thousand years ago. Caves in eastern Spain contain original depictions of people hunting, reminiscent of cave paintings in the central Sahara. The age of these monuments is difficult to determine. It is possible that they were created over a long period. As the Mesolithic climate improved, cold-tolerant animals became extinct and the types of stone tools changed. The Azilian culture, which replaced the Magdalenian, was characterized by microlithic stone tools and painted or engraved pebbles with designs in the form of stripes, crosses, zigzags, lattices, stars, and sometimes resembling stylized figurines of people or animals. On the northern coast of Spain, in Asturias, groups of gatherers appeared somewhat later, feeding mainly on shellfish. This determined the nature of their tools, which were intended for separating shells from the walls of coastal cliffs. This culture was called Asturian. The development of basket weaving, agriculture, cattle breeding, the construction of dwellings and other forms of social organization, and the consolidation of traditions in the form of laws are associated with the Neolithic era. In Spain, Neolithic axes and pottery first appeared on the southeast coast near kitchen middens dating back to around 2500 BC. Perhaps the oldest settlements of Almeria with defensive stone ramparts and ditches filled with water date back to this time. Important occupations of the population were agriculture, hunting and fishing. In the 3rd millennium BC. There were already numerous fortified urban settlements surrounded by fields where crops were grown. Large rectangular or trapezoidal stone chambers were used as tombs. In the 2nd millennium BC. Thanks to the discovery of bronze, metal tools appeared. At this time, the fertile valley of the Guadalquivir River was settled, and the center of culture moved westward, becoming the basis of the Tartessian civilization, perhaps comparable to the rich region of "Tarshish" mentioned in the Bible, which was known to the Phoenicians. This culture also spread north to the Ebro River valley, where it laid the foundation for the Greco-Iberian civilization. Since then, this territory has been densely populated by tribal communities that were engaged in agriculture, mining, making pottery and various metal tools. At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. waves of invasions of Indo-European peoples, mainly Celts, swept through the Pyrenees. The first migration did not go beyond Catalonia, but subsequent ones reached Castile. Most of the new arrivals preferred to wage war and herd livestock rather than engage in farming. The migrants completely mixed with the local population in the area between the upper reaches of the Duero and Tagus rivers, where archaeologists have discovered traces of more than 50 settlements. This entire area was named Celtiberia. In the event of an enemy attack, the Union of Celtiberian Tribes could field up to 20 thousand warriors. He put up strong resistance to the Romans in the defense of their capital, Numantia, but the Romans still managed to win.
Carthaginians. At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. Skilled sailors, the Phoenicians reached the southern coast of the Iberian Peninsula and founded the trading center of Gadir (Cadiz) there, and the Greeks settled on the east coast. After 680 BC Carthage became the main center of Phoenician civilization, and the Carthaginians established a trade monopoly in the Strait of Gibraltar. Iberian cities were founded on the east coast, reminiscent of the Greek city-states. The Carthaginians traded with the Tartessian Federation in the Guadalquivir River valley, but made virtually no attempts to conquer it until they were defeated by Rome in the 1st Punic War (264-241 BC). Then the Carthaginian military leader Hamilcar created the Punic Empire and moved the capital to Cartagena (New Carthage). His son Hannibal in 220 BC. attacked Saguntum, a city under the protection of Rome, and in the ensuing war the Carthaginians invaded Italy, but in 209 the Romans captured Cartagena, passed through the territory of all Andalusia and in 206 forced the surrender of Gadir.
Roman period. During the war, the Romans established complete control over the eastern coast of the Iberian Peninsula (the so-called Near Spain), where they forged an alliance with the Greeks, giving them power over Carthaginian Andalusia and the lesser-known interior regions of the peninsula (the so-called Further Spain). Having invaded the Ebro River valley, the Romans in 182 BC. defeated the Celtiberian tribes. In 139 BC The Lusitanians and Celts, who predominated in the population of the Tagus River valley, were conquered, Roman troops entered the territory of Portugal and placed their garrisons in Galicia. The lands of the Cantabri and other tribes of the northern coast were conquered between 29 and 19 BC.
By the 1st century. AD Andalusia experienced strong Roman influence and local languages were forgotten. The Romans built a network of roads in the interior of the Iberian Peninsula, and local tribes that resisted were resettled in remote areas. The southern part of Spain turned out to be the most Romanized of all the provinces. She gave the first provincial consul, the emperors Trajan, Hadrian and Theodosius the Great, the writers Martial, Quintilian, Seneca and the poet Lucan. In such large centers of Roman Spain as Tarraco (Tarragona), Italica (near Seville) and Emerita (Merida), monuments, arenas, theaters and hippodromes were built. Bridges and aqueducts were built, and trade in metals, olive oil, wines, wheat and other goods was active through seaports (especially in Andalusia). Christianity entered Spain through Andalusia in the 2nd century. AD, and by the 3rd century. Christian communities already existed in the main cities. Information has reached us about the severe persecution of early Christians, and the documents of the council held in Iliberis near Granada ca. 306, indicate that the Christian church had a good organizational structure even before the baptism of the Roman Emperor Constantine in 312.
MIDDLE AGES
In Spanish historiography, a unique idea of the Spanish Middle Ages has developed. Since the time of the Italian humanists of the Renaissance, a tradition has been established to consider the barbarian invasions and the fall of Rome in 410 AD. the starting point of the transition from the ancient era to the Middle Ages, and the Middle Ages itself were seen as a gradual approach to the Renaissance (15-16 centuries), when interest in the culture of the ancient world reawakened. When studying the history of Spain, particular importance was attached not only to the crusades against Muslims (Reconquista), which lasted several centuries, but also to the very fact of the long coexistence of Christianity, Islam and Judaism on the Iberian Peninsula. Thus, the Middle Ages in this region begin with the Muslim invasion in 711 and end with the Christian capture of the last stronghold of Islam, the Emirate of Granada, the expulsion of the Jews from Spain and the discovery of the New World by Columbus in 1492 (when all these events took place).
Visigothic period. After the Visigoths invaded Italy in 410, the Romans used them to restore order in Spain. In 468, their king Eurich settled his followers in northern Spain. In 475 he even promulgated the earliest written code of laws (the Eurich Code) in the states formed by the Germanic tribes. In 477, the Roman Emperor Zeno officially recognized the transition of all of Spain to the rule of Eurich. The Visigoths adopted Arianism, which was condemned as a heresy at the Council of Nicaea in 325, and created a caste of aristocrats. Their cruel treatment of the local population, mainly Catholics in the south of the Iberian Peninsula, caused the intervention of the Byzantine troops of the Eastern Roman Empire, which remained in the southeastern regions of Spain until the 7th century. King Atanagild (r. 554-567) made Toledo his capital and recaptured Seville from the Byzantines. His successor, Leovigild (568-586), occupied Cordoba in 572, reformed the laws in favor of the Catholics of the south and tried to replace the elective Visigothic monarchy with a hereditary one. King Rekared (586-601) announced his renunciation of Arianism and conversion to Catholicism and convened a council at which he persuaded the Arian bishops to follow his example and recognize Catholicism as the state religion. After his death, an Arian reaction set in, but with the accession of Sisebutus (612-621) to the throne, Catholicism regained the status of the state religion. Svintila (621-631), the first Visigothic king to rule all of Spain, was enthroned by Bishop Isidore of Seville. Under him, the city of Toledo became the seat of the Catholic Church. Reccesvintus (653-672) promulgated the famous code of laws "Liber Judiciorum" around 654. This outstanding document of the Visigothic period abolished the existing legal differences between the Visigoths and local peoples. After the death of Rekkesvint, the struggle between claimants to the throne intensified under the conditions of an elective monarchy. At the same time, the power of the king noticeably weakened, and continuous palace conspiracies and rebellions did not stop until the collapse of the Visigothic state in 711.
Arab domination and the beginning of the Reconquista. Arab victory in the battle on the river. Guadalete in Southern Spain on July 19, 711 and the death of the last Visigoth king Roderic two years later at the Battle of Segoyuela sealed the fate of the Visigothic kingdom. The Arabs began to call the lands they captured Al-Andaluz. Until 756 they were governed by a governor who was formally subordinate to the Damascus caliph. In the same year, Abdarrahman I founded an independent emirate, and in 929 Abdarrahman III assumed the title of caliph. This caliphate, centered in Cordoba, lasted until the beginning of the 11th century. After 1031, the Cordoba Caliphate broke up into many small states (emirates). To a certain extent, the unity of the caliphate has always been illusory. The vast distances and difficulties of communication were aggravated by racial and tribal conflicts. Extremely hostile relations developed between the politically dominant Arab minority and the Berbers who made up the majority of the Muslim population. This antagonism was further exacerbated by the fact that the best lands went to the Arabs. The situation was aggravated by the presence of layers of Muladi and Mozarabs - the local population who, to one degree or another, experienced Muslim influence. Muslims were actually unable to establish dominance in the far north of the Iberian Peninsula. In 718, a detachment of Christian warriors under the command of the legendary Visigothic leader Pelayo defeated the Muslim army in the mountain valley of Covadonga. Gradually moving towards the river. Duero, Christians occupied free lands that were not claimed by Muslims. At that time, the border region of Castile (territorium castelle - translated as “land of castles”) was formed; It is appropriate to note that back at the end of the 8th century. Muslim chroniclers called it Al-Qila (zmki). In the early stages of the Reconquista, two types of Christian political entities arose, differing in geographical location. The core of the Western type was the kingdom of Asturias, which, after the transfer of the court to Leon in the 10th century. became known as the Kingdom of Leon. The County of Castile became an independent kingdom in 1035. Two years later, Castile united with the Kingdom of León and thus acquired a leading political role, and with it priority rights to the lands conquered from the Muslims. In the more eastern regions there were Christian states - the kingdom of Navarre, the County of Aragon, which became a kingdom in 1035, and various counties associated with the kingdom of the Franks. Initially, some of these counties were the embodiment of the Catalan ethno-linguistic community, the central place among them was occupied by the County of Barcelona. Then the County of Catalonia arose, which had access to the Mediterranean Sea and conducted a lively maritime trade, in particular in slaves. In 1137 Catalonia joined the Kingdom of Aragon. This is a state in the 13th century. significantly expanded its territory to the south (to Murcia), also annexing the Balearic Islands. In 1085 Alfonso VI, king of Leon and Castile, captured Toledo, and the border with the Muslim world moved from the Duero River to the Tagus River. In 1094, the Castilian national hero Rodrigo Diaz de Bivar, known as the Cid, entered Valencia. However, these major achievements were not so much the result of the zeal of the crusaders, but rather a consequence of the weakness and disunity of the rulers of the taifa (emirates in the territory of the Cordoba Caliphate). During the Reconquista, it happened that Christians united with Muslim rulers or, having received a large bribe (parias) from the latter, were hired to protect them from the crusaders. In this sense, the fate of Sid is indicative. He was born approx. 1040 in Bivar (near Burgos). In 1079, King Alfonso VI sent him to Seville to collect tribute from the Muslim ruler. However, soon after this he did not get along with Alphonse and was expelled. In eastern Spain, he embarked on the path of an adventurer, and it was then that he received the name Sid (derived from the Arabic "seid", i.e. "lord"). The Sid served such Muslim rulers as the emir of Zaragoza al-Moqtadir, and the rulers of Christian states. From 1094 Cid began to rule Valencia. He died in 1099. The Castilian epic Song of My Cid, written c. 1140, goes back to earlier oral traditions and reliably conveys many historical events. The song is not a chronicle of the Crusades. Although the Cid fights the Muslims, in this epic it is not they who are portrayed as the villains, but the Christian princes of Carrion, the courtiers of Alfonso VI, while the Cid's Muslim friend and ally, Abengalvon, surpasses them in nobility.
Completion of the Reconquista. Muslim emirs were faced with a choice: either constantly pay tribute to Christians, or turn to co-religionists in North Africa for help. Eventually, the Emir of Seville, al-Mu'tamid, turned to the Almoravids for help, who had created a powerful state in North Africa. Alfonso VI managed to hold Toledo, but his army was defeated at Salac (1086); and in 1102, three years after the death of the Cid, Valencia also fell.
The Almoravids removed the Taif rulers from power and at first were able to unite Al-Andaluz. But their power weakened in the 1140s, and by the end of the 12th century. they were supplanted by the Almohads - the Moors from the Moroccan Atlas. After the Almohads suffered a heavy defeat from the Christians at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212), their power was shaken. By this time, the mentality of the crusaders had formed, as evidenced by the life of Alfonso I the Warrior, who ruled Aragon and Navarre from 1102 to 1134. During his reign, when memories of the first crusade were still fresh, most of the river valley was recaptured from the Moors. Ebro, and the French crusaders invaded Spain and took such important cities as Zaragoza (1118), Tarazona (1110) and Calatayud (1120). Although Alphonse was never able to fulfill his dream of going to Jerusalem, he lived to see the spiritual-knightly order of the Templars established in Aragon, and soon the orders of Alcantara, Calatrava and Santiago began their activities in other areas of Spain. These powerful orders provided great assistance in the fight against the Almohads, holding strategically important points and establishing economy in a number of border areas. Throughout the 13th century. Christians achieved significant success and undermined the political power of Muslims in almost the entire Iberian Peninsula. King Jaime I of Aragon (reigned 1213-1276) conquered the Balearic Islands, and in 1238 Valencia. In 1236, King Ferdinand III of Castile and Leon took Cordoba, Murcia surrendered to the Castilians in 1243, and in 1247 Ferdinand captured Seville. Only the Muslim Emirate of Granada, which existed until 1492, retained its independence. The Reconquista owed its successes not only to the military actions of Christians. A major role was also played by the willingness of Christians to negotiate with Muslims and grant them the right to live in Christian states, preserving their faith, language and customs. For example, in Valencia, the northern territories were almost completely cleared of Muslims; the central and southern regions, except for the city of Valencia itself, were inhabited mainly by Mudejars (Muslims who were allowed to remain). But in Andalusia, after a major Muslim uprising in 1264, the policy of the Castilians completely changed, and almost all Muslims were evicted.
Late Middle Ages. In the 14th-15th centuries. Spain was torn apart by internal conflicts and civil wars. From 1350 to 1389 there was a long struggle for power in the kingdom of Castile. It began with the confrontation between Pedro the Cruel (ruled from 1350 to 1369) and the alliance of nobles led by his illegitimate half-brother Enrique of Trastamara. Both sides sought foreign support, particularly from France and England, who were embroiled in the Hundred Years' War. In 1365, Enrique of Trastamara, expelled from the country, with the support of French and English mercenaries, captured Castile and the following year proclaimed himself King Enrique II. Pedro fled to Bayonne (France) and, having received help from the British, regained the country, defeating Enrique's troops at the Battle of Najera (1367). After this, the French king Charles V helped Enrique regain the throne. Pedro's troops were defeated on the plains of Montel in 1369, and he himself died in single combat with his half-brother. But the threat to the existence of the Trastamara dynasty did not disappear. In 1371, John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, married Pedro's eldest daughter and began to lay claim to the Castilian throne. Portugal was involved in the dispute. The heir to the throne married Juan I of Castile (reigned 1379-1390). Juan's subsequent invasion of Portugal ended in a humiliating defeat at the Battle of Aljubarrota (1385). Lancaster's campaign against Castile in 1386 was unsuccessful. Subsequently, the Castilians bought off his claims to the throne, and both sides agreed to a marriage between Catharine of Lancaster, daughter of Gaunt, and the son of Juan I, the future Castilian king Enrique III (reigned 1390-1406).
After the death of Enrique III, the throne was inherited by his minor son Juan II, but in 1406-1412 the state was actually ruled by Ferdinand, the younger brother of Enrique III, who was appointed co-regent. In addition, Ferdinand managed to defend his rights to the throne in Aragon after the death of the childless Martin I there in 1395; he ruled there from 1412-1416, constantly interfering in the affairs of Castile and pursuing the interests of his family. His son Alfonso V of Aragon (r. 1416-1458), who also inherited the Sicilian throne, was primarily interested in affairs in Italy. The second son, Juan II, was absorbed in affairs in Castile, although in 1425 he became king of Navarre, and after the death of his brother in 1458 he inherited the throne in Sicily and Aragon. The third son, Enrique, became Master of the Order of Santiago. In Castile, these “princes from Aragon” were opposed by Alvaro de Luna, an influential favorite of Juan II. The Aragonese party was defeated at the decisive Battle of Olmedo in 1445, but Luna himself fell out of favor and was executed in 1453. The reign of the next Castilian king, Enrique IV (1454-1474), led to anarchy. Enrique, who had no children from his first marriage, divorced and entered into a second marriage. For six years, the queen remained barren, for which rumor blamed her husband, who received the nickname “Powerless.” When the queen gave birth to a daughter named Juana, rumors spread among the common people and among the nobility that her father was not Enrique, but his favorite Beltran de la Cueva. Therefore, Juana received the contemptuous nickname “Beltraneja” (Beltran’s offspring). Under pressure from the opposition-minded nobility, the king signed a declaration in which he recognized his brother Alphonse as heir to the throne, but declared this declaration invalid. Then representatives of the nobility gathered in Avila (1465), deposed Enrique and proclaimed Alfonso king. Many cities sided with Enrique, and a civil war began, which continued after Alphonse’s sudden death in 1468. As a condition for ending the rebellion, the nobility demanded that Enrique appoint his half-sister Isabella as heir to the throne. Enrique agreed to this. In 1469, Isabella married the Infante Fernando of Aragon (who will go down in history under the name of the Spanish King Ferdinand). After the death of Enrique IV in 1474, Isabella was declared Queen of Castile, and Ferdinand, after the death of his father Juan II in 1479, took the throne of Aragon. This is how the unification of the largest kingdoms of Spain took place. In 1492, the last stronghold of the Moors on the Iberian Peninsula, the Emirate of Granada, fell. That same year, Columbus, with the support of Isabella, made his first expedition to the New World. In 1512, the Kingdom of Navarre was included in Castile. Aragon's Mediterranean acquisitions had important consequences for all of Spain. First, the Balearic Islands, Corsica and Sardinia came under the control of Aragon, then Sicily. During the reign of Alfonso V (1416-1458), Southern Italy was conquered. To administer newly acquired lands, kings appointed governors or procuradores. Back at the end of the 14th century. such governors (or viceroys) appeared in Sardinia, Sicily and Majorca. A similar management structure was reproduced in Aragon, Catalonia and Valencia due to the fact that Alfonso V was away for a long time in Italy. The power of monarchs and royal officials was limited by the Cortes (parliaments). Unlike Castile, where the Cortes were relatively weak, in Aragon it was necessary to obtain the consent of the Cortes to make decisions on all important bills and financial issues. Between meetings of the Cortes, royal officials were supervised by standing committees. To supervise the activities of the Cortes at the end of the 13th century. city delegations were created. In 1359, a General Deputation was formed in Catalonia, whose main powers were limited to collecting taxes and spending money. Similar institutions were created in Aragon (1412) and Valencia (1419). The Cortes, being by no means democratic bodies, represented and defended the interests of the wealthy sections of the population in cities and rural areas. If in Castile the Cortes were an obedient instrument of the absolute monarchy, especially during the reign of Juan II, then in the kingdom of Aragon and Catalonia, which was part of it, a different concept of power was implemented. She proceeded from the fact that political power is initially established by free people through the conclusion of an agreement between those in power and the people, which stipulates the rights and obligations of both parties. Accordingly, any violation of the agreement by the royal authority is considered a manifestation of tyranny. Such an agreement between the monarchy and the peasantry existed during the so-called uprisings. remens (serfs) in the 15th century. The protests in Catalonia were directed against the tightening of duties and the enslavement of peasants, especially intensified in the mid-15th century. and became the reason for the civil war of 1462-1472 between the Catalan General Deputation, which supported the landowners, and the monarchy, which stood up for the peasants. In 1455, Alfonso V abolished some feudal duties, but only after the next upsurge of the peasant movement, Ferdinand V signed the so-called in the monastery of Guadalupe (Extremadura) in 1486. "Guadalupe Maxim" on the abolition of serfdom, including the most severe feudal duties.
The situation of the Jews. In the 12th-13th centuries. Christians were tolerant of Jewish and Islamic culture. But by the end of the 13th century. and throughout the 14th century. their peaceful coexistence was disrupted. The growing tide of anti-Semitism reached its peak during the massacre of Jews in 1391. Although in the 13th century. Jews made up less than 2% of the population of Spain; they played an important role in the material and spiritual life of society. Nevertheless, Jews lived separately from the Christian population, in their own communities with synagogues and kosher shops. Segregation was facilitated by Christian authorities who ordered the allocation of special quarters - alhama - to Jews in cities. For example, in the city of Jerez de la Frontera, the Jewish quarter was separated by a wall with a gate. Jewish communities were given considerable independence in managing their own affairs. Among the Jews, as well as among the Christian townspeople, wealthy families gradually emerged and acquired great influence. Despite political, social and economic restrictions, Jewish scholars made great contributions to the development of Spanish society and culture. Thanks to their excellent knowledge of foreign languages, they carried out diplomatic missions for both Christians and Muslims. Jews played a key role in spreading the achievements of Greek and Arab scientists to Spain and other Western European countries. Nevertheless, at the end of the 14th - beginning of the 15th centuries. Jews were subjected to severe persecution. Many were forcibly converted to Christianity, becoming conversos. However, conversos often remained living in urban Jewish communities and continued to engage in traditional Jewish activities. The situation was complicated by the fact that many conversos, having become rich, penetrated the oligarchy of cities such as Burgos, Toledo, Seville and Cordoba, and also occupied important positions in the royal administration. In 1478, the Spanish Inquisition was established, headed by Tomás de Torquemada. First of all, she drew attention to Jews and Muslims who accepted the Christian faith. They were tortured to “confess” to heresy, after which they were usually executed by burning. In 1492, all unbaptized Jews were expelled from Spain: almost 200 thousand people emigrated to North Africa, Turkey, and the Balkans. Most Muslims converted to Christianity under threat of expulsion.
NEW AND CONTEMPORARY HISTORY
Thanks to Columbus's voyage in 1492 and the discovery of the New World, the foundation of the Spanish colonial empire was laid. Since Portugal also laid claim to overseas possessions, the Treaty of Tordesillas was concluded in 1494 on the division between Spain and Portugal. In subsequent years, the scope of the Spanish Empire was significantly expanded. France returned the border provinces of Catalonia to Ferdinand, and Aragon firmly held its position in Sardinia, Sicily and southern Italy.
In 1496, Isabella arranged the marriage of her son and daughter with the children of the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian of Habsburg. After the death of Isabella's son, the right to inherit the throne passed to her daughter Juana, the wife of the emperor's heir, Philip. When Juana showed signs of insanity, Isabella wanted to make Ferdinand regent of Castile, but after Isabella’s death in 1504, Juana and Philip reigned on the throne, and Ferdinand was forced to retire to Aragon. After Philip's death in 1506, Ferdinand became regent for Juana, whose illness had progressed. Under him, Navarre was annexed to Castile. Ferdinand died in 1516 and was succeeded by his grandson Charles, son of Juana and Philip.
Spain is a world power. The Spanish King Charles I (reigned 1516-1556) became Holy Roman Emperor under the name Charles V in 1519, succeeding his grandfather, Maximilian I. His rule included Spain, Naples and Sicily, the Habsburg lands of Belgium and the Netherlands, Austria and the Spanish colonies in the New World. Spain became a world power, and Charles became the most powerful monarch in Europe. During his reign, Spain was involved in problems that had very little to do with its national interests, but most directly with the establishment of Habsburg power. As a result, Spain's wealth and army were thrown into the fight against the Lutherans in Germany, the Turks in the Mediterranean, and the French in Italy and the Rhineland. Charles failed to contain the invasion of the Turks and prevent the establishment of Lutheranism in Germany. He was more fortunate in carrying out church reforms, which were adopted by the Council of Trent 1545-1563. Charles's wars with France began with victories, but ended in defeat. Having overcome the difficulties of the first years of his reign, Charles gained authority as a monarch. After Charles abdicated power in 1556, the Austrian possessions passed to his brother Ferdinand, but most of the empire went to his son Philip II (reigned 1556-1598). Philip was raised in Spain and, despite his German origin, was considered a true Spaniard. Not as brave as his father, he was cautious and persistent, and, moreover, convinced that God had entrusted him with the mission of promoting the final triumph of Catholicism. However, over the long years of his reign, he was haunted by a series of failures. Politics in Belgium and the Netherlands led to the revolution (1566) and the formation of the Republic of the United Provinces in 1579-1581. Attempts to draw England into the Habsburg sphere of influence were also unsuccessful. Finally, in 1588, outraged by the predatory attacks of English sailors on Spanish traders and Queen Elizabeth's help to the Dutch, he equipped the famous "Invincible Armada" to land troops on the northern coast of the English Channel. This enterprise ended in the death of almost the entire Spanish fleet. Intervention in the religious wars in France probably prevented a Huguenot from becoming king of France, but when Henry IV converted to Catholicism, Philip was forced to withdraw his troops. The major achievements of his policy included the acquisition of Portugal by inheritance in 1581 and the brilliant naval victory over the Turks at the Battle of Lepanto (1571), which undermined the naval power of the Ottomans.
In Spain, Philip maintained the previous administrative system, further strengthening and centralizing royal power. However, his decrees were often not implemented, getting bogged down in bureaucratic routine. Under him, the feared Spanish Inquisition was stronger than ever. Cortes were convened less and less often, and in the last decade of Philip's reign the Aragonese were forced to give up their freedoms under pressure from royal power. In 1568, Philip persecuted the Moriscos (forcibly baptized Muslims) and thus provoked their rebellion. It took three years to suppress the rebellion. The Moriscos, who were engaged in commodity production and trade and held in their hands a significant part of the industry and trade in southern Spain, were evicted to the inland barren regions of the country. Decline of Spanish power. Although Spain was still considered a world power after the death of Philip II, it was in a state of crisis. International ambitions and obligations to the House of Habsburg greatly strained the country's resources. The kingdom's income, increased by income from the colonies, was enormous by the standards of the 16th century, but Charles V left huge debts, and Philip II had to declare the country bankrupt twice - in 1557 and then in 1575. At the end of his reign, the tax system began to influence a devastating impact on the life of the country, and the government was already struggling to make ends meet. Negative trade balances and short-sighted fiscal policies have hit trade and entrepreneurship. Due to the huge influx of precious metals from the New World, prices in Spain significantly exceeded European prices, so it became profitable to sell here, but unprofitable to buy goods. The complete ruin of the domestic economy was also facilitated by one of the main sources of state income - a ten percent tax on trade turnover. Philip III (reigned 1598-1621) and Philip IV (1621-1665) were unable to turn the situation around for the better. The first of them concluded a peace treaty with England in 1604, and then in 1609 signed a 12-year truce with the Dutch, but continued to spend huge sums of money on his favorites and entertainment. By expelling the Moriscos from Spain between 1609 and 1614, he deprived the country of more than a quarter of a million hardworking inhabitants. In 1618, a conflict broke out between Emperor Ferdinand II and Czech Protestants. This began the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648), in which Spain took the side of the Austrian Habsburgs, hoping to regain at least part of the Netherlands. Philip III died in 1621, but his son Philip IV continued his political course. At first, Spanish troops achieved some successes under the command of the famous general Ambrogio di Spinola, but after 1630 they suffered one defeat after another. In 1640, Portugal and Catalonia rebelled simultaneously; the latter drew off Spanish forces, which helped Portugal regain independence. Peace was achieved in the Thirty Years' War in 1648, although Spain continued to fight France until the Peace of the Pyrenees in 1659. The sickly and nervous Charles II (r. 1665-1700) became the last Habsburg ruler of Spain. He left no heirs, and after his death the crown passed to the French Prince Philippe of Bourbon, Duke of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV and great-grandson of Philip III. His establishment on the Spanish throne was preceded by the pan-European War of the Spanish Succession (1700-1714), in which France and Spain fought with England and the Netherlands. Holy Roman Emperor Philip V (r. 1700-1746) retained the throne but lost the southern Netherlands, Gibraltar, Milan, Naples, Sardinia, Sicily and Minorca. He pursued a less aggressive foreign policy and made efforts to improve the economic situation. Ferdinand VI (1746-1759) and Charles III (1759-1788), the most capable kings of the 18th century, managed to stop the collapse of the empire. Spain, together with France, fought wars against Great Britain (1739-1748, 1762-1763, 1779-1783). In gratitude for their support, France in 1763 transferred the vast territory of Louisiana in North America to Spain. Subsequently, in 1800, this territory was returned to France, and in 1803 it was sold by Napoleon to the USA.
External and internal conflicts. Under the weak-minded Charles IV (1788-1808), Spain was unable to solve the complex problems that arose in connection with the French Revolution. Although Spain in 1793 joined other European powers at war with France, two years later it was forced to make peace and has since found itself in the French sphere of influence. Napoleon used Spain as a springboard in the fight against England and in implementing plans to capture Portugal. However, seeing that the Spanish king was reluctant to obey his orders, Napoleon forced him to abdicate in 1808 and transferred the crown of Spain to his brother Joseph. Joseph's reign was short-lived. Napoleon's occupation of Spain and his attempt to impose a monarch on it sparked a rebellion. As a result of the joint actions of the Spanish army, partisan detachments and British troops under the command of Arthur Wellesley, who later became the Duke of Wellington, the French army was defeated and withdrawn from the Iberian Peninsula in 1813. After Napoleon's deposition, Charles's son, Ferdinand VII (1814-1833), was recognized as king of Spain. It seemed to the Spaniards that a new era was beginning in the life of the country. However, Ferdinand VII was resolutely opposed to any political change. As early as 1812, Spanish leaders opposed to King Joseph developed a liberal, although not entirely practical, constitution. Ferdinand approved of it until his return to Spain, but when he received the crown, he broke his promise and began to fight supporters of liberal reforms. An uprising broke out in 1820. In March 1820, the king was forced to recognize the constitution of 1812. The liberal reforms that began in the country greatly worried European monarchs. In April 1823, France, with the approval of the Holy Alliance, began a military intervention in Spain. By October 1823, the constitutional government, unable to organize the country's defense, capitulated, and King Ferdinand VII restored the absolute monarchy. From 1833 to 1874 the country was in a state of instability, experiencing a series of social, economic and political upheavals. After the death of King Ferdinand in 1833, the right to the throne of his daughter Isabella II was disputed by her uncle Carlos, who provoked the so-called. Carlist wars. Constitutional rule was restored in 1834, and in 1837 a new constitution was adopted, limiting the power of the monarch to the bicameral Cortes. The revolutionary events of 1854-1856 ended with the dispersal of the Cortes and the abolition of liberal laws. The next upsurge of the revolutionary movement, which began in 1868 with an uprising in the navy, forced Queen Isabella II to flee the country. The Constitution of 1869 declared Spain a hereditary monarchy, after which the crown was offered to Amadeus of Savoy, son of the Italian king Victor Emmanuel II. However, having become King Amadeus I, he soon considered his position extremely unstable and abdicated the throne in 1873. The Cortes proclaimed Spain a republic. The experience of a short republican rule in 1873-1874 convinced the military that only the restoration of the monarchy could put an end to internal strife. Based on these considerations, General Martinez Campos carried out a coup d'etat on December 29, 1874 and installed Isabella's son, King Alfonso XII (1874-1885), on the throne. The monarchist constitution of 1876 introduced a new system of limited parliamentary power, which provided guarantees of political stability and representation mainly of the middle and upper classes. Alfonso XII died in 1885. His son, born after his death, became King Alfonso XIII (1902-1931). But until he came of age (1902), the queen remained regent. In economically backward Spain, the positions of anarchism were strong. In 1879, the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party was created in the country, but for a long time it remained small and uninfluential. Discontent also increased among representatives of the middle class. Spain lost its last overseas possessions as a result of defeat in the Spanish-American War of 1898. This defeat revealed the complete military and political decline of Spain.
The end of the monarchy. In 1890, universal male suffrage was introduced. Thus, the ground was prepared for the formation of numerous new political parties, which pushed aside the Liberal and Conservative parties. When the young king Alfonso XIII, in order to achieve agreement between the parties, began to interfere in political affairs in order to be accused of personal ambitions and dictatorship. The Catholic Church still had great influence, but it also increasingly became the target of attacks from anti-clericals from the lower and middle strata of society. To limit the power of the king, the church and the traditional political oligarchy, reformers demanded amendments to the constitution. Inflation during World War I and economic decline in the postwar years exacerbated social problems. The anarcho-syndicalists, who gained a foothold in the working class environment of Catalonia, provoked a four-year strike movement in industry (1919-1923), accompanied by massive bloodshed. Back in 1912, Spain established a limited protectorate over Northern Morocco, but an attempt to conquer this territory led to the defeat of the Spanish army at Anwal (1921). In an effort to soften the political situation, General Primo de Rivera established a military dictatorship in 1923. Resistance to the dictatorship increased in the late 1920s, and in 1930 Primo de Rivera was forced to resign. Alfonso XIII did not dare to immediately return to the parliamentary form of government and was accused of compromising with the dictatorship. In the municipal elections in April 1931, the Republicans won a decisive victory in all major cities. Even moderates and conservatives refused to support the monarchy, and on April 14, 1931, Alfonso XIII, without abdicating the throne, left the country. The Second Republic was solemnly proclaimed by a Provisional Government consisting of left-wing Republicans, middle-class representatives opposed to the Catholic Church, and representatives of the emerging socialist movement, who intended to prepare the way for a peaceful transition to a “socialist republic.” Numerous social reforms were implemented and Catalonia gained autonomy. However, in the elections in 1933, the Republican-Socialist coalition was defeated due to the opposition of moderates and Catholics. The coalition of right-wing forces that came to power during 1934 negated the results of the reforms. Socialists, anarchists and communists rose up in the mining regions of Asturias, which was brutally suppressed by the army under the command of General Francisco Franco. In the elections in February 1936, the right bloc of Catholics and conservatives was opposed by the left Popular Front, which represented the entire spectrum of leftist forces, from Republicans to communists and anarcho-syndicalists. The Popular Front, having received a majority of votes of 1%, took power into its own hands and continued the reforms begun earlier.
Civil War. Concerned about the communist threat, the right began to prepare for war. General Emilio Mola and other military leaders, including Franco, formed an anti-government plot. The fascist party, the Spanish Falange, founded in 1933, used its terrorist units to provoke mass unrest, which could serve as a pretext for the establishment of an authoritarian regime. The left's response contributed to the spiral of violence. The assassination of monarchist leader Jose Calvo Sotelo on July 13, 1936 served as a suitable occasion for the conspirators to speak out. The rebellion was successful in the provincial capitals of Leon and Old Castile, as well as in cities such as Burgos, Salamanca and Avila, but was crushed by workers in Madrid, Barcelona and the industrial centers of the North. In the major cities of the South - Cadiz, Seville and Granada - the resistance was drowned in blood. The rebels took control of approximately a third of Spain's territory: Galicia, Leon, Old Castile, Aragon, part of Extremadura and the Andalusian Triangle from Huelva to Seville and Cordoba. The rebels encountered unexpected difficulties. The troops sent by General Mola against Madrid were stopped by the workers' militia in the Sierra de Guadarrama mountains north of the capital. The rebels' strongest trump card, the African army under the command of General Franco, was blocked in Morocco by Republican military courts, the crews of which rebelled against the officers. The rebels had to turn to Hitler and Mussolini for help, who provided aviation to transport Franco's troops from Morocco to Seville. The rebellion developed into a civil war. The Republic, on the contrary, was deprived of support from democratic states. Faced with the threat of internal political confrontation under pressure from Britain, which feared provoking a world war, French Prime Minister Leon Blum abandoned his previous promises to help the Republicans, and they were forced to turn to the USSR for help. Having received reinforcements, the Nationalist rebels launched two military campaigns that dramatically improved their position. Mola sent troops into the Basque province of Gipuzkoa, cutting it off from France. Meanwhile, Franco's African army quickly advanced north towards Madrid, leaving behind bloody trails, as, for example, in Badajoz, where 2 thousand prisoners were shot. By August 10, both previously disparate rebel factions united. They significantly strengthened their positions in August-September. General José Enrique Varela established communications between rebel factions in Seville, Cordoba, Granada and Cadiz. The Republicans did not have such successes. The rebel garrison of Toledo was still under siege in the Alcazar fortress, and anarchist militia troops from Barcelona spent 18 months trying in vain to retake Zaragoza, which quickly surrendered to the rebels. On September 21, at an airfield near Salamanca, leading rebel generals met to elect a commander in chief. The choice fell on General Franco, who on the same day transferred troops from the outskirts of Madrid to the southwest to Toledo to liberate the Alcazar fortress. Although he irrevocably lost the chance to capture the capital before it could prepare for defense, he was able to consolidate his power with an impressive victory. In addition, by prolonging the war, he allowed time for political purges in the territory he captured. On September 28, Franco was confirmed as the head of the nationalist state and immediately established a regime of sole power in his zone of control. On the contrary, the Republic experienced constant difficulties due to strong divisions between the bloc of communists and moderate socialists, who sought to strengthen the defense, and the anarchists, Trotskyists and left-wing socialists, who called for social revolution.
Defense of Madrid. On October 7, the African army resumed its attack on Madrid, which was overcrowded with refugees and suffering from food shortages. Franco's delay raised the heroic spirit of the defenders of the capital and made it possible for the Republicans to receive weapons from the USSR and reinforcements in the form of volunteer international brigades. By November 6, 1936, Franco's troops approached the outskirts of Madrid. On the same day, the Republican government moved from Madrid to Valencia, leaving troops under the command of General José Miaja in the capital. He was supported by the Defense Administration, which was dominated by communists. Miaja rallied the population, while his chief of staff, Colonel Vicente Rojo, organized urban defense units. By the end of November, Franco, despite the help of first-class German units of the Condor Legion, admitted the failure of his offensive. The besieged city held out for another two and a half years. Then Franco changed tactics and made a number of attempts to encircle the capital. In the battles of Boadilla (December 1936), Jarama (February 1937) and Guadalajara (March 1937), at the cost of huge losses, the Republicans stopped his troops. But even after the defeat at Guadalajara, where several regular divisions of the Italian army were defeated, the rebels retained the initiative. In the spring and summer of 1937 they easily captured all of northern Spain. In March, Mola led 40,000 troops in an attack on the Basque Country, supported by experienced terror and bombing specialists from the Condor Legion. The most monstrous action was the destruction of Guernica on April 26, 1937. This barbaric bombardment broke Basque morale and destroyed the defenses of the Basque capital Bilbao, which capitulated on 19 June. After this, the Francoist army, reinforced by Italian soldiers, captured Santander on August 26. Asturias was occupied during September-October, which placed the industry of the North at the service of the rebels. Vicente Rojo tried to stop the massive Franco offensive with a series of counterattacks. On July 6, in Brunet, west of Madrid, 50 thousand Republican soldiers broke through the enemy front line, but the Nationalists managed to plug the gap. At the cost of incredible efforts, the Republicans delayed the final breakthrough in the north. Later, in August 1937, Rojo launched a bold plan to encircle Zaragoza. In mid-September, the Republicans launched an offensive in Belchite. As in Brunet, at first they had an advantage, and then did not have enough strength to deliver a decisive blow. In December 1937, Rojo launched a pre-emptive strike on Teruel, hoping to distract Franco's troops from another attack on Madrid. This plan worked: on January 8, in the coldest weather, the Republicans captured Teruel, but on February 21, 1938, after six weeks of heavy artillery shelling and bombing, they were forced to retreat under the threat of encirclement.
End of the war. The Francoists consolidated their victory with a new offensive. In March 1938, almost 100 thousand soldiers, 200 tanks and 1 thousand German and Italian aircraft began an offensive through Aragon and Valencia to the east towards the sea. The Republicans were exhausted, they lacked weapons and ammunition, and after the defeat in Teruel they were demoralized. By the beginning of April, the rebels reached Lleida, and then descended along the Ebro River valley, cutting off Catalonia from the rest of the republic. Soon after this they reached the Mediterranean coast. In July, Franco launched a powerful offensive against Valencia. The stubborn fighting of the Republicans slowed his progress and exhausted the Phalangists' forces. But by July 23, the Francoists were less than 40 km from the city. Valencia was under direct threat of capture. In response, Rojo launched a spectacular diversionary maneuver by launching a major offensive across the Ebro River to restore contact with Catalonia. After a desperate three-month battle, the Republicans reached Gandesa, 40 km from their original positions, but stopped when Phalangist reinforcements were transferred to the area. By mid-November, with huge losses in manpower, the Republicans were thrown back. On January 26, 1939 Barcelona capitulated. On March 4, 1939, in Madrid, the commander of the Republican Army of the Center, Colonel Segismundo Casado, rebelled against the Republican government, hoping to stop the senseless bloodshed. Franco flatly refused his proposals for a truce, and troops began to surrender along the entire front line. When nationalists entered empty Madrid on March 28, 400 thousand Republicans began to exodus from the country. The Falangist victory led to the establishment of Franco's dictatorship. More than 1 million people ended up in prisons or labor camps. In addition to the 400 thousand who died during the war, another 200 thousand people were executed between 1939 and 1943.
Spain during the Second World War. When World War II began in September 1939, Spain was weakened and devastated by the Civil War and did not dare take the side of the Berlin-Rome Axis. Therefore, Franco’s direct assistance to the allies was limited to sending 40 thousand soldiers of the Spanish Blue Division to the Eastern Front. In 1943, when it became clear that Germany was losing the war, Franco began to cool relations with Germany. At the end of the war, Spain even sold strategic raw materials to the Western allies, but this did not change their attitude towards Spain as an enemy country.
Spain under Franco. At the end of the war, Spain was diplomatically isolated and was not a member of the UN and NATO, but Franco did not lose hope for reconciliation with the West. In 1950, by decision of the UN General Assembly, UN member states were given the opportunity to restore diplomatic relations with Spain. In 1953, the United States and Spain entered into an agreement to establish several US military bases in Spain. In 1955 Spain was admitted to the UN. Economic liberalization and economic growth in the 1960s were accompanied by some political concessions. In 1966, the Organic Law was adopted, which introduced a number of liberal amendments to the constitution. The Franco regime gave rise to political passivity of the vast majority of Spaniards. The government did not even try to involve broad sections of the population in political organizations. Ordinary citizens showed no interest in government affairs; most of them were looking for favorable opportunities to improve their standard of living. Since 1950, illegal strikes began to break out in Spain, and in the 1960s they became more frequent. A number of illegal trade union committees emerged. The separatists of Catalonia and the Basque Country, who persistently sought autonomy, made strong anti-government demands. True, the Catalan separatists showed greater restraint compared to the extremist Basque nationalists from the Basque Fatherland and Freedom (ETA) organization. The Spanish Catholic Church provided significant support to the Franco regime. In 1953, Franco concluded a concordat with the Vatican that the candidates for the highest hierarchs of the church would be chosen by the secular authorities. However, starting in 1960, the church leadership began to gradually disassociate itself from the policies of the regime. In 1975, the Pope publicly condemned the execution of several Basque nationalists. In the 1960s, Spain began to establish close ties with Western European countries. Already in the early 1970s, up to 27 million tourists visited Spain annually, mainly from North America and Western Europe, while hundreds of thousands of Spaniards went to work in other European countries. However, the Benelux states opposed Spain's participation in the military and economic alliances of Western European countries. Spain's first request for admission to the EEC was rejected in 1964. While Franco remained in power, the governments of the democratic countries of Western Europe were unwilling to establish closer contacts with Spain. In the last years of his life, Franco loosened his control over government affairs. In June 1973, he ceded the post of prime minister, which he had held for 34 years, to Admiral Luis Carrero Blanco. In December, Carrero Blanco was assassinated by Basque terrorists and he was replaced by Carlos Arias Navarro, the first civilian prime minister after 1939. Franco died in November 1975. Back in 1969, Franco announced as his successor Prince Juan Carlos of the Bourbon dynasty, grandson of King Alfonso XIII, who led the state as King Juan Carlos I.
Transition period. Franco's death accelerated the process of liberalization that had begun during his lifetime. By June 1976, the Cortes allowed political rallies and legalized democratic political parties. In July, the country's Prime Minister Arias, a consistent conservative, was forced to give up his chair to Adolfo Suarez Gonzalez. The bill, which paved the way for free parliamentary elections, was adopted by the Cortes in November 1976 and approved in a national referendum. In the elections in June 1977, the Union of Democratic Center (UDC) of Suarez received a third of the votes and, thanks to the system of proportional representation, took almost half of the seats in the lower house of parliament. The Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) collected almost as many votes, but received only a third of the seats. In 1978, parliament adopted a new constitution, which was approved in a general referendum in December. Suarez resigned in January 1981. He was succeeded by another MDC leader, Leopoldo Calvo Sotelo. Taking advantage of the change in power, conservative officers decided to stage a coup, but the king, relying on loyal military leaders, stopped the attempt to seize power. In the early stages of the transition period, the country was torn by serious contradictions. Chief among them was the split between supporters of civilian democratic rule, on the one hand, and supporters of military dictatorship, on the other. The first included the king, the two main parties and most of the smaller parties, trade unions and entrepreneurs, i.e. in fact most of Spanish society. Authoritarian forms of government were advocated by a few extremist organizations of the extreme left and extreme right, as well as some senior officers of the armed forces and the civil guard. Although there were significantly more supporters of democracy, their opponents were armed and ready to use weapons. The second line of confrontation lay between supporters of political modernization and those who defended traditional foundations. Modernization was supported mainly by city dwellers who showed high political activity, while mainly the rural population was inclined towards traditionalism. There was also a split between supporters of centralized and regional government. This conflict involved the king, the armed forces, political parties and organizations that opposed the decentralization of power, on the one hand, and advocates of regional autonomy, on the other. As always, Catalonia took the most moderate position, and the Basque Country took the most radical position. National left-wing parties advocated limited self-government but were against full autonomy. In the 1990s, disagreements between the right and left and modernizers over the path to transition to constitutional government intensified. First, differences arose between the center-left Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) and the now dissolved center-right Union of Democratic Center (UDC). After 1982, similar differences emerged between the PSOE and the conservative People's Union (PU), renamed in 1989 the People's Party (PP). Fierce disputes erupted over the details of the electoral process, constitutional provisions and laws. All these conflicts indicated a dangerous polarization of society and made it difficult to achieve consensus. The process of transition to democracy was completed in the mid-1980s. By this time, the country had overcome the danger of returning to the old ways, as well as extremist separatism, which at times threatened the integrity of the state. Mass support for multi-party parliamentary democracy was clear. However, considerable differences in political views remained. Opinion polls indicated a preference for the center-left, along with a growing pull toward the political center.
Socialist rule. In 1982, another attempt at a military coup was prevented. In the face of danger from the right, voters in the 1982 elections chose the PSOE led by Felipe González Márquez. This party won a majority of seats in both houses of parliament. For the first time since the 1930s, a Socialist government came to power in Spain. The SDC suffered such a strong defeat that after the elections it announced its dissolution. The PSOE ruled Spain independently or in coalition with other parties from 1982 to 1996. The policies of the socialists increasingly diverged from the programmatic guidelines of the left wing. The government adopted a capitalist economic development policy that included favorable treatment for foreign investment, privatization of industry, a floating peseta exchange rate, and cuts in social welfare programs. For almost eight years, the Spanish economy developed successfully, but important social problems remained unresolved. The increase in unemployment by 1993 exceeded 20%. From the very beginning, trade unions opposed the policies of the PSOE, and even during the period of economic growth, when Spain had the most stable economy in Europe, there were mass strikes, sometimes accompanied by riots. They were attended by teachers, officials, miners, peasants, transport and healthcare workers, industrial workers and dockers. The one-day general strike of 1988 (the first since 1934) paralyzed the entire country: 8 million people took part in it. To end the strike, Gonzalez made a series of concessions, agreeing to increase pensions and unemployment benefits. In the 1980s, Spain began to cooperate more closely with Western countries in the economic and political sphere. In 1986, the country was admitted to the EEC, and in 1988 it extended for eight years a bilateral defense agreement that allows the United States to use military bases in Spain. In November 1992, Spain ratified the Maastricht Treaty establishing the EU. Spain's integration with Western European countries and its policy of openness to the outside world guaranteed the protection of democracy from military coups and also ensured an influx of foreign investment. Led by Gonzalez, the PSOE won parliamentary elections in 1986, 1989 and 1993, the number of votes cast for it gradually decreased, and in 1993, in order to form a government, the socialists had to enter into a coalition with other parties. In 1990, there was a wave of political revelations that undermined the authority of some parties, including the PSOE. One source of tension in Spain remained the ongoing terrorism of the Basque group ETA, which claimed responsibility for 711 murders between 1978 and 1992. A huge scandal erupted when it became known that there were illegal police units that were killing ETA members in northern Spain. and southern France in the 1980s.
Spain in the 1990s. The economic recession, which became evident in 1992, worsened in 1993, when unemployment rose sharply and production fell. The economic recovery that began in 1994 could no longer return the socialists to their former authority. Both in the June 1994 elections to the European Parliament and in the regional and local elections in May 1995, the PSOE took second place after the PP. After 1993, to create a viable coalition in the Cortes, the PSOE took advantage of the support of the Convergence and Union Party (CIS), led by Catalan Prime Minister Jordi Pujol, who used this political connection to further fight for the autonomy of Catalonia. In October 1995, the Catalans refused to support the much-criticized Socialist government and forced it to hold new elections. José Maria Ansar brought a new dynamic image to the conservative PP, which helped it win the elections in March 1996. However, to form a government, the PP was forced to turn to Pujol and his party, as well as the parties of the Basque Country and the Canary Islands. The new government granted additional powers to regional authorities; In addition, these bodies began to receive twice as much income tax (30% instead of 15%). The priority task in preparing the national economy for the introduction of a single European currency was that the Aznar government considered reducing the budget deficit through the strictest savings in government spending and the privatization of state-owned enterprises. The NP resorted to such unpopular measures as fund cuts and wage freezes, reductions in social security funds and subsidies. Therefore, at the end of 1996, it again lost ground to the PSOE. In June 1997, after 23 years as head of the PSOE, Felipe Gonzalez announced his resignation. He was replaced in this post by Joaquin Almunia, who previously headed the Socialist party faction in parliament. Meanwhile, relations between Aznar's government and the main regional parties became complicated. The government faced a new campaign of terror waged by Basque separatists from ETA against senior government and municipal officials.
Collier's Encyclopedia. - Open Society. 2000 .
Unification of Spain
Spain began to form in the 15th century with the merger of two states - Castile and Aragon, thanks to the marriage of Princess Isabella of Asturias and Prince Ferdinand of Aragon in 1469. Spain also included Leon, part of Catalonia (the northern regions went to France), Navarre, part of the lands of the Cordoba Caliphate (the western lands went to Portugal).Attempts to unite several Spanish states into one were made before. For example, the marriage of Alfonso I of Aragon and Princess Urraca of Castile united both kingdoms until 1127. And the marriage of Raymond Berengar II of Barcelona with Petronilla, heiress of Aragon, united Aragon and Catalonia. But these alliances turned out to be temporary.
Birth of Isabella of Castile
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!} In the 15th century, Castile and Leon were part of Asturias. Until 1464, Asturias was ruled by King Juan II of the Trastámara family. On August 4, 1420, he married his cousin Maria of Aragon. On January 25, 1425, their son was born, the future King Enrique IV the Powerless. In 1445, Maria of Aragon died, and on August 17, 1447, Juan II remarried the Portuguese Infanta Isabella. From the second marriage there was a daughter, Isabella (1451-1504), the future Queen Isabella I of Castile, and a son, Alfonso (1453-1468). Enrique IV the Powerless
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!} On July 20, 1454, Juan II died near Valladolid. His successor was Enrique IV. In 1440, Enrique married Infanta Blanca of Navarre. But after 13 years, Pope Nicholas V annulled the marriage, because... he was not consummated (the spouses were not in an intimate relationship). This gave rise to rumors about Enrique's impotence, which led to him being nicknamed the Impotent. In 1455 he married again. His wife, Juana of Portugal (1439-1475), is the sister of the Portuguese king Alfonso V. In 1461, having learned that his wife was pregnant, Enrique decides to transfer his closest rivals Alfonso and Isabella to his castle in order to control their actions. In 1462, Enrique IV and Juana of Portugal had a daughter, Juana. Some believed that her father was the court favorite of the king, Beltran de la Cueva, so the girl was called Juana Beltranija. The official version was fertilization using mechanical devices.
Talk about his wife's infidelity haunted Enrique, and he exiled her to Coca Castle. There, from the cardinal's nephew, Pedro de Castilla and Fonseca, she gave birth to twins - Pedro and Andres.
The pressure exerted on Enrique IV by the Cortes led to the fact that Enrique was forced to recognize his half-brother Alfonso as his heir. But in 1468 Alfonso dies.
The Becoming of Isabella
On October 19, 1469, the secret wedding of Isabella and Ferdinand took place.This worsened the relationship between Isabella and her half-brother. Enrique recognized his daughter Juana Beltranija as his heir. Since Isabella and Ferdinand were relatives, permission from the Pope was required for this marriage. The permit was forged, and the real document was received much later.
On December 11, 1474, Enrique IV died. A civil war broke out between supporters of Isabella and those of Juana Beltranija, which ended only in 1479 with the recognition of Isabella as the rightful queen of Spain.
Back in 1475, Juana was married to her maternal uncle, King Alfonso V of Portugal. It was he who supported his wife’s claims to the Castile throne. But after the defeat in 1479, Pope Sixtus IV annulled their marriage due to their close relationship. However, until her death, Juana considered herself a queen and signed all letters La Reina (queen). She died in 1530.
Children of Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon
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!} According to the marriage contract, Isabella of Castile and her husband Ferdinand of Aragon were supposed to live in Castile, but only Isabella could rule the country, and Ferdinand was the king consort (husband of the reigning queen). Castile and Aragon were governed as two independent states, independent of each other. Isabella I and Ferdinand II had five children: Isabella of Aragon (1470-1498), Juan of Aragon (1478-1497), Juana the Mad (1479-1555), Maria of Aragon (1482-1517), Catherine of Aragon (1485-1536).
But Ferdinand also had illegitimate children (bastards). Two of them were born before their marriage to Isabella (Alfonso of Aragon - became the bishop of Zaragoza; Juana of Aragon - married the constable of Castile Bernardino Fernandez de Velasco). Two sisters with the same name, Maria of Aragon, were placed in the convent of Santa Maria de Grazia near Madrid.
Time of reign
During the reigns of Isabella I and Ferdinand II, many important historical events took place. The Inquisition received great powers. Over the course of several years, about 9,000 people were burned alive at the stake, and thousands of Jews were expelled from Spanish lands. In 1492 Granada was conquered, a little later Roussillon. Isabella I provided financial support for the expedition of Christopher Columbus, thanks to which he reached the shores of previously unexplored lands - America.Death of Isabella
In 1504, Isabella of Castile died and was buried in the Royal Chapel in Granada. The heiress of Castile was her daughter Juana the Mad.In the same year, Naples was conquered by Ferdinand, Oran in 1509, and Navarre annexed to Spain in 1512.
Ferdinand married for the second time. His chosen one was the daughter of the Viscount of Navarre, Germaine de Foix. In 1509 they had a son, but he did not live long. They had no other children.
Heirs of Isabella and Ferdinand
Initially, the hope of the Castile and Aragonese thrones was the son of Ferdinand II and Isabella I, Juan, but he died at the age of 19, leaving no heirs. His older sister, Isabella, married the son of King Juan II of Portugal, Prince Alfonso, in 1490. But a year later she was widowed. In 1497, she was married to the new king of Portugal, the brother of Juan II's wife, Manuel I. However, a year later, Isabella died during childbirth, and her son Miguel lived only two years. In 1500, a marriage alliance was concluded between Manuel I and the sister of his late wife Isabella, Maria of Aragon. Over the years of her marriage, Maria gave birth to 10 children, including the heir to Portugal, Juan III. But her children could no longer claim the crown of Castile. Maria died in 1517.The youngest daughter of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile, Catherine of Aragon, was given in marriage to Prince Arthur of Wales, son of King Henry VII of England, in 1501. But a year later, Prince Arthur died of illness. His brother, Henry VIII, having become king of England on their father's death in 1509, married Catherine that same year. In 1533, Henry VIII annulled their marriage, citing the wife's inability to produce a male heir. Three years later, Catherine died. From her marriage to Henry VIII there was a daughter, Mary Tudor (1516-1558), the future Queen of England, who went down in history as Mary I Bloody.
The only heir to whom the Castilian throne could pass was Juana the Mad. In 1496, she was married to the son of the King of Germany and Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I, Duke Philip of Burgundy from the Habsburg family. They had four daughters and two sons. After the death of Isabella I, Juana became Queen of Castile. Since by this time she had already developed mental disorders, her husband Philip, nicknamed Handsome, actually began to rule the country. This categorically did not suit Juana's father, Ferdinand. A year later, Philip suddenly died. Some blame the King of Aragon for his death. Due to the death of her husband, the queen's mental illness worsened. For several weeks she did not allow her husband to be buried; she traveled with his embalmed body all over the country, sometimes lifting the lid of the coffin to look at it. Juana the Mad was then placed in the Castle of Tordisellas, where she remained until her death. However, she was still considered the queen. But in fact, Castile and Aragon were ruled by her father until 1516.
The rise of Charles V - grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella
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!} After the death of Ferdinand, the crown of Aragon passed to his grandson, the son of Juana the Mad, Charles V (1500-1558). Charles inherited a lot of lands from his titled relatives. But even this seemed to him not enough. He wanted to officially become the ruler of Castile. And on March 14, 1516, he declared himself king of Castile and Aragon. This event responded with the uprising of the Comuneros of 1520-1522. As a result, Charles only recognized the regency under his mother. He became King of Castile only after her death in 1555. First King of Spain
Charles V was simultaneously the king of Aragon, Leon, Castile, Valencia, Granada, Seville, Galicia, Mallorca, Sicily, Navarre, Sardinia, Hungary, Corsica, Croatia, Germany, Italy, the titular king of Jerusalem, etc. Despite the fact that Charles V was the king of the Spanish states, only his son Philip II was the first to bear the title “King of Spain”.Around the same time as in France, the unification of Spain was completed. The development of medieval Spain was greatly influenced by the Reconquista - the conquest of the territory of the Iberian Peninsula, which lasted almost eight centuries, from the Arabs who captured it at the beginning of the 8th century (the word “reconquista” just means “conquest”). New kingdoms arose in the territories liberated by Christians: Castile, Aragon, Portugal and others. Gradually the border moved south.
Their settlement and economic development by peasants and townspeople helped to consolidate power over the conquered lands. The centuries of the Reconquista were not a time of continuous fighting. There were also peaceful contacts in which Christians learned a lot from Muslims.
The decisive successes of the Reconquista - the victory at Las Navas de Tolosa, the capture of Cordoba and Seville - occurred in the first half of the 13th century. Only the Emirate of Granada remained under Arab rule, which was distinguished by a thriving economy and a surprisingly high level of culture. He no longer posed a danger to Christians. The Reconquista stalled for a long time, and the next two centuries were filled with rivalries between Christian states, as well as the struggle of royal power and nobility in each of them.
Fernando and Isabella. Miniature of the turn of the XV-XVI centuries.
In 1469, the Castilian princess Isabella married the Aragonese prince Fernando (Ferdinand). 5 years later, Isabella inherited the Castilian throne, and in 1479 Fernando became king of Aragon. Such a unification of two monarchies under the single power of a married couple is called a dynastic union. The Union of Castile and Aragon did not mean the creation of a single state (in the absence of a son-heir and the remarriage of one of the spouses, it could break up), but it became the most important step in this direction.
Fernando and Isabella achieved considerable success in centralizing the country. They curbed the rebellious nobility, created an effective administrative apparatus and a strong standing army, and streamlined the collection of taxes. They very rarely resorted to the help of the estate-representative body - the Cortes. Having strengthened their power, Fernando and Isabella began a war against the Emirate of Granada and conquered it in 1492. The reconquista is over.
Unification of Spain. The difficult path to the Golden Age.
During the Reconquista (VIII-XV centuries), the process of gradual unification of Spain began. The liberation of Spanish lands captured by the Arabs lasted for several centuries. This was a time not only of numerous military campaigns, but also of the complex formation of the new Spanish state.
Scattered kingdoms located in different regions of Spain simultaneously opposed the Arab conquerors: Asturias, Navarre, Catalonia, and part of Aragon. On the northeastern side, resistance was provided by the counties that were part of the Spanish March. At the beginning of the 11th century, the course of military operations required closer cooperation in the fight against the enemy. In 1137, as a result of the unification of the two regions, the Aragon-Catalan Kingdom was formed. Then in 1230 Leon and Castile became a single kingdom. And a little over two centuries later, in 1469, a significant event followed that historically cemented Castile and Aragon - the marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile.
The unification of the two royal dynasties influenced many processes in medieval Spain. As a result of the military union, new lands were gradually liberated, and the Arabs were pushed to the south. Their last stronghold was the Granada Emirates with its capital Granada. In the 15th century, it was a state with a strong power structure, a strong economy and a highly developed culture. But it no longer posed a threat.
By that time, Spain was threatened by a serious internal problem: unrest, rivalry and struggle for power among the feudal nobility. The consequence of this was the devastation of the royal treasury, the destruction of villages and cities. The greed of the feudal lords caused discontent among the peasants, which served as the reason for numerous uprisings. The peasants demanded the abolition of the so-called “bad customs” - heavy feudal duties that deprived them not only of property, but also of simple civil rights. In 1462, the Peasants' War broke out in Catalonia, which lasted more than 10 years.
Isabella and Ferdinand waged a decisive struggle for the centralization of power. They were supported by the “Holy Hermandada” - a military alliance of cities. The active support of the allies helped break the resistance of the feudal lords. But then came the restriction of the independence of the cities and the consolidation of the power of royal officials over them. A new apparatus for governing the country was created. Steps were taken to strengthen the Christian religion, including strengthening the punitive powers of Catholicism. In 1480, Isabella established an inquisitorial tribunal, which served as a powerful political lever in the country. Not only a heretic, but also anyone dissatisfied with royal power could be subjected to the Inquisition. Persecution of Muslims and Jews began.
In an effort to create a single strong state, the kings took the path of subtle diplomacy and sometimes outright propaganda. Having secured the support of Pope Alexander VI in all matters, they surrounded themselves with many allies. Taxes flowed into the treasury in a torrent, and the church allowed the believers to manage their money.
Royal reforms brought order to the army. It consisted of hired knights paid from the royal treasury. Separate municipal troops provided internal security.
The unification of Spain was bearing fruit. By the end of the 15th century, the country had a powerful state system and strong troops, which allowed Ferdinand and Isabella to resume hostilities against the Granada Emirates in 1481.
Ten years later, exhausted by resistance to the Spaniards and internal conflicts, the emirates disintegrated. On January 1, 1492, the last ruler of Granada, the Moorish King Boabdil, presented the keys to the city to the winner. This event marked the end of the page in the centuries-old history of the Reconquista and served as the beginning of the Golden Age of Spain.
