What are homonym roots? What is the root of a word? What is a morpheme
For example, the word submariner consists of 4 morphemes:
- -water- - the root, the common part of related words, forms the basis of the lexical meaning of the word;
- under- - prefix, indicates position in space - below something;
- -Nick - suffix, indicates a person by occupation;
- — indicates the nominative singular form of a masculine noun of the 2nd declension.
All morphemes, except the root, are called , or service morphemes. Cm.
Each of the morphemes has its own conventional signs:
- see link - root;
- ¬ — prefix;
- ^ - suffix;
- Ø — zero suffix (see);
- see link - ending;
- a postfix is designated either as a suffix, or as an inverted suffix, or as an ending, or as a prefix sign turned from right to left, since linguists and authors of linguistic textbooks do not have a consensus on this morpheme;
- a connecting morpheme (interfix) is indicated either by a bar above or a bar below (underlined);
- // - alternation sign (or /).
Note. In this answer, the null ending is indicated by " Ο
", the basis is underlined (in the absence of the technical ability to indicate them, as is customary in
linguistics).
- A part of a word without ending is stem of the word. The ending is not included in the basis. See details
- To find the stem of a word and the ending, you need to change the word, i.e. put it in another form. The part of the word that remains unchanged is the base. The part of the word that changes is the ending. There are words that do not change; they have no ending, the whole word is the basis. Cm.
- Formative morphemes are also not included in the basis: at will -l-o-sya. Cm.
- The stem of the word expresses the lexical meaning of the word, and the ending expresses the grammatical meaning. See details
- Modified words consist of a stem and an ending; the ending can be ( pain - ABOUT , bol -i), and unchangeable words consist only of the stem ( yesterday, highway). Cm.
- In words with postfixes and (or) formative morphemes, the stem can be intermittent: bathe-xia, somehow, offended.
- There are two types of stem words - non-derivative And derivative. A non-derivative base consists only of the root: smoke - ABOUT, blue. The derivative stem, in addition to the root, also includes word-forming words: push-ist, spot-yshk, inter-zonal.
Note. Difficulties are caused by identifying stems in words with final vowels I, e, e, yu , standing after other vowels or after a soft sign, because these vowels represent two sounds, one of which refers to the stem and the other to the ending. For example, noun army [army j-A] has the ending -a, and the sound [j] is included in the stem. In order to prove this, you need to inflect the word: in the army,army[ j- uh] th etc. In all these forms [j] is preserved. This means that [j] is part of the stem, because the ending is a variable part of the word. Only in the genitive case form is this sound graphically expressed using the letter th ( army th Ο ), and in other forms it does not receive a special designation.
The main morpheme in the word is . The root is the common part of related words, which contains their main lexical meaning. There are also roots.
Words with the same root are called cognate (related).
For example, words teach, student, teacher, study, educational, scientist, learn, study, learn contain the same root -uch- and therefore are of the same root. All these words denote objects, signs or actions related to the action “teach”.
Words bush, bush, bush, bush, bush- cognate, since they contain the same root - bush- and denote objects, signs or actions related to the word “bush”.
Words with the same root form a word-forming nest.
A word nest is a collection of all words with the same root, arranged taking into account the sequence of their formation.
An example of a word-formation nest
The original word is "province".
| province(s) [province] | ||||
| governorate ator | ||||
| governor- w-A | ||||
| governor- stv-O | ||||
| governor- sk-th | ||||
| governor- stvova-th | ||||
| lieutenant governor | ||||
| vice governor sk-th | ||||
| governor general Wed general | ||||
| Governor General stv-O | ||||
| Governor General sk-th | ||||
| governorate sk-th | ||||
(Tikhonov A.N. Word-formation dictionary of the Russian language. - M., 1990. - T. 1. - P. 262)
To find the root in a word, you need to select words of the same root (related) and find the common part in them.
For example,
1) in a word recess the root stands out -men- as a result of the selection of cognate words men yat, oh men, behind men A and etc.;
2) in a word express root -tale- , since this is a common part of cognate words re tale come on, you tale ah, tale ah, race tale, tale ka etc.
A root can consist of several sounds (eid yeah), from one sound (By th you) or be null (the only word that has a zero root is you. This zero root alternates with -him- (You -him- at).
- 2. In complex words, two or more roots are distinguished.
For example, gas opro water , forever O green oh, white O- syn e- red y.
In compound words, the root (or roots) can be presented in truncated form.
For example, core paragraph - core(respondent) point, university— V(higher) at(educational) h(awareness).
You need to be able to distinguish between roots that have the same sound and spelling, but differ in meaning. Such roots are called homonymous.
For example,
1) carry, carry, carry, tray, carry, cast-offs, porter- root -nose- (the words relate to the action “wear”);
2) nose, nasal, spout, nose, bridge of the nose- also a root -nose- , but the words refer to the “nose” part of the face.
There is nothing in common between the words “to wear” and “nose”, which means that these two groups of words belong to different word-formation nests, and the roots in them are homonymous.
Words with homonymous roots are not the same root.
When forming new words and forms of words in many roots, it is possible alternation of sounds(i.e. exchange), resulting in the formation of different versions of the same root. They must be taken into account when identifying roots and when selecting test words of the same root. See tables of sound alternations.
For example,
1) in words pros it, please y, with prash to live the same root -ask- , in which there are alternations s//sh And o//a ;
2) in words mouth — rt A vowel O alternates with a “zero sound”, which is called fluent vowel.
Note. If one consonant alternates with a combination of consonants, then this combination is completely included in the root, and the new suffix is not allocated. In words like core ml yu (cor m it), liu bl yu (lu b it), donkey pl tion (following P Ouch)l is not a new suffix, but is part of the root.
Exercises for the topic “Homonymous roots”
1. The given words represent two homonymous roots -water-:
watery, clockwork, backwater, wiring, conductor, submariner, bring, output, watery, anhydrous.
Divide them into two nests so that in the first there are words related to the word water, in the second - words related to the word lead.
2. The given words represent two homonymous roots -mountain-:
hill, mountaineer, tanned, burning, mountainous, burnt out, mountainous, combustible, foothill, hillock, burn.
Divide them into two nests so that in the first there are words related to the word mountain, in the second - words related to the word burn.
Exercisesto the topic "Alternation of vowels and consonants in the root"
1. In which example is the root in the word correctly identified? congratulation?
1) CONGRATULATIONS, 2) CONGRATULATIONS, 3) CONGRATULATIONS, 4) CONGRATULATIONS, 5) CONGRATULATIONS, 6) CONGRATULATIONS.
Answer: 4) CONGRATULATIONS.
2. In what variants is the root word found in Russian? father ?
Answer: 4: 1) father ; 2) father-(father, father); 3) otch-(fatherland, patronymic); 4) father- (fatherland, fatherly).
3. Here is a list of cognates: partition, fence, barricade, barricade, enclose, barricade, enclosed. How many variants of the root are there?
Answer: 5: 1) -city-(partition, block); 2) -grad-(fence, block); 3) -citizen-(barrier); 4) -city-(obstructed); 5) -city-(to fence).
4. Find words with roots in which fluent vowels are possible: lion, elephant, eagle, falcon, drake, jackdaw, deer, marmot, sheep, goat, dog, dog, cat, horse.
Answer: a lion(lion, lion), eagle(eagle, eagle), drake(drake), jackdaw(daw), marmot(marmot), sheep(sheep, sheep, sheep), dog(dog).
Its conceptual. Other morphemes (suffixes, prefixes, endings) do not have independent meaning. They only add additional shades to the main meaning. Anyone who speaks Russian will understand perfectly well that “” is not at all the same as “tail,” but in both cases we are talking about the same part of the animal’s body, because These words have a common root.
Cognates
All words that have the same root are called cognates. They can belong to either one part of speech (cat - cat - kotofey - cat) or to different parts (start - let - launcher).
Difficult words
One root is required. But, consisting of two roots. Such words are called compound words. So, the word “pedestrian” has two roots: “pedestrian” and “movement”.
Homonymous roots
There are words whose roots are spelled the same, but they have different meanings. These are the roots of homonyms - words of the same spelling, but different in meaning: the words “key” in the meaning of “source” and “key” in the meaning of “a device for opening a door, master key” are written the same, but the word “key” has the first meaning the same root word would be, for example, “spring (water)”, and in the second meaning – “key holder”.
Alternation of sounds at the root
It happens that vowels or consonants in the same root are written differently in different words with the same root, alternating, for example, “run - run” or “put - adjective”. Rules help you understand exactly how the root is spelled in a particular word. Sometimes it depends on whether the vowel is under stress or not (tan - tanned), sometimes on what letter the root ends with (grown - grown), sometimes on the meaning of the word, for example dunk (immerse in liquid) and get wet (soaked in moisture) . The alternation of sounds is determined by historical processes occurring in the language (historical alternation) or pronunciation features (phonetic alternation).
Root splicing
As a result of changes in the language, some roots have “fused” with prefixes and suffixes. In such words one can distinguish a historical (etymological) root and a modern one, accepted in the language at the moment. So, in the word “factory” the etymological root is “water”, the modern one is “factory”. Such roots are called connected. The roots of modern words that coincide with etymological ones are called free - they are the majority in the Russian language.
-GOR- mountains white, for mountains eat(-GAR- under stress Tan)
- ZAR- zar face, zar I(-ZOR- under emphasis dawn) Exception: dawn
-CLONE- pre clone tion, with clone happen(emphasis – CLAN-CLONE)
-TVOR- at creation crowd, crowd creation tion(accented – TVAR-TVOR) Exception: utensil
- Let's remember what the following roots look like:
-LAG – FALSE- By lag at - by lodge tion Exception: canopy
-GROW – RASH – ROS- growth Yes, you rasch denominated, under grew up la
Exception: sprout, sprout, moneylender, Rostov, Rostislav, industry, industry. (Teenager - from teenager, where O is stressed. For growth - console You took away the emphasis.)
-SKAK – SKOCH- with how at - in skoch it
Exception: jump, gallop, gallop, galloping
-NYM – NYA- With him at - with nya t
-PRESS - ZHA- With bench press at - with lady t
-CHIN – CHA- on rank at - on cha t
-WEDGE – KLYA- about wedge at - about oath no
-NYM – NYA- By him at - by nya t
at min at - at me t
- Roots in which the alternating vowel depends on suffix A:
-BER – BIRA- at ber y - y bir ayu
-DER – DIRA- at der et - y dir ayu
-PER – PIRA- behind lane- behind feast at
-TER – TIRA- You ter- about shooting gallery at
-MER – PEACE- behind measures eat - for world at
-STEL – STEEL- By steles it - for style at
-SHINE - BLAST- behind shine eat - blist atelier
-BURNING – BURNING- You burned- at jig at
-THE – READ- You even s - you cheat aniye
Exception: combine, combination
-KOS – KASA- braid sank - cas came
- Roots in which the spelling of an alternating vowel depends from the meaning of the word
-MAK – MOK- poppy oh, oh poppy no("immerse in liquid")
about urine it, you mock no(“to gain moisture, to become wet”)
-EVEN – EVEN- at equals tion, with equals it(“same, equal”)
behind exactly dig a hole, once exactly make a garden bed(“make a smooth surface”)
-PLOV - PLAV- “O” only in words pilaf ec, pilaf sneeze
"A" in other words By float ok bug- float unets, etc.
(But: swim uny– layers of soil)
When checking roots with unstressed vowels, remember:
- You cannot check an unstressed vowel using a verb with a suffix -IVA-IVA- (Example: ask - ask, be late - be late).
- At the root, alternation of consonants can occur, but the words still remain the same root : Merz aying – merk no, about candle tion – light.
- Don’t choose words based only on consonance: vinaigrette - wine, huge, huge - thunder. This method is suitable for memorizing spelling. But the words Innegret, huge, huge vocabulary, vowels in these roots are unverifiable. Words stadium and stage are not the same root (they are connected by a deep past, and we can look for test words only in modern Russian), therefore , stadium- a dictionary word.
- Words aqua rel, mono graphy, chrono logy unverifiable (in Russian there are no words aqua, mono, chrono, etc.).
- Distinguish between homonymous roots: at world yat ( world ny) enemies; at measures yat (at measures ka) dress. In these roots the vowels are unstressed. The alternating root -MER – MYRA- has a different meaning: froze - freeze.
There is no alternation in these words at the root: dewdrop, complexity, become proud, restrain yourself, torment, coast, alcoholic, askance, mow down, mountainous ( plot ).
- You cannot use an artificially created word as a check: extreme(extreme is a youth slang word).
- In a word front garden there is no foreign language POLY, as in words clinic, polyphony.
- INTELLECT INTELL AND gentou necessary, but the roots of these words are different.
- unchecked unstressed vowel
Here is a table of words from which are most often found in the exam.
| A | avant-garde, adventure, lawyer, almanac, abstract, anomaly, antagonism, apartments, applause, appeal |
| B | luggage, boycott |
| IN | vacancy, magnificent, veterinarian, vinaigrette |
| G | dimensions, garrison, horizon |
| D | deserter, declaration, deficit, amateur, directive, thoroughly |
| AND | ignore, dependent, intelligent, inquisition |
| TO | quotes, pun, calendar, closet, carnival, disaster, insidious, conjure, overalls, competent, compose, compromise, constitutional, burner, luminary, cosmetology, criterion |
| L | cherish |
| M | meridian, philanthropist, motivation |
| N | obsession, nostalgia |
| ABOUT | original |
| P | front garden, panorama, paradox, pessimist, foam rubber, preliminary, fastidious, privilege, primitive, priority, pedestal |
| R | rehabilitation, regulations, residence, rehearsal, restore |
| WITH | seminar, certificate, lilac, scholarship, strive, sovereignty |
| U | compact |
| F | faculty, philharmonic, festival |
| Sh | chocolate, chauvinism, highway, parade |
| E | crew, exhibit, experiment, excavator, element, operation, extreme, expedition, erudition |
Task 9. b-b / consoles PRE-PRI / S-Z at the end of prefixes / vowels in prefixes.
What does morphemics study?
Morphemics is a branch of the science of language in which the composition (structure) of a word is studied. See: How to parse a word by its composition?
What is a morpheme?
Each word can be divided into small important parts called morphemes.
What are the parts of a word (types of morphemes)?
For example, the word submariner consists of 4 morphemes:
All morphemes, not counting the root, are called affixes, or service morphemes. See: What are derivational affixes?
What conventional signs indicate parts of a word (morphemes)?
Each of the morphemes has its own conventional signs:
See Plan for analyzing words by composition.
What is a word base and ending? How to find the base of a word and its ending?
Note. In this answer, the null ending is indicated by " Ο
", the base is underlined (in the absence of the technical ability to indicate them, as is customary in
linguistics).
Note. Difficulties are caused by identifying the base in words with final vowels I, e, e, yu , standing after other vowels or after a soft sign, because these vowels denote two sounds, one of which belongs to the base, and the other to the ending. For example, a noun army [armyj- A] has the ending -a, and the sound [j] goes into the base. In order to prove this, it is necessary to inflect the word: in the army,army[j- uh] th etc. In all these forms [j] is preserved. This means [j] is part of the base, since the ending is a differentiable part of the word. Exclusively in the form of the genitive case, this sound is graphically expressed using the letter th ( armies Ο ), and in other forms it does not receive a special designation.
What is the root word?
The main morpheme in a word is the root. The root is the common part of similar words, which contains their main lexical meaning. The roots can be free or tied.
What words are called cognates (similar)?
Words with the same root are called the same root (similar).
For example, words teach, student, teacher, study, educational, scientist, learn, train, learn contain the same root -uch- and therefore are of the same root. All these words denote objects, signs or actions related to the action “teach”.
Words bush, bush, bush, bush, bush- cognate because they contain the same root - bush- and denote objects, signs or actions related to the word “bush”.
What is a word nest?
Words with the same root form a word-forming nest.
A word-formation nest is a collection of all words with the same root, arranged taking into account the sequence of their formation.
An example of a word-formation nest
The initial word is "province".
province(s) [province]
governorate ator
governor- w-A
governor- stv-O
governor- sk-th
governor- stvova-th
lieutenant governor
vice governor sk-th
governor general Wed general
Governor General stv-O
Governor General sk-th
governorate sk-th
(Tikhonov A.N. Word-formation dictionary of the Russian language. - M., 1990. - T. 1. - P. 262)
How to find the root in a word?
Eg,
1) in a word recess the root stands out -men- as a result of the selection of cognate words men yat, oh men, behind men A and etc.;
2) in a word express root -tale- , because this is a common part of cognate words re tale come on, you tale ah, tale ah, race tale, tale ka etc.
A root can consist of several sounds (eid yeah), from 1st sound (By th you) or be zero (the only word in which the zero root is you. This zero root alternates with -him- (You -him- at).
Eg, gas opro water , forever O green oh, white O- syn e- red y.
In complex words, the root (or roots) can be presented in truncated form.
Eg, core paragraph - core(respondent) point, university- V(higher) at(educational) h(awareness).
Which roots are called homonymous?
It is necessary to be able to distinguish between roots that have the same sound and spelling, but differ in meaning. Such roots are called homonymous.
Eg,
1) carry, carry, carry, tray, carry, cast-offs, porter- root -nose- (the words relate to the action “wear”);
2) nose, nasal, spout, nose, bridge of the nose- also a root -nose- , however, the words refer to the “nose” part of the face.
There is nothing in common between the words “to wear” and “nose”, which means that these two groups of words belong to different word-formation nests, and the roots in them are homonymous.
Words with homonymous roots are not the same root.
What is alternation of vowels and consonants in the root? What is a fluent vowel?
When new words and forms of words are formed in almost all roots, alternation of sounds(i.e. exchange), as a result of which different variants of the 1st and the same root are formed. They need to be taken into account when identifying roots and when selecting test words of the same root. See tables of sound alternations.
Eg,
1) in words pros it, please y, with prash to live the same root -ask- , in which there are alternations s//sh And o//a ;
2) in words mouth - rt A vowel O alternates with a “zero sound”, which is called fluent vowel.
Note. In this case, one consonant alternates with a combination of consonants, then this combination is entirely included in the root, and the new suffix is not allocated. In the words of the class core ml yu (cor m it), liu bl yu (lu b it), donkey pl tion (following P Ouch)l is not a new suffix, but is part of the root.
Exercises for the topic “Homonymous roots”
1. The given words represent two homonymous roots -water-:
aqua, groovy, backwater, wiring, conductor, submariner, bring, output, watery, anhydrous.
Divide them into two nests so that the first contains words similar to the word water, and the second contains words similar to the word lead.
2. The given words represent two homonymous roots -mountain-:
hill, mountaineer, tanned, burning, mountainous, burnt out, mountainous, combustible, foothill, hillock, burn.
Divide them into two nests so that in the first there are words similar to the word mountain, in the 2nd - words similar to the word blaze.
Exercisesto the topic "Alternation of vowels and consonants in the root"
1. In which example is the root in the word correctly identified? congratulation?
1) CONGRATULATIONS, 2) CONGRATULATIONS, 3) CONGRATULATIONS, 4) CONGRATULATIONS, 5) CONGRATULATIONS, 6) CONGRATULATIONS.
Answer: 4) CONGRATULATIONS.
2. In what variants does the root word occur in the Russian language? father ?
Answer: 4: 1) father ; 2) father-(father, dad); 3) otch-(fatherland, patronymic); 4) father- (fatherland, fatherly).
3. A list of cognate words is given: partition, fence, barricade, block, enclose, barricade, enclosed. How many root options are there?
Answer: 5: 1) -city-(partition, block); 2) -grad-(fence, block); 3) -citizen-(barrier); 4) -city-(obstructed); 5) -city-(to fence).
4. Find words with roots in which fluent vowels are likely: lion, elephant, eagle, falcon, drake, jackdaw, deer, marmot, sheep, goat, dog, dog, cat, stallion.
Answer: a lion(lion, lion), eagle(falcon, eagle), drake(drake), jackdaw(daw), marmot(marmot), sheep(sheep, sheep, sheep), dog(dog).
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different in form (have a different phonemic composition). In this regard, homonymous and synonymous morphemes are distinguished.
Homonymous morphemes are morphemes that are identical
in phonemic composition, but differing in meaning.
All types of morphemes can be homonymous. The homonymy of roots is more clearly manifested, which is directly related to lexical homonymy, for example, in the word water supply there are two homonymous roots: water- (water), water- (to conduct); The roots in the words nose-ik, u-nos-it are homonymous; med-ok, med-ic, med-icina; mountain, mountain; kos-it, kos-oh (meaning curve); par-a, par-ova and many more. etc.
Prefixes can be homonymous, for example, the Russian prefix pro- is homonymous, which in the “Dictionary of the Russian Language” (Vol. 3. P. 461) has 13 meanings in verbs and one meaning in nouns like go gray, go gray, and the borrowed prefix pro -, used in the formation of nouns and adjectives with the meaning “a supporter of someone, acting in the interests of someone: pro-fascist, pro-American” (Dictionary. T. 3. P. 461).
Prefixes with - in nouns are homonymous ( accomplice, co-author) and verbs ( gather, disrupt) and etc.
There are numerous cases of homonymy of inflections. Thus, inflection -y in verbs (with the meaning of the singular, 1st person, indicative mood, present-future tense: carry-y, brought-y, run-y, etc.) and inflection -y in nouns are homonymous (with the meaning of the dative case, singular, masculine-neuter: brother-u, village-u); inflections -a in nouns of the genitive case, singular, masculine-neuter and in nouns of the nominative case, plural of masculine-neuter, cf.: u zer-a, l y s-a, but lesb, ozer-b .
Homonymy of word-forming suffixes is observed if phonemically identical affixes belong to different parts of speech, for example: -in in possessive adjectives (uncle, mother) and -in in nouns with the meaning of singularity (pea-in-a, bus- in-a); -ist in nouns (Marx-ist, essay-ist) and –ist in adjectives (vetv-ist-y, forest-ist-y).
Homonymy of word-forming suffixes occurs when words move from one part of speech to another, for example, when
participles into adjectives, when formative suffixes become word-forming (cf.: color-usch-y garden and color-usch-y kind; in the first case - ush- expresses the grammatical meanings of the active voice, present tense, the suffix is formative; in the second case, the suffix - ush- is word-forming and does not express grammatical meanings.
Homonymy of morphemes arises as a result of a change in the meaning of morphemes in the process of word formation, for example, the endings of adjectives become suffixes of adverbs: according to our agreement (ending), it will be in our way (suffix), first, but first ( suffix).
The situation is more complicated with prefixes and suffixes related to one part of speech. In Russian studies, criteria have not been developed for distinguishing polysemy (polysemy) and homonymy of such affixes. These problems also exist in lexicology, when it is not always possible to unambiguously identify polysemantic and homonymous words. The situation is similar in morphemics. The authors of morpheme dictionaries point out that the theoretical position on the distinction between polysemy and homonymy of word-forming affixes has not been resolved, which causes difficulties in compiling dictionary entries in morpheme dictionaries.
So, A.I. Kuznetsova notes: “The question of affixal homonyms (omomorphemes) is one of the most unclear issues of morphemic analysis that does not have a generally accepted solution” (A.I. Kuznetsova, T.F. Efremova. Dictionary of morphemes of the Russian language. M., 1986. Introductory article A.I. Kuznetsova, p. 6). T.F. writes about this. Efremova, regarding the principles of creating an explanatory dictionary of derivational morphemes: “...there is no consensus on the problems of homonymy and methods of presenting homonyms in the dictionary...” (T.F. Efremova. Explanatory dictionary of derivational units of the Russian language. M., 1996. With 6).
Sometimes the meanings of affixes do not have a common seme and are homonymous, for example, the suffixes -in-(a) with the meaning of singularity (pea), -in-(a) with the meaning of person (greedy), -in-(a) with the real meaning , to designate meat by animal name ( lamb, sturgeon), -in-(a) to denote an abstract feature (depth, silence), -in-(a) with the meaning of magnification (dominance). The suffix -chik can denote a male person by profession (pilot), while another suffix -chik has a diminutive meaning (lemon).
Nouns with the suffix -inc - denote a characteristic that manifests itself to a weak degree: cunning, cunning, crafty, weak, sad, fake, red, crazy. The suffix -ink- productive. These types of nouns are often used in poetry. Wed. braid, sadinka(E. Yevtushenko), “In his eyes there is immortality” (R. Rozhdestvensky), cheerfulINKA, gloomyINKA(I. Grigoriev). The suffix has the meaning of quality with a hint of diminutiveness; it is a suffix of abstract nouns. The suffixes -in-k - attached to nouns are homonymous. The suffix -in - expresses the meaning of singularity, the suffix -k - has a diminutive meaning ( ice, lingonberry, grape, zest).
However, relationships are often not so clear cut. Thus, the suffix -tel can have the meaning 1) “the person performing the action” ( listener, reader), 2) “an object that produces an action” ( ripper, sprayer), 3) “an object intended to carry out an action” ( developer, accumulator). The presence of the actual agentive meaning, which is created by the suffix -tel, allows us to consider its meaning as polysemantic. However, there is another point of view, according to which the meanings are considered homonymous.
Prefixes can have several meanings (the prefix pro has, for example, 14 meanings), the differentiation of which (multi-valued - homonymous) also often causes difficulties.
Thus, firstly, the main criterion for distinguishing affixal homonymy and polysemy is the semantics of affixes (presence - absence of a common seme). Secondly, an important feature of homonymous affixes is their assignment to different parts of speech. Thirdly, a sign of homonymous affixes is their different origin (original or borrowed). A.I. Kuznetsova also includes the presence of different alternations in morphemes as signs of homonymy of affixes. Thus, in verbs the suffix -у - can alternate with -ov -: risUyu - to draw; in the adverbial suffix -у- such alternation is impossible: above, below (A.I. Kuznetsova. Index work. P. 6).
Synonymous morphemes are also distinguished. Synonymous
are morphemes that differ formally (phonemically), but have identical or similar meaning.
Synonymous morphemes have no genetic commonality, but when
synchronous analysis cannot be guided by this criterion. In the linguistic literature, the opinion is sometimes expressed that it is impossible to contrast synonymous and variant suffixes from a synchronic point of view (see, for example, G.O. Zenkov. Questions of the theory of word formation. 1969), however, synonymous and variant suffixes are clearly distinguished by such a feature as the lack of phonemic community. For example, the suffixes -ovat- and -ist - in adjectives formed from nouns with the meaning “characterized by an attitude towards what is called a motivating word” will be synonymous: bumpy, woody, hummocky, knotty; suffixes -in, -ov, -iy in possessive adjectives: uncles, fathers, Cossack; Many prefixes are synonymous, for example: not-, without-,
a- (immoral, immoral, amoral), anti-, anti- (anti-national, unnatural); pre-, once-
with a high degree value of the characteristic ( dear, kind, cheerful); synonymous inflections express the same grammatical meanings, for example: yes-m, brought-u (1st person, singular, future tense), yes-st, brings-et (3rd person, singular, future tense).
SELF-CONTROL SURVEYS
1. Definehomonymous morphemes.
2. Name the signshomonymous affixes. Give examples.
3. Definesynonymous affixes. Give examples.
TERMS FOR §8
homonymous morphemes |
synonymous morphemes |
§ 9. Original and borrowed morphemes
The division of morphemes (root and affix) into original and borrowed is possible only with a diachronic approach to the composition and formation of words. However, the distinction between original and borrowed affixes is sometimes necessary for practical purposes, for example, the spelling rule for writing Y or I at the beginning of the root after prefixes is based on the distinction between original and borrowed prefixes: after Russian prefixes ending in a consonant, Y is written at the root (except between -, over -), and after foreign language prefixes - And, cf.: pre-infarction, but post-infarction; without information, but misinformation; in native words in all parts of the word after C, O is written under stress, without stress - E: fathers-ov (house), sitz-ev-oe, wrestler-om, month-em, tsokot, in foreign language words the letter O after C can occur in an unstressed position, for example, duke, duchess, scherzo, mezzo, palazzo and some others.
In this regard, we will characterize morphemes on the basis of “original - borrowed”.
Inflectional affixes of borrowed origin are rare in the Russian language: these are, for example, the suffixes of the active present participles of Old Slavonic origin - ush-(-yush-), -ash-(-yash-) (read-yush-y, beg-ush-y , lying-ash-y, hanging-yash-y). It is grammatical meanings and, accordingly, the means of their expression - inflectional affixes - that determine the specifics of each language, therefore the absence of borrowings ensures the preservation of the specifics of the language.
Word-forming affixes do not change the grammatical structure of the language and therefore can be borrowed more often when the language assimilates borrowed vocabulary. Thus, in modern Russian, many borrowed prefixes (mainly of Greek and Latin origin) have become widespread, for example:
a -, expresses the negation of the attribute ( illogical, immoral), anti -, corresponds to the Russian prefix anti - (anti-science-
ny, antiworlds),
archi -, denotes the highest degree of the attribute ( arch-incongruous, arch-rogue),
hyper -, indicates an excess of the norm, corresponds to the Russian prefixes over -, above - (hyperfunction),
hypo-, indicates a decrease in comparison with the norm (hypofunction),
de -, dez -, indicates the denial of something ( disinformation, dismantling, demobilization),
inter -, corresponds to the Russian prefix inter - (between -) ( international),
counter -, corresponds to the Russian prefix against - (counterstrike,
counterattack),
pan -, meaning “relating to everything” ( pan-European),
pro -, with the meaning “to be a supporter”, “to act instead of someone, in the interests of someone” ( pro-rector, pro-American),
post -, corresponds to the Russian prefix after - ( post-infarction, post-impressionism),
super -, corresponds to the Russian prefix above -, above - (dust jacket), more often the prefix super - has a second meaning - “of the highest quality, properties” ( super fashionable, super aviation),
trans - means “movement through any space” ( Trans-Siberian Railway),
extra -, corresponds to the Russian prefix over - ( extraordinary).
With the assimilation of foreign language vocabulary, when borrowing several words of the same root on Russian soil, borrowed suffixes and roots are distinguished. This is how the suffixes -ist (communist), -ism appeared
(communism) ). These and other borrowed suffixes are absorbed by the Russian language and are combined with Russian stems, for example: tail-ism, Bakunism, militaryization, sovietization, Bolshevization.
The foreign language elements -log (meaning “a person engaged in some kind of science”), -phil (meaning “a person characterized by love for something”), -phob (meaning “a person characterized by fear of something”) are close to the affixes. then, dislike for something"), especially - -tek (a) (with the meaning “place for storage, collection of something”), -drom (with the meaning “platform, place for keeping and sending any machines” ), -fiction (a) (meaning “doing”). Foreign language meaning of these elements
Russian speakers are not always aware of them; many do not know their etymology:
Log - from Greek. logos - teaching; -phil - from Greek. phileo - love; -fob - from Greek. phobos - fear;
Man - from Greek. mania - madness, passion; -tek -a - from Greek. theke - storage;
Drom - from Greek. dromos - place for running, running; - fications-a - from lat. facere - to do.
All of them are recognized as affixes. But they are distinguished from ordinary affixes by the presence of a connecting O before them, as before root morphemes in compound words: climatologist, Slavophil, balletoMAN, kartotek, tankodrom, heating. They are close to affixoids. In the words gasification, electrification, the element -fikatsiya-a is preceded by the vowel I. The morphemes -tek(a), -drom, -ifikatsiya-a are considered by many linguists as suffixes.
SELF-CONTROL SURVEYS
1. Why are formative (inflectional) morphemes practically not borrowed?
2. How are word-forming suffixes and prefixes borrowed?
3. Give examples of borrowed affixes.
CHAPTER 3. BASE OF THE WORD. FUNDAMENTALS NON-DERIVATIVE AND DERIVATIVE, PARTICULATED AND INDIVIDUAL
§10. Base word
The lexical meaning of a word consists of the meanings of its constituent root and auxiliary word-forming morphemes. The word is formed through formative morphemes - endings - and formative suffixes that express the grammatical meanings of the word.
The part of the word without ending and formative affixes, which contains the lexical meaning, is called the stem of the word. For example: teacher -a, genius -, family -a (family), linen -o (linen), autumn -i, cheerful -ee, newest, scream -
yes, tell me, brought it, arrived, cut it, in the summer . The question of the relationship to the basis of postfixes is controversial.
Often they are not included in the basis. “The Grammar of the Modern Russian Literary Language” (1970) defines the basis as follows: “The basis of a word form is the part of the word form that remains after cutting off the inflectional and postfix morphs” (p. 31).
However, many words without postfixes are not used ( laugh, smile, fear, hope etc.) or without them have a completely different meaning ( find - be located; agree -
reach an agreement; to eat - to eat; crush - choke; Who,
somebody; what, anything; what, any). Consequently, postfixes are a necessary element of the word composition, expressing the lexical meaning, and therefore they are included in the stem as its component.
The stem contains the lexical meaning of the word, therefore a word in all its forms (in a lexeme) must have one stem:
carry -ti, carry -sh-ie, carry -i; chair -, chair -y-a; strong, strong, strong, strongest, strongest, strongest. However, some words may have two or even three stems. Let's give examples.
Nouns denoting non-adult persons and young animals have different suffixes in singular and plural forms: gypsy-enok - - gypsy-yat-a, wolf cub - - wolf-at-a. These suffixes are syncretic: they express the lexical meaning of immaturity and the grammatical meaning
numbers (-enok- singular, -yat- plural), therefore these suffixes are included in the stem and words of this type have two stems each - a singular stem and a plural stem: gypsy-ENOK- - gypsy-YAT -a, Cossack-ONOK - - Cossack-AT-a, wolf-ONOK - - wolf-AT-a. The formation of new words in this case comes from the plural stem. h. (in ancient times it was the common basis):
calf - calf-a, calf-i, calf-in-a, and only words with subjective evaluation suffixes are formed from the singular stem: calf
The words mother, daughter and words starting with -name like name, time also have two bases - the base of the original form and the base of indirect forms (except for the form of vn. p. singular, coinciding with the form of im. p.): mother - mat - er -i, daughter - doch-er -i, etc. The formation of new words comes from the basis of indirect cases (filial, maternal) and from the basis of the initial form of words in -mya (temporary, sem -ennoy).
Two stems (singular and plural) are distinguished in nouns with the meaning of person in relation to locality, religious teaching, nationality, which in the singular have the suffix -in (-anin, -chanin). In some nouns it is retained in the singular and plural: gruz-in, gruz-in -y (these words have one stem), in others it is lost in the plural: bulgar-in - bulgar -y,
Tatar-in - Tatar-s, Slav-in - Slav-e. Then, in the singular and plural forms, different stems should be distinguished, while the formation of new words comes from the plural stem(Tatar, Slavic, Bulgarian).
IN Regarding the basics, verbs have many features. Traditionally
at verbs, there are two bases from which the formation of forms occurs - the base of the past tense (or infinitive) and the base of the present tense (for verbs of the perfect form - simple future). The past tense stem is determined by the past tense (or infinitive) form by discarding endings and formative suffixes: howl, howl; the basis of the present tense is determined by the personal forms of the present (future) tense by discarding the endings: read-ut, pour-ut.
IN In very rare cases, two verb stems may coincide, for example, carried -l-i, carried -ti, write -t, write -ut; kova -t, kova -l-i, kui -ut). Sometimes the roots of the present and past tenses have different roots: she -l, sh -l-i, shed -sh-iy, id -ut; eha -t, eha -l-i, ed -ut.
U Some verbs have three stems - the infinitive stem, the past tense stem and the present (future) tense stem. This happens with verbs-nut, losing the suffix -nu - in the forms of the past tense and having -n - at the basis of the present (future) tense (dry -t, dry -l-i, dry -et), for verbs in -ere-t: rub - ter-e-t, ter-l-i, tr-ut. However, it should be borne in mind that some linguists distinguish one stem in the verb, which is transformed during formation (see §5).
U some qualitative adjectives with suffixes-k-, -ok-, -ek- the formation of forms of comparative degree (sometimes superlative) comes from the base without these suffixes (with alternation), so we can say that they have two bases: smooth -y - smooth -e, liquid -y - thin -e, rare -y - dir -e, short -y - short -e, close -y - near -e - close -aysh-y, low -y - lower -e - lower -aysh-y, wide -y - wide -e, distant -y -far-she, thin -y -thin-she.
IN in the form of the comparative degree of adverbs and words of the category of state (or predicative adverbs), suffixes of the comparative degree are included in the base, since they are syncretic: they replace the word-forming suffix of the adverbs-o and express the grammatical meaning of the comparative degree (cheerful-o - cheerful-ee, fast-o - fast-ee, quiet-o - quiet-e). Therefore, qualitative adverbs usually have two stems - the basis of the positive and comparative degree: fun, more fun, etc.
When participles transform into adjectives and nouns, the base changes: the suffixes of participles are not included in the base as formative, but when participles transform into adjectives and nouns, suffixes are included in their base, cf.: brilliant -yash-y (in the sun), but brilliant - th(response) ; wounded (by a bullet) and wounded (soldier).
