Stalin's textbook of logic for high school - S. Vinogradov and A. F. Kuzmin. Logics. Textbook for high school. Vinogradov S.N., Kuzmin A.F Vinogradov S.N. Kuzminaf Logic
SUBJECT AND OBJECTIVES OF THE SCIENCE OF LOGIC
§ I. Logic of thinking and the science of logic
In work and in everyday life, in educational and social work, in a scientific treatise and in a school essay - everywhere
and correct, that is, definite, non-contradictory, consistent, reasonable, thinking is always necessary. Without correct thinking, which is carried out with the help of language, a person could neither work nor communicate with other people.
If someone is unclear, confused, expresses his thoughts, contradicts himself, they say about such a person: "He cannot be understood, there is no logic in his reasoning."
Here the word "logic" is used to describe the correctness of the structure of thoughts. Correct thought structure studies
Xia science logic.
Thus, one should distinguish: 1) the logic of thinking (the correctness of the construction of thoughts) and 2) the science of
geek.
Briefly, the science of logic can be defined as follows:
Logic is the science of the laws and forms of correct
constructing thoughts.
§ 2. Logical laws and forms
Logical laws. Certainty, consistency, consistency and validity
are essential qualities of right thinking. These qualities have the meaning of the laws of correct thinking.
The name "logic" comes from the ancient Greek word "logos", which means "thinking", "thought", as well as "the word in which the thought is expressed."
Conscious or unconscious violation of logical laws leads to the wrong conclusion. Man,
who violates logical laws, inevitably turns out to be defeated in an argument, discussion.
Let's give an example.
Whoever read Turgenev's novel "Rudin" remembers the heated disputes between the two heroes of this famous production.
reference. Consider an excerpt from Rudin's conversation with Pigasov:
- Wonderful! - said Rudin. - So, in your opinion
no convictions?
“No — and it doesn't exist.
- Is that your conviction?
- Yes.
- How do you say that they are not? Here's one for you, on the first
th case.
Everyone in the room smiled and looked at each other. It is easy to understand that Pigasov was defeated. Knowing
logic, you can determine the nature of his error. Piga-owl contradicts himself. Having admitted at the beginning of the conversation that beliefs do not exist, he immediately abandons his first thought and affirms the completely opposite.
One of the logical laws, which is called the law of contradiction, indicates the inadmissibility
a similar error in reasoning.
Logic has as its task the study of the laws of the correct construction of thoughts and logical forms.
The logical form is the structure, the structure of our thoughts.
Let's take two such thoughts as an example:
Copper is a conductor of electricity.
Wheat is a plant of the cereal family.
Each of these thoughts is a reflection in our thinking of certain facts of actual
sti. Since these facts are different, then the content of thoughts about these facts is different. But despite this,
in both cases we see a common structure, a single structure of these thoughts.
The science of logic, exploring logical forms, distracts from the specific content of a particular thought.
Considering the above examples, logic is not interested in the properties of copper (physics is engaged in them)
and not the belonging of wheat to the family of cereals (this is the field of botany). Logic is interested in structure
thoughts. Let's take two more such reasoning as an example:
All citizens of the USSR have the right to education.
We are citizens of the USSR.
Therefore, we have the right to education.
All the stars are racy
lent gas balls. Sirius is a star.
Therefore, Sirius is a
hot gas ball.
However, being different in content, these two arguments are similar in relation to their
buildings. The logical form of these reasoning is the same: from the general position we go to the particular
water.
If in the process of reasoning our thoughts are clothed in irregular forms, then in this case come to the truth
it is impossible to draw conclusions.
Let's compare the following two arguments:
Igarka is located in the Arctic Circle.
Consequently, there are white nights in Igarka.
All cities in the Arctic Circle have white nights
Leningrad is not beyond the Arctic Circle.
Consequently, there are no white nights in Leningrad.
In the first case, the conclusion and line of reasoning are correct. In the second case, despite the correctness of the outcome
However, the conclusion turned out to be erroneous: it is known that there are white nights in Leningrad. The wrong conclusion is the result of the fact that reasoning is clothed in a wrong logical form.
Thus, logic studies the forms of thinking. But this does not mean that logic is not interested in content.
thinking. The study of the form of thought without connection with the content would have no meaning for us. but
studying it in connection with its content does not mean that we cannot mentally distract this form in order to study it 1
.
1 - The incorrectness of this form of reasoning will be clarified
in chapter VIII.
Logical laws and forms, that is, the laws and forms of the correct construction of thoughts, are common to all mankind.
skimi. This means that people of different eras and countries, regardless of their class and nationality,
Legends have built and are building their reasoning according to the same logical laws, they thought and think in the same logical forms. If there were no logical laws and forms that are uniform and obligatory for all people, then people would not understand each other.
Human thinking develops, changes, that is, it becomes more perfect. But changing the shape of the mouse
laziness for a long time is not noticeable. Logical forms and laws are stable,
constancy.
§ 3. On the materialistic understanding of thinking
Since ancient times, people have been interested in the question of the relationship between thinking and being. Dependently
From the solution of this question, two directions differ in philosophy - materialistic and idealistic.
skye.
Consistent, the only scientific solution to the question of matter and consciousness, of matter and thinking,
about the source of our sensations, ideas, concepts is given only by Marxist philosophical materialism, developed by the great teachers of working mankind K. Marx, F. Engels, V. I. Lenin and I. V. Stalin.
In contrast to idealism, which claims that the material world exists only in our thinking--
nii, consciousness, materialism proceeds from the fact that the source of sensations, ideas, concepts, thinking,
consciousness is matter. Matter is primary, and thinking, consciousness is secondary.
Thinking is a property of highly organized matter, namely, a property of the brain. Thinking is not
exists and cannot exist by itself. It is a reflection of the material world in man--
my head.
Thinking arose and develops in the process of social-labor activity of people. Indeed,
mental processes are inherent in animals, but thinking is inherent only in humans. The explanation for this is we
we find in labor. Animals do not produce tools.
They only passively adapt to nature. Man, on the other hand, actively transforms nature, adapting it with the help of labor tools to his needs. In the production process, a person sets specific goals, ponders the ways and means of their implementation. Human activities demanded from him more and more
deep comprehension of connections and relationships between objects and phenomena of the external world. "Labor," says Engels, "created man himself."
Practice, labor activity, is also a measure of the truthfulness of our knowledge about the laws of nature and social life.
§ 4. Thinking and language
Thinking has developed along with the language with which it is inextricably linked. Only language makes it possible
exchange of thoughts in human society.
“Language,” says JV Stalin, “is a means, a tool with which people communicate with each other.
gom, exchange thoughts and achieve mutual understanding. Directly related to thinking,
the language registers and fixes the results of the work of thinking in words and in the combination of words in sentences,
successes of human cognitive work and, thus, makes it possible to exchange thoughts in human society
state ".
At all stages of the development of human society, language was the only means of communication between people. Language gives people the opportunity to understand each other and organize joint actions in the fight against the forces of nature, to establish the production of material goods. Without a language that is understandable to all members of society, the very existence of society is impossible.
Language played a huge role in the development of human thinking, language was one of those forces that helped
to stand out to a person from the animal world. Without a material language shell, thought could not
no matter how it arises or exists. Whatever thoughts appear in a person's head, they are always clothed in
words, in linguistic terms and phrases. "Bare thoughts, free from linguistic material, free from linguistic" natural matter "do not exist" (Stalin).
§ 5. The meaning of logic
You can reason logically even without knowing the science of logic, just as, for example, how you can practically own a language
com without learning grammar. But as the study of grammar increases the culture of our oral and written speech, so the study of the science of logic increases the culture of our thinking.
To learn how to express your thoughts harmoniously and consistently, correctly use logical forms -
mi, you need to know the science of logic. The outstanding Russian thinker, revolutionary demo-crat A. I. Herzen strongly advised to study logic.
The famous Russian teacher K. D. Ushinsky said that the foundations of rational speech are in the logical
laziness. The famous Russian scientist K.A.Timiryazev considered it a direct duty of every citizen to develop the ability to think logically.
The founders of Marxism-Leninism, revealing the true nature of the forms and laws of thinking, the most
deeply showed their importance in our knowledge of the external world.
All the works of the founders of the Marxist-Leninist doctrine are brilliant examples of logic
ical thinking.
Speaking at an evening of Kremlin cadets in January 1924, J.V. Stalin spoke of the extraordinary strength
convictions, simplicity and clarity of Lenin's speeches. “I was captivated,” said JV Stalin, “by that irresistible force of logic in Lenin's speeches, which is somewhat dry, but thoroughly takes over the audience, gradually electrifies it and then takes it captive, as they say, without a trace. I remember how many of the delegates said then: “The logic in Lenin's speeches is some kind of omnipotent tentacles that cover you from all sides with ticks and from whose embrace there is no urge to escape: either give up, or decide on complete failure. "
About the power of logic, about unshakable consistency in the thoughts and actions of I. V. Stalin wrote A. I. Mi-
goyang:
“Stalin has an iron logic. With unshakable consistency, one position follows from another,
one thing justifies the other, nothing scattered in our thoughts and actions ... "
The extraordinary power of persuasion, the consistency and clarity of the speeches of V.I. Lenin and I.V. Stalin are expressed
the deep meaning, the richness of the content, which is inherent in these speeches.
The content of thoughts, concrete knowledge are always the main, basic in correct thinking. So-
We should not think that with the help of logic alone one can learn to think correctly. Logic cannot replace factual knowledge, which is acquired through the study of other sciences, through active participation in industrial and social work.
The study of logic is of great help in the process of mastering new knowledge. Logic helps to
less and deeper to understand the content of the educational material, prepare for lessons, solve problems, harmoniously and after-
clearly state your thoughts - orally or in writing - and substantiate your reasoning. Logics
helps to find and highlight the main thing, the main thing in the studied material, to better assimilate its content.
The Soviet people, armed with the advanced Marxist-Leninist theory and the consciousness of the righteousness of Lenin's cause -
Stalin, emerge victorious from responsible and difficult discussions with representatives of foreign "science" and diplomacy. A striking example of this is the brilliant speeches of the Soviet delegates at international conferences and meetings. These speeches are an example of not only a deep knowledge of the essence of the issues discussed, but also an example of compelling logic.
The process of gradual transition from socialism to communism requires high ideology from all Soviet people.
level and broad outlook. Naturally, today the role of logic as a science of laws and forms
the correct construction of thoughts increases immeasurably.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is correct thinking?
2. What are the two meanings of the word "logic"?
3. What is the subject of logic?
4. What is the fallacy of the idealistic view of thinking?
5. State the materialistic solution to the question of thinking.
C. What is the connection between thinking and language expressed ?.
7. Why is it necessary to study logic?
If someone is unclear, confused, expresses his thoughts, contradicts himself, they say about such a person: "He cannot be understood, there is no logic in his reasoning."
Here the word "logic" refers to the correctness of the construction of thoughts. The correct construction of thoughts is studied by the science of logic.
On the materialistic understanding of thinking.
Since ancient times, people have been interested in the question of the relationship between thinking and being. Depending on the solution to this issue, two directions differ in philosophy - materialistic and idealistic.
A consistent, unique scientific solution to the question of matter and consciousness, of matter and thinking, of the source of our sensations, ideas, concepts is given only by Marxist philosophical materialism, developed by the great teachers of working mankind K. Marx, F. Engels, V. I. Lenin and I. V. Stalin.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter I. Subject and tasks of the science of logic
§one. The logic of thinking and the science of logic
§2. Logical laws and forms
§3. On the materialistic understanding of thinking
§4. Thinking and language
§five. The meaning of logic
Review questions
Chapter II. Logical tricks
§one. Thinking - mediated and generalized cognition of reality
§2. Comparison
§3. Analysis and synthesis
§4. Abstraction and generalization
Review questions
Chapter III. Concept
§I. The essence of the concept
§2. Concept and presentation
§3. Concept and word
§4. Content and scope of concepts
§5 Relationship between content and scope of a concept
§6. Limitation and generalization of the concept
§7. Generic and species concepts
§eight. Main classes of concepts
§nine. Relationships between concepts
Review questions
Chapter IV. Definition and division of the concept
§one. The essence of the definition of the concept
§2. Definition rules
§3. Genetic definition
§4. Nominal definition
§five. Meaning of definitions
§6. Techniques replacing definition
§7. The essence of the division of the concept
§eight. Division rules
§nine. Dichotomous division
§10. Techniques similar to division
§eleven. Classification
Review questions
Chapter V. Judgment
§one. Essence of judgment
§2. Composition of judgment
§3. Judgment and Suggestion
§4. Types of judgments
§five. Affirmative and negative judgments
§6. Single, private and general judgments.
§7. The combination of divisions of judgments in terms of quantity and quality
§eight. Conditional, dividing and categorical judgments
§nine. Judgments of Possibility, Reality and Necessity
§10. The volume of the subject and predicate in the judgment
§eleven. Relationship between judgments
Review questions
Chapter VI. Transformation of judgments
§one. Clarification of the logical meaning of judgments
§2. Transformation
§3. Appeal
Review questions
Chapter VII. Basic laws of logical thinking
§one. The concept of a logical law
§2. Identity law
§3. The law of contradiction
§4. The law of the excluded third
§five. The law of sufficient reason
§6. The meaning of logical laws
Review questions
Chapter VIII. Deductive reasoning
§one. The concept of inference
§2. Definition of a syllogism
§3. The composition of the syllogism
§4. Syllogism axiom
§five. Syllogism rules
§6. The concept of the figures of the syllogism
§7. Varieties of syllogism
§eight. Characteristics of figures
§nine. The cognitive meaning of the syllogism
§10. Conditionally categorical syllogism
§eleven. Separating-categorical syllogism
§12. Enthymeme
§13. About complex syllogisms
Review questions
Chapter IX. Inductive reasoning
§one. The essence of induction
§2. Full induction
§3. Incomplete induction
§4. Scientific induction.
§five. On the causal relationship of phenomena
§6. Methods for studying the causal relationship of phenomena
§7. Conditions for the application of induction methods
Review questions
Chapter X. Analogy
Review questions
Chapter XI. Hypothesis
§one. Defining a hypothesis
§2. Hypothesis testing
§3. Hypothesis and theory
Review questions
Chapter XII. Proof
§one. Definition of logical proof
§2. Composition of evidence
§3. Direct and indirect evidence
§4. Proof rules
§five. Refutation.
Review questions
Application. Logic exercises.
“In work and in everyday life, in educational and social work, in a scientific treatise and in a school essay, correct, that is, definite, consistent, consistent, substantiated, thinking is always and always necessary. Without correct thinking, which is carried out with the help of language, a person could neither work nor communicate with other people. " In a simple and accessible form, this school textbook was supposed to give the basics of knowledge about logic.
Description
Soviet textbook 1954 approved by the Ministry of Education of the RSFSR.
“In work and in everyday life, in educational and social work, in a scientific treatise and in a school composition, correct, that is, definite, consistent, consistent, grounded, thinking is always and always necessary. Without correct thinking, which is carried out with the help of language, a person could neither work nor communicate with other people. " In a simple and accessible form, this school textbook was supposed to give the basics of knowledge about logic.
Briefly, but without prejudice to the full understanding of the subject, the following aspects of logic are revealed: the subject and tasks of the science of logic; logical tricks; concept; definition and division of the concept; judgment; transformation of judgments; basic laws of logical thinking; deductive reasoning; inductive reasoning; analogy; hypothesis; proof.
On the materialistic understanding of thinking.
Thinking and language.
The meaning of logic.
Review questions.
Logical tricks.
Thinking is mediated and generalized cognition.
reality.
Comparison.
Analysis and synthesis.
Abstraction and generalization.
Review questions.
The essence of the concept.
Concept and presentation.
Concept and word.
The relationship between the content and scope of the concept.
Limitation and generalization of the concept.
The main classes of concepts.
Relationships between concepts.
Review questions.
Definition and division of the concept.
The essence of the definition of the concept.
Definition rules.
Genetic definition.
Nominal definition.
The meaning of the definitions.
Techniques replacing the definition.
The essence of the division of the concept.
Division rules.
Dichotomous division.
Techniques similar to division.
Classification.
Review questions.
Judgment.
Essence of judgments.
The composition of the judgment.
Judgment and Suggestion.
Types of judgments.
Affirmative and negative judgments.
Single, private and general judgments.
The combination of divisions of judgments in terms of quantity and quality.
Conditional, dividing and categorical judgments.
Judgments of possibility, reality and necessity.
The volume of the subject and predicate in the judgment.
Relationships between judgments.
Review questions.
Transformation of judgments.
Clarification of the logical meaning of judgments.
Transformation.
Appeal.
Review questions.
Basic laws of logical thinking.
The concept of a logical law.
Identity law.
The law of contradiction.
The law of the excluded third.
The law of sufficient reason.
The meaning of logical laws.
Review questions.
Deductive reasoning.
The concept of inference.
Definition of a syllogism.
The composition of the syllogism.
Axiom of a syllogism.
Syllogism rules.
The concept of the figures of the syllogism.
Varieties of syllogism.
Characteristics of the figures.
The cognitive meaning of the syllogism.
Enthymeme.
About complex syllogisms.
Review questions.
Inductive reasoning.
The essence of induction.
Full induction.
Incomplete induction.
Scientific induction.
On the causal relationship of phenomena.
Methods for studying the causal relationship of phenomena.
Conditions for the application of induction methods.
Review questions.
Analogy.
Review questions.
Hypothesis.
Definition of a hypothesis.
Hypothesis testing.
Hypothesis and theory.
Review questions.
Proof.
Definition of a logical proof.
The composition of the evidence.
Direct and indirect evidence.
Proof rules.
Refutation.
Review questions.
Applications. Logic exercises.
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SUBJECT AND OBJECTIVES OF THE SCIENCE OF LOGIC
§ 1. Logic of thinking and the science of logic
In work and in everyday life, in educational and social work, in a scientific treatise and in a school essay, correct, that is, definite, consistent, consistent, grounded, thinking is always and everywhere necessary. Without correct thinking, which is carried out with the help of language, a person could neither work nor communicate with other people.
If someone is unclear, confused, expresses his thoughts, contradicts himself, they say about such a person: "He cannot be understood, there is no logic in his reasoning."
Here the word "logic" refers to the correctness of the construction of thoughts. The correct construction of thoughts is studied by the science of logic.
Thus, one should distinguish: 1) the logic of thinking (the correctness of the construction of thoughts) and 2) the science of logic.
Briefly, the science of logic can be defined as follows:
Logic is the science of the laws and forms of the correct construction of thoughts.
§ 2. Logical laws and forms
LOGICAL LAWS. Certainty, consistency, consistency and validity are indispensable qualities of correct thinking. These qualities have the meaning of the laws of correct thinking.
Conscious or unconscious violation of logical laws leads to the wrong conclusion. A person who violates logical laws inevitably turns out to be defeated in an argument, discussion.
Let's give an example.
Those who have read Turgenev's novel "Rudin" remember the heated debates between the two heroes of this famous work. Consider an excerpt from Rudin's conversation with Pigasov:
Wonderful! - said Rudin. - So, in your opinion, there are no convictions?
No - and does not exist.
Is this your belief?
How do you say that they are not? Here's one for you, for the first time.
Everyone in the room smiled and looked at each other.
It is easy to understand that Pigasov was defeated. Knowing the logic, it is possible to determine the nature of his error. Pigasov contradicts himself. Having admitted at the beginning of the conversation that beliefs do not exist, he immediately abandons his first thought and affirms the completely opposite.
One of the logical laws, which is called the law of contradiction, indicates the inadmissibility of such an error in reasoning.
LOGICAL FORM is the structure, the structure of our thoughts.
Let's take two such thoughts as an example:
Copper is a conductor of electricity.
Wheat is a plant of the cereal family.
